cultural ecosystem services thesis

Cultural Ecosystem Services

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• Nevena Vasiljevic 7 &
• Suzana Gavrilovic 7  

Part of the book series: Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals ((ENUNSDG))

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The term “cultural ecosystem services” is defined within a wider framework of ecosystem services as “non-material benefits that people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation and aesthetic experience” (MA 2005 ).

These are tangible and intangible “goods and chattel” that people gain through their own experience in interaction with landscapes, resulting in information about “ natural and cultural diversity, spiritual and religious values, knowledge systems, educational values, inspiration, aesthetic values, social relations, sense of place, cultural heritage, recreation and ecotourism ” (MA 2005 ).

The main idea of designation of cultural dimension of ecosystem services, which comes up as a mutual task from the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD 2009 ), Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA 2005 ), Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB 2010 ), and European Landscape Convention (ELC 2000 ), is to provide insights...

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Department of landscape architecture and horticulture, University of Belgrade – Faculty of Forestry, Belgrade, Serbia

Nevena Vasiljevic & Suzana Gavrilovic

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Correspondence to Nevena Vasiljevic .

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Walter Leal Filho

Ctr Neurosci & Cell Biology, 1 Floor, Univ Coimbra, Edf Fac Medicina, Coimbra, Portugal

Anabela Marisa Azul

Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Passo Fundo University Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Passo Fundo, Brazil

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Istinye University, Istanbul, Turkey

Pinar Gökcin Özuyar

International Centre for Thriving, University of Chester, Chester, UK

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Vasiljevic, N., Gavrilovic, S. (2019). Cultural Ecosystem Services. In: Leal Filho, W., Azul, A., Brandli, L., Özuyar, P., Wall, T. (eds) Life on Land. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-71065-5_47-1

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Resilient Geographies: An Atlas of Cultural Ecosystem Services in the Land of Spirit Waters.

This thesis explores the relationship between and the impact of cultural ecosystem services on resilience planning by examining public spaces in San Antonio, Texas. Existing studies have recognized that evaluating cultural ecosystem services is challenging, but continued research as well as the development and testing of new methods are necessary to enhance our understanding. To support this aim, this thesis utilized participant observation and an inductive research approach to examine how cultural ecosystem services – the intangible benefits that communities gain from their natural environments – influence levels of social interaction and social cohesion. Three public urban green spaces in San Antonio were selected for observation because they function as spaces for cultural engagement and social resilience in the city. The findings of this study indicate that cultural ecosystem services are invaluable to fostering social cohesion and greater levels of social interaction in public spaces. Further, mapping observations of use and behavior from each of the three selected public green spaces coupled with historical research reveal the extent to which planning, and design interventions can influence cultural ecosystem services, the number of people engaging with them, and the who those people are in a general sense. Although it was not possible for this thesis, future studies should employ post-observation interviews with individuals making use of public green spaces to enrich and contextualize the observational data.

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Article Contents

Five frontiers of ces, conclusions, acknowledgments, references cited.

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Frontiers in Cultural Ecosystem Services: Toward Greater Equity and Justice in Ecosystem Services Research and Practice

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Rachelle K Gould, Leah L Bremer, Pua'ala Pascua, Kelly Meza-Prado, Frontiers in Cultural Ecosystem Services: Toward Greater Equity and Justice in Ecosystem Services Research and Practice, BioScience , Volume 70, Issue 12, December 2020, Pages 1093–1107, https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biaa112

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Cultural ecosystem services (CES) are associated with diverse and profound values, such as spiritual fulfillment, cultural heritage, and identity-related phenomena. Early ecosystem services research often omitted these deep meanings, but they are increasingly explored in recent studies through a range of disciplinary and epistemological perspectives. In the present article, we distill emerging frontiers of CES research. These frontiers help to characterize varied sources of meaning that are central to the CES ethos. They represent both advances in and opportunities for CES research, especially as related to justice and equity. The frontiers are: broadening definitions and conceptualizations of CES; addressing collective aspects of CES and attending to process; acknowledging that CES are reciprocal, relational, and dynamic; embracing narrative; and better connecting CES to biophysical attributes. We focus on the implications of these frontiers for equity and justice and suggest future research that can help ecosystem services work better address both legacies and current manifestations of injustice.

For millennia, people have recognized that spiritual, identity-based, and culturally rich connections to ecosystems are crucially important. Through these nonmaterial connections (which are often deeply intertwined with material connections), ecosystems enrich human well-being in diverse ways. However, in general, much decision-making has not fully honored these relationships. In response, recent scholarly and policy work strives to create mechanisms to better include such connections. One approach, part of the increasing use of the ecosystem services (ES) concept in decision-making at multiple scales, is to label the nonmaterial aspects of these connections as nature's nonmaterial contributions to people, or cultural ecosystem services (CES; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005 , IPBES 2019 ). Many CES link intimately—but not always obviously—to multiple dimensions of equity in diverse contexts. In urban areas, for example, who has access to the benefits of green space? In rural regions, whose values are considered when decisions about mining are made? Such issues of justice profoundly and systemically intertwine with environmental research and must be addressed across every subfield and in many ways (Schell et al. 2020 ). We suggest that CES can provide an important workspace to address equity-related challenges as they manifest in the environmental field generally and the ES field specifically. We therefore argue that well-designed and implemented CES research has the potential to represent diverse viewpoints so that they can be better included in decision-making that supports thriving socioecological systems.

In the present article, we synthesize emerging frontiers in the developing interdisciplinary body of research on CES and related concepts. We focus on how emerging CES research addresses issues of equity and justice because we see these normative goals as central and crucial. The frontiers we identify suggest a fundamental role CES research can play: It can provide a framework to bring diverse worldviews and values to bear on land-use decisions in transparent ways (Hirons et al. 2016 ). This role responds to an oversight of or a problem with decision-making frameworks: When values are implicit, decisions will, by default, reflect the worldviews and values of those with power (Ernstson 2013 , Berbés-Blázquez et al. 2016 ). Because they can make diverse values explicit, CES have the potential—if they are implemented with many caveats (e.g., in ways that align with the frontiers below, such as expanding beyond purely instrumental forms of value; James 2016 )—to counteract injustices in the way environmental management actions proceed.

The present article and its origins

We describe five intertwined frontiers we identify as in-progress developments in the CES field. We emphasize the frontiers’ potential to advance justice and equity in ES research and practice (table  1 ) and suggest future research that they inspire (table  2 ). In the process, we address many critiques of CES and offer ways that CES research is responding (and can further respond) to them.

Relationships between the frontiers we describe and equity and justice.

Suggested future research questions at the frontiers of CES research.

Before presenting our content, we briefly describe this article's origins. We generated the idea for this article following a session on CES at the 2018 Natural Capital Project symposium, in which all of the present authors participated. Our varied backgrounds (which include combinations of research, consultancy, and work with communities) encompass ongoing and varied experiences that engage CES and led us to the frontiers we present. During these experiences, we detected gaps in ES research and practice, especially as related to equity and justice. Because we see not only equity-related gaps but also some progress toward filling them, we wished to crystallize our thoughts on existing and future work that addresses these gaps. We categorize the results of that crystallization—that is, promising directions in the field—as frontiers. We discuss a subset of CES research: a selection of CES research that which in some way contributes to the role of CES in increasing equity, justice, and inclusion.

Background: CES as a contested concept

We immediately acknowledge two closely related challenges to this article's conceptual foundation: First, critiques of the CES concept and, next, recent suggestions that the concept of nature's contributions to people (NCP) should replace ES (and, by extension, CES). We discuss critiques of the CES concept in this section, then address NCP in our description of the first frontier because we see the NCP concept as intertwined with the trend to broaden and deepen definitions of CES.

We divide critiques of the CES concept into two categories: problems with ES in general and problems with CES specifically. First, some critiques of ES in general may be especially applicable to CES. One such critique is that ES approaches often ignore or exacerbate uneven power relations; this is more likely when data are seen as subjective and soft, as is often the case with CES (Berbés-Blázquez et al. 2016 ). Second, some scholars have argued that ES valuation encourages neoliberal approaches to environmental management that result in commodification of ecosystems, which is especially problematic for many CES (Büscher et al. 2012 , Dempsey and Robertson 2012 ). Third, others have suggested that ES language and concepts do not match how people truly value ecosystems, particularly the nonmaterial relationships that CES aim to represent (Bull et al. 2016 , De Vreese et al. 2019 ). Finally, some argue that ES, because they focus on instrumental value, detract from biodiversity conservation efforts (Miller et al. 2014 ), or cannot adequately capture the many noninstrumental reasons that people value ecosystems (James 2016 ). This final critique interacts with CES in complex ways because CES often imperfectly fit the definition of instrumental value and also encompass relational values (Chan et al. 2018 ).

A second set of challenges address CES specifically in the context of research that embraces ES perspectives, but finds CES challenging to incorporate. A central difficulty lies in quantifying CES and integrating them into broader ES analyses of synergies and trade-offs (Hirons et al. 2016 ). Two underlying issues that make CES challenging to integrate into ES analyses are the problematic one-way service metaphor, which inadequately represents many human–nature reciprocal relationships (Raymond et al. 2013 , Comberti et al. 2015 ), and the deep incommensurability of many CES (Satz et al. 2013 ).

These and other often related incompatibilities, such as the inappropriateness of the ecosystem concept's focus on functional systems rather than aesthetic, symbolic phenomena, have led some scholars to argue that we should abandon the CES concept altogether (Kirchhoff 2019a , 2019b ).

We agree that these myriad challenges and incompatiblities are important. But we think they are surmountable and worth overcoming for intertwined intellectual, practical, and ethical reasons. The intellectual reasons include that decades (if not centuries) of research demonstrate the profound importance of nonmaterial aspects of human–nature connections for human fulfillment and well-being (Russell et al. 2013 , Hirons et al. 2016 ). The practical reasons include that decision-making increasingly employs ES frameworks (Guerry et al. 2015 ), which creates a clear need for some permutation of the concepts that underlie CES. The ethical reasons include that without any way to represent CES, decision-making processes that use ES approaches (and many others) will continue to omit nonmaterial values, with sometimes dramatic justice-related consequences.

CES is one of many possible lenses to interpret and express human–environment relationships—but one that, because of the popularity of the ES concept, currently has potential to influence policy and planning decisions. Although critiques of ES (such as those listed above) are important, it seems that, in practice, the concept can be a larger container for understanding why the nonhuman world matters to people; as the concept continues to evolve, the use of ES may not always fit a strict instrumental, service-provider definition. Indeed, scholars have been working to develop ES to bring about what may be its ultimate goal: to better incorporate into decision-making the diverse ways in which nature matters to people. The frontiers below represent some of—and can perhaps guide future permutations of—this collective work.

Here we describe the five frontiers of CES research that we have identified.

Broadening and deepening definitions and conceptualizations of CES

Most CES research that enters ES assessments has focused on recreation and aesthetic values (Hermes et al. 2018 ), which are easier to quantify (and therefore more readily integrate into ES models) than many other CES. These values are important to many people, but the breadth and depth of CES expand well beyond them. Recent scholarship has shown that widely used typologies of CES (e.g., that of the 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment) may not capture the full array of concepts that could be considered CES. Most notably, Indigenous and local knowledge often play an essential role in CES, but Millennium Ecosystem Assessment–based categories do not capture many nuances of these perspectives. To describe this frontier, we first address recent work to reframe ES as NCP, then discuss two reasons that this frontier is important.

Scholars have recently suggested that the NCP concept replace ES (and by extension CES), partly in response to critiques raised above (e.g., a primary goal of the move to NCP is to address limitations of the transactional and economics-derived essence of the language involving services ; Díaz et al. 2018 ). This proposed lexicon change is probably the most well-defined example of the trend to broaden and deepen conceptualizations of CES. For this reason and also because the NCP versus ES discussion is of current interest, we will elaborate on the suggested transition to NCP.

Like many others, we do not see the distinction between NCP and ES as conceptually consequential (de Groot et al. 2018 , Kenter 2018 ). The NCP framing addresses issues that, although not a focus of the first iteration of ES, were not total blind spots (de Groot et al. 2018 ), as the examples in this article demonstrate. An issue more substantial than which term we use is the unidirectionality implicit in both terms: They both focus on how ecosystems affect people, not the reverse (Comberti et al. 2015 ). In presenting our next frontier, we describe emerging evidence that researchers within ES or NCP communities are working to address this problem.

Our understanding of CES is highly consistent with published descriptions of both nonmaterial NCP and CES. Díaz and colleagues ( 2018 : 271) defined nonmaterial NCP as “nature's effects on subjective or psychological aspects underpinning people's quality of life, both individually and collectively.” One distinction between NCP and ES, they noted, is that culture permeates the NCP categories (­material, nonmaterial, and regulating), rather than, in their perception, being isolated to one category in the ES framework. But this very idea of culture permeating ES categories and the separate category having nonmateriality at its core has been part of the published CES conversation for nearly a decade. Chan and colleagues ( 2011 : 206) defined CES as “ecosystems’ contribution to the nonmaterial benefits (e.g., experiences, capabilities) that people derive from human–ecological relations.” Another group led by Chan (Chan et al. 2012a : 745) discussed how CES are “everywhere” in ES: “Most ES, cultural and otherwise, have nonmaterial or intangible dimensions.” This understanding of CES is quite consistent with the ethos of nonmaterial NCP. The primary distinction is between nature's effects (NCP) and its benefits (CES)—that is, how nature's negative impacts are treated. The term effects includes negative impacts; benefits does not. We do not see this distinction as central to the conversation for two main reasons: because the classification of impacts as negative or positive can be contextually dependent and also because scholarly work on ecosystem disservices addresses negative impacts (e.g., von Döhren and Haase 2015 , Shackelton et al. 2016 ).

The prior two paragraphs demonstrate that the thinking underlying NCP and CES is quite similar. We do not have a strong preference for either term. More importantly, we advocate for the richness inherent in the understanding evident in much CES work and detailed in the present article (Schaubroeck 2019 ). We use CES because it is more parsimonious and currently more established than nonmaterial NCP. As we embrace the concept's richness, however, we should also address the following question: If we wish to broaden and deepen definitions of CES, where does the concept end? We therefore accompany our call for expanded definitions of CES with a suggestion of where the concept might locate its outer bounds. We suggest that CES research must include three core concepts: how nonmaterial aspects of human-nature relationships influence human well-being . If the question does not address nonmateriality, human–nature relationships and human well-being, it is not CES.

Engagement with broader and deeper definitions of CES may entail substantial deviations from typical ES research, and the remainder of our discussion of this frontier focuses on innovations related to these divergences. We focus on two fundamental differences between research on ES ­generally and on broadly defined CES, and on responses to these differences. The first difference is that many CES are based on people's interactions and experiences with particular ecosystems and are therefore locally nuanced and place based (Pascua et al. 2017 ). Much ES research, conversely, seeks to generalize across larger geographic regions. The second difference is that understanding rich experiences of CES can require epistemological and methodological approaches distinct from those that ES research typically employs (Adamowicz et al. 1998 , Winthrop 2014 , van Riper et al. 2017 ). In the present article, we discuss two overarching ways that CES scholars have embraced these differences: place-based research and expanded types of valuation.

Place-based research is a clear response to the place-specific nature of many CES. The process of identifying particular CES concepts relevant to a given place, especially when conducted in close coordination with Indigenous peoples and local communities, may not only provide the most accurate understanding but may also deepen existing perspectives and reveal new ideas of what CES can be. Once identified, these concepts might resonate with other communities, even in distinct contexts. As one example, a community-based process in Hawai´i identified the CES concept of “opportunities to learn place-based practices by actually doing them” (Pascua et al. 2017 : 471). This may manifest in some places (e.g., Hawai´i) as reviving double-hulled canoe celestial navigation practices and in others (e.g., Japan) as embracing responsibilities that come with being a third-generation ama diver (a freediving fisherwoman). This suggests that there are roles both to allow local language and cultural concepts to inform place-based CES frameworks and categorical groupings and to find commonalities between places.

Expanding conceptualizations of CES also requires that we address challenges and opportunities with valuation, broadly construed. The shortcomings of monetary valuation, including deep epistemological and methodological concerns, are particularly salient for CES (Satz et al. 2013 , Hirons et al. 2016 ). Classical economic valuation methods account poorly for linked and overlapping values (Lo and Spash 2013 ) and values held by communities or groups (Kenter et al. 2015 , and see next section). The place-based and relational nature of CES may also conflict with the hypothetical, often abstract situations typical of stated-preference methods (Kenter et al. 2016a ; e.g., survey questions about individuals’ willingness to pay to support a hypothetical new park).

These challenges mean that CES must engage with diverse forms of valuation or value elicitation; that is, they must broaden and deepen approaches to valuation. CES researchers have explored multiple options; we cite two examples. The first is deliberative democratic monetary valuation, which maintains economic valuation as a goal but also attends to power dynamics and representation through, as the name suggests, deliberative and democratic participatory processes (Orchard-Webb et al. 2016 ). A second example, this from the field of biocultural approaches, is to first identify specific attributes that connect culture and the environment and then, as appropriate, to use economic valuation tools (e.g., choice experiments) to compare those attributes (Baulcomb et al. 2015 ). One application of a biocultural approach relates to the 2013 large-scale oil spill on Otaiti Reef (Aotearoa, New Zealand). After the spill, tribal authorities used an Indigenous-person–led and culturally grounded decision-making tool to assess the impacts of the spill on the cultural, social, and environmental well-being of their communities using the customary concept of mauri (life force or life-sustaining capacity) as the unit of measurement (Morgan and Fa´aui 2018 ).

Why is it important to broaden and deepen interpretations of CES? One vitally important reason is that expanded interpretations (and operationalizations) of CES may increase the visibility of perspectives, categories, and conceptualizations that are particularly important in contexts less heavily influenced by Western European thought. The role of nature as a valued teacher (Comberti et al. 2015 , Gould and Lincoln 2017 , Pascua et al. 2017 , Ching 2018 ) provides an example. A broader example—one that integrates profound issues related to Indigenous perspectives, cosmovisions (i.e., how a person understands their place in the world), and priorities—is found in Berta Cáceres's work (figure  1 ). These examples, chosen from among thousands, make clear that in order to access the richness and depth of the CES concept, research must engage with definitions beyond recreation and aesthetics.

Tribute to Berta Cácares. The description illuminates relationships between Cácares work, Indigenous world views, and the types of values that CES research strives to represent to the extent possible. Photograph: Goldman Environmental Prize.

This section demonstrates that many scholars are converging on a concept of CES (or nonmaterial NCP) that broadens from how CES were frequently operationalized in the early years of ES research but still limits CES work to address human–nature relationships, human well-being, and nonmaterial phenomena. This expanded but still bounded conception includes deep engagement with place-based values and diverse ways to understand and represent value. This is an important step in advancing equity and environmental justice, especially in places in which some CES values have long been undermined. One primary reason is that an important dimension of social equity is recognition: an acknowledgement of and respect for local knowledge, ­values, and norms (McDermott et al. 2013 , Pascual et al. 2014 ). In both theory and practice, broad meanings of CES will allow CES research to help make manifest the diverse values of underrepresented communities.

Addressing collective aspects of CES and attending to process

In many cases, CES are experienced as shared cultural phenomena that are best expressed and characterized collectively (Kenter et al. 2015 , 2016a , 2016b ). Of course, individual and collective experiences and values are in “dynamic interplay” (Kenter et al. 2015 : 97); individuals absorb shared and cultural values from their surroundings but interpret them through individual experience (Bachika and Schulz 2011 ). A basic tenet of welfare economics is that aggregating individual preferences adequately represents overall value to society. Although this tenet may be relevant for certain types of values (e.g., economic use values), it may not apply in the case of values that are more often experienced and, therefore, more accurately described at community levels (Parks and Gowdy 2013 ). Research ­suggests that concepts of collective or shared experiences and values, although they are certainly important in communities of many types, may be particularly important in communities whose perspectives and worldviews differ from dominant Western ones—for instance, among Indigenous peoples (Adamowicz et al. 1998 , Pascua et al. 2017 ).

There are fundamental theoretical reasons why collective valuation techniques make sense in ES-related processes (Wilson and Howarth 2002 ); these reasons are likely even more applicable to highly socially defined CES. Primary among them is that ES are, in economic terms, public goods (i.e., they are “collectively consumed and indivisible among individuals”; Wilson and Howarth 2002 : 441). Individual valuations of such public goods are unlikely to represent collective well-being, and they are unlikely to address social equity in meaningful ways (Wilson and Howarth 2002 ). Another reason relates to the fact that many ecosystem-related values are not pre-formed but emerge through discussion and consideration (Kenter et al. 2016 c). Scholars recognize permutations of this phenomenon in many fields—for instance, in social learning (Wals 2007 , Reed et al. 2010 , Kenter et al. 2011 ), education (Dewey 2007 ), and economics (constructed preferences; Simon et al. 2008 ). Finally, research on ecosystem valuation demonstrates that outcomes—for example, the mix and relative weight of various ES—differ when individual versus collective methods are used (Kaplowitz and Hoehn 2001 ).

Research on how best to elicit collective values—at least as they relate to the environment—has blossomed in recent decades. Much of this work has been focused on participatory and deliberative processes (e.g., Raymond et al. 2014 ). It has used diverse methods: in-depth discussions of various types, citizens’ juries, deliberative opinion polls, deliberative monetary valuation, and deliberative multicriteria analysis (Fish 2011 , Kenter et al. 2015 ). Creative methods also expand from more conventional or established forms of deliberation and include participatory geographic information system (Brown and Fagerholm 2015 ), film- and arts-based approaches (Edwards et al. 2016 , Ranger et al. 2016 ), participatory workshops (Pascua et al. 2017 ), and the use of ethnographic methods during community workdays (Ching 2018 ). Research also suggests that it is often helpful to offer diverse routes to convey values, because various modes can appeal to different social groups (Ernstson 2013 ).

CES research has acknowledged the collective, constructed nature of values in many contexts. Collective methods of characterizing CES can create fruitful spaces of interaction—for example, among managers and participants in watershed management programs (Wilburn 2017 ) or among people interested in more opportunities for collective reflection among busy lives (Ching 2018 ).

Methods that rely on collective engagement have limitations that are important to consider. Most notably, collective methods are especially sensitive to considerations of power (Bickerstaff and Walker 2005 ). The impacts of power differentials include peer pressure, dominance of certain opinions, and avoidance of controversy. These influences can make it difficult to validate results with an entire community and to figure out what entire community means in a given context. Skilled facilitators and local collaborators can help minimize these impacts and work toward more inclusive valuation.

It is worthwhile to address these limitations because acknowledging collective aspects may be crucial to the ability of CES to affect issues of equity and justice. Individual, independent perspectives tend to align with white, Western (especially American), and male identities (Markus and Connor 2014 ); collective approaches to and representations of CES may better represent how many communities think about meaning and importance. Future work could address the limitations above while allowing for collective approaches by focusing on research that inspires, listens, and contributes (University of Hawai´i 2018 ). When performed with place-appropriate and socially aware methods, characterizing CES collectively may lead to more accurate and rich understandings of these services in diverse contexts. In some cases, this type of work can even empower participants and catalyze action—both of which are important components of equity.

Acknowledging that CES are reciprocal, relational, and dynamic

Research described in the previous sections has been linked closely to conceptions of CES as reciprocal, relational, and dynamic. Empirical work on CES has repeatedly revealed that the unidirectional, producer–consumer, and instrumental metaphor of services is often inadequate. In Madagascar, for example, ancestral spiritually imbued relationships with land dictate management practices, which in turn provide ES (von Heland and Folke 2014 ). In both British Columbia and Hawai´i (contexts that differ in many ways), the importance of kinship—a relationship but not exactly a service, benefit, or impact—arose repeatedly in semistructured interviews about CES (Gould et al. 2015 ). In an Indigenous-scholar-led study in Hawai'i, Pascua and colleagues ( 2017 ) framed CES research from the beginning as concerning reciprocal relationships, which resulted in meaningful community engagement with the framework and approach.

The concept of reciprocal relationships incorporates the reality that people all over the world steward, manage, or otherwise care for ecosystems that provide various services (Diver et al. 2019 ). Therefore, for many communities, services that people provide to ecosystems are just as relevant as those that ecosystems provide to people; the concept of reciprocity is more relevant than that of services (Comberti et al. 2015 , Kimmerer 2013 ). To recognize that ideas of reciprocity and relationships with nature are central to the ontologies and operation of many communities has important equity implications, especially among Indigenous peoples, local communities, and other groups with profound ties to ecosystems. The Native Hawaiian expression I ola ´ oe, i ola mākou nei (“When you thrive, so too do we,” said between people and their natural environment), exemplifies the idea that care for the environment, which encompasses living and nonliving elements in the natural system, will, in turn, lead to care for all occupants of that system, whether they be human or nonhuman (McGregor 2007 ). Relational thinking is also central to the Indigenous Andean concept of sumak kawsay , which roughly translates to “ buen vivir ” and “the good life.” Sumak kawsay encompasses ideas of what good living means, and it addresses the important role that nature–society interactions play in that good living. Because the Indigenous ontology that underlies it is inherently relational, the concept (unlike the ES framework) does not involve clear distinctions between nature and human society; it therefore also does not foreground either nature or humans (Villalba 2013 ). This means that sumak kawsay encompasses many of the concepts that CES addresses, such as living in harmony with nature, but without using a services metaphor. The same pattern exists in numerous other cultures (Diver et al. 2019 ). Recognition that the services framing is problematic is widespread, and scholars have suggested multiple alternatives (e.g., metaphors of a closed-loop system, stewardship, or a web of life; Raymond et al. 2013 ).

Closely connected to the idea that CES are reciprocal and relational is that they are often intertwined with long-term human–nature connections. In other words, many CES do not exist at a point in time but, instead, extend over periods or cycles. Therefore, to measure CES at one temporal point often does not capture their full meaning. Many CES, especially those associated with values other than recreation and aesthetics, often involve engagement of some duration. Long-term relationships can take multiple forms, and the CES concept allows for relationships that span the temporal spectrum (figure  2 ).

Spectrum of types of long-term engagement that people may have with place.

The importance of relationships and reciprocity in experiences of CES-related concepts has led to recent conversations in the sustainability literature about relational values (Muraca 2016 , Chan et al. 2018 , Himes and Muraca 2018 ). Instrumental framings of ES can clash with some concepts under the CES umbrella, because those concepts are not exactly and not always benefits that ecosystems provide to people (or, in NCP framings, impacts that ecosystems have on people). Spirituality, which is included in most typologies of CES, provides an example. Spirituality is a phenomenon that can be tightly intertwined with ecosystems, and it represents a crucial component of well-being for many people. However, it is rarely considered a benefit or contribution that nature provides to humans. This may be because phenomena such as spirituality, for many people, are “inherently relational: [They] are valued in the context of desired and actual relationships” (Chan et al. 2016 : 1464). The relational values concept creates conceptual space for values that are grounded in relationships and that are important to human well-being but that are not exactly benefits or contributions. It is important to note is that values that could be called relational values have been addressed in a variety of fields for decades and, in some cases, for centuries (Saxena et al. 2018 ). Burgeoning empirical and theoretical work under the relational values umbrella attempts to provide a meeting space and policy-relevant language for those ideas (see Chan et al. 2018 and the special issue it introduces).

To allow that CES are relational and involve reciprocity links naturally to acknowledgement of their dynamism. Studies on how CES may change in the absence of ecosystem change (e.g., through education or experience) are just emerging. Constructs closely related to CES and relational values (but not labeled as such) can change in a relatively short time (days to months) following educational initiatives (Britto dos Santos and Gould 2018 , Gould et al. 2018 ). Change in CES also occurs over historical and generational timescales. This often involves complex interactions of biophysical and social change; examples include changes in benefits from forests in the Mediterranean basin (Holmgren and Scheffer 2017 ) or from mangroves in Singapore (Thiagarajah et al. 2015 ). Longer-term dynamism is important to consider for at least two reasons: first, to better understand a context and its current state and, next, because changes in some CES may affect long-term goals of ecosystem management.

Complications arise when we recognize that CES may not always fit the service or benefit framing and can change independently of ecosystem change. Both characteristics pose additional challenges to inclusion of CES within ES analyses. Ways forward that acknowledge the complex realities inherent in CES can simultaneously honor these complexities and address issues of equity. One possibility would be to include more thorough consideration of the reciprocal relationships that underpin resource management in many places. To ignore such relationships risks imposition of outside ways of conceptualizing conservation. Another approach would be to better consider the nonecological factors that affect CES (e.g., timescales, extent of engagement, education). Increased attention to nonecological factors may enable more direct connections to decision-making by shedding light on how societal changes (e.g., a global pandemic) interact with CES, and particularly on equity-related concerns (e.g., how do CES support people during a pandemic, and how does that support vary?).

Embracing narrative

The methods used to elicit and characterize values influence what is shared (Chan et al. 2012b , Jax et al. 2013 ); the choice of method can obscure or make visible entire value systems (Turner et al. 2008 ). ES researchers, at least in the field's early stages, designed many findings to fit cost–benefit frameworks. The conclusions were therefore quantitative and sometimes monetary (e.g., Fisher et al. 2009 ). This can be problematic for CES, which are often difficult to describe and even more difficult to quantify. Quantitative, monetary values can be particularly inadequate to represent the perspectives of communities for which the language of ES may not resonate (Ernstson 2013 ). In Tarituba, Brazil, for example, local communities express value in ways that align poorly with ES language and categories (de Oliveira and Berkes 2014 ). To speak of fish or fishing-based lifestyles as a benefit does not make much sense; instead, people narrate the actions or occupations that allow them to access fish. Through stories, people express how fish are intimately connected with identity, cultural practices, and occupation. This example illuminates how elicitation methods that permit people to convey their relationships with nature in diverse ways may be necessary to capture diverse CES. Narrative-based approaches offer one such method; they allow participants to define and describe their experiences in their own terms. They also offer a way to connect CES to the rich theoretical foundations of diverse social science fields that are often obscured by economic, quantitative frameworks (Winthrop 2014 ).

Narrative can be central to how people understand and share nonmaterial relationships with ecosystems and, in particular, may help to understand the reciprocal, relational, and dynamic aspects of CES. The concept of narrative has hundreds of definitions, but most are similar to storytelling: “someone telling someone else that something has happened” (Smith 1981 : 232). Although scholars have not extensively explored the potential of narrative in the CES sphere, research in other fields suggests that it may serve as an effective method of expressing values. Below, we summarize this work from multiple fields and note its relevance to CES. We then present a few examples of CES research based on narrative.

An important reason to embrace narrative in CES research is that it can be central to fields that have justice as a guiding principle. Conflict resolution studies use narrative as a tool and suggest that narrative is powerful because it requires listening, is accessible, mobilizes new voices, and democratizes conversations (Senehi 2002 ). Critical feminist ethnographic methods from political science demonstrate how narrative can lead to more empathetic decision-making (Wiebe 2016 ). In critical race theory, narrative is a central tool for comprehending historical trauma and “opening a window onto ignored or alternative realities” (Delgado and Stefancic 2017 : 46). Narrative can be a particularly powerful and effective means to express deeply complex concepts such as identity and cultural heritage (Winthrop 2014 ). For these types of value especially, narrative can offer unique and crucial insight because it can convey profound meaning that is otherwise difficult to share. Peace and reconciliation commissions, as developed in South Africa and later widely implemented elsewhere, provide a prominent global example. These commissions foreground the importance of listening to stories of past trauma and have confronted injustice in many places. The relevance of this diverse past work to CES is obvious when one considers the ways that CES intertwine with historical trauma—notably colonialism and postcolonialism (which often cleave people–place relationships; Gould et al. 2014 )­—and with nuanced concepts such as identity that is inseparable from place (Pascua et al. 2017 ).

The ES field has also employed narrative in multiple contexts, and at least one framework for CES analysis suggests the use of narrative (Chan et al. 2012b ). Three examples illustrate ways that CES research can employ narrative. The participants in watershed ES initiatives in the Cauca Valley, Colombia, use stories to explain why they participate in these programs. Their stories, which are deeply infused with CES such as identity and sense of place, suggest that these services strongly influence sustained participation (Meza Prado et al. 2018 ). A second example, from the United Kingdom, used storytelling to elicit personal stories of important experiences at marine sites; the participants’ shared stories then formed the basis of deliberative discussion about the meaning and value of marine protected areas (Kenter et al. 2016a ). A third example, from Germany, involves analysis of stories submitted to a contest about a natural reserve. The stories collectively reveal rich evidence of multiple CES, and also demonstrate that many CES “are explicitly connected to specific biophysical features” (Bieling 2014: 207).

People collect and share narratives in myriad ways. Many standard semistructured interview formats leave space for stories to emerge; other methods specifically target stories. Methods that target stories include StoryMaps, an ESRI platform that links maps, images, and text; creative writing; theater performances; and community storytelling events. These narrative-focused methods can aid both data collection and sharing of findings.

Narrative has many benefits but also has limitations. The most obvious one is that interpreting and analyzing narrative to distill values may require substantial time and specialized training. In addition, although the researchers’ identities affect the research process in many types of CES research, those impacts may be even more pronounced in studies that rely on narrative.

It is worthwhile to address these challenges because narrative approaches are an important way to address equity and justice concerns through CES research and practice. Earlier, we described the prominent role that narrative plays in multiple fields that foreground justice concerns. CES research, being highly interdisciplinary, can take cues from this justice-forward work to understand why narrative may contribute to advancing equity and how to engage with ­narrative in productive, enriching ways.

Better connecting to biophysical attributes

Connecting ecosystem functions and processes with human well-being is a central—yet still largely unrealized (Chan and Satterfield 2020 ; Mandle et al. 2020 )—goal of ES research. Indeed, one of the reasons ES analyses can be so powerful is that they are able to pinpoint biophysical elements and characterize how and by how much those elements relate to human well-being. One way researchers make these links is through the concept of ES providers—that is, “the component populations, species, functional groups (guilds), food webs or habitat types that collectively produce” ES (Kremen 2005 : 469). As this definition of ES providers indicates, connections between ES and biophysical attributes can be studied in many ways, from species specific to landscape encompassing. CES are no different in this regard, and therefore, we use the concept of ES providers to organize a subset of CES research that engages with biophysical attributes. We hope that this structure may help to reveal gaps and ways forward.

Despite the similar applicability of ES providers, CES obviously differ in many ways from other ES; their nonmateriality often necessitates distinct methods. One result of these different methods is that CES work often engages with specific biophysical attributes far less than most other ES research.

Although this biophysically specific CES research is rare, it is on the rise; researchers have recently related many types and scales of ES providers to CES. Figure  3 summarizes a selection of CES studies as they relate to various categories of providers. We describe a few of those studies, starting from the left side of the figure. Research in Hawai´i has documented how CES are intertwined with the presence and recognition of ´ aumākua , familial ancestor guardians who assume the physical form of individual nonhuman organisms (e.g., a particular shark, a specific owl; Pascua et al. 2017 ). Some studies have focused on the CES associated with particular species or taxa (Amberson et al. 2016 , Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2018 , Echeverri et al. 2019 ). In a few studies, ecological traits or attributes have been examined: One showed that species evenness and color diversity, but not species richness, predict the aesthetic appeal of wildflower displays (Graves et al. 2017 ), and another indicated that avian functional traits (e.g., diet, plumage color) can predict CES (Echeverri et al. 2019 ). One study showed a positive association between CES and biodiversity in grassland landscapes (King et al. 2017 ). Another described how socioecological landscape characteristics (views, accessibility, historical sites, woodland size) influence the delivery of CES (Ridding et al. 2018 ). Larger temporal and geographic scales were explored in other studies; they demonstrate how seasonal and landscape dynamics influence CES (Graves et al. 2017 , 2019 ) or how dryland systems, including their abiotic components such as geodiversity, provide CES (Teff-Seker and Orenstein 2019 ).

Types of ecosystem service providers addressed in CES research, with examples. The examples are associated with the following publications: 1Pascua et al. 2017 ; 2Amberson et al. 2016 ; 3Cortés-Avizanda et al. 2018 ; 4Graves et al. 2017 ; 5Echeverri et al. 2019 ; 6King et al. 2017 ; 7Graves et al. 2019 , 2017b; 8Plieninger et al. 2013 ; 9Keeler et al. 2015 ; 10Willis et al. 2018 ; 11Baulcomb et al. 2015 .

There may be multiple reasons why a specific biophysical focus is pertinent to a study context; sometimes authors make this explicit, and sometimes they do not. Interests in species-specific explorations, for instance, may be driven by ecological classifications (e.g., threatened and endangered species) or by local and cultural connections to a particular species (e.g., cultural keystone species, Garibaldi and Turner 2004 ). Many CES studies focus on larger-scale areas (e.g., a specific forest area or park); these may or may not constitute ES providers. The tendency to generalize on the ecological side is one distinction between research on CES and ES more generally: In CES research, ecological granularity is often much more coarse.

A small segment of researchers have explored how CES may change on the basis of a specific type of biophysical detail: the condition of the ES provider (as affected by, e.g., pollution or habitat modification). This work can span the range of ES providers, from specific organisms to landscapes. It asks the following question: How do different ecosystem conditions affect CES? As two examples, research demonstrates that harmful algal blooms in marine ecosystems decrease a suite of multiple CES (Willis et al. 2018 ) and that lakes with clearer water receive more visitors (Keeler et al. 2015 ). This work can add to research on how ecosystem condition affects ES generally (e.g., McLaughlin and Cohen 2013 ).

Another permutation of this frontier—that is, an approach that better links biophysical attributes but with a focus different than that of ES providers—relates to an improved connection between CES and material ES (because the latter tend to be more commonly and obviously connected to specific biophysical attributes). This work takes two forms. The first is inclusion of CES in broader ES assessments (Raudsepp-Hearne et al. 2010 , Bremer et al. 2018a , 2018b ). This inclusion brings CES into larger conversations about ES; it brings CES to the table alongside other ES. The second avenue to better connect CES with material ES goes a step further: Beyond presenting the two alongside one another, it explores potential causal relationships between material ES and CES. In some ways, this second avenue can be considered a meta-approach, because a material ES may itself be analogous to an ES provider. As one example, communities participating in the Ecuadorian Andes’ Socio Bosque conservation incentive program recognize the páramo (alpine tundra) as the source of water essential to their livelihoods. They also describe how these grasslands are deeply connected to community identity and culture, which demonstrates the links between material and nonmaterial values (Farley and Bremer 2017 ). It seems likely that some of the CES associated with the páramo draw power and importance from the crucial role played by that specific ecosystem in material livelihoods; that is, the provider of the CES is the material ES of water provision. Future research could explore this type of connection between particular material ES and particular CES (e.g., how might water-flow regulation relate to spirituality?).

A primary challenge of efforts to link biophysical attributes and CES is that these efforts must address two highly complex arenas: social preferences and values and ecosystems’ biophysical properties. To date, much CES-related research explores detail in only one of the two. Much research focused on CES has described and parsed nuance on the social side of that relationship but has minimally treated ecological attributes. Much current CES research that engages with ecological nuance, however, does the reverse: It uses holistically important or novel measures of ES providers but relatively simple or superficial measures for CES. For the most part, the work we present in this section aligns more closely with the second group: It engages with ecological nuance but less so with social nuance.

We perceive a need to develop approaches that capture increased nuance in both cultural and ecological attributes; indeed, doing so may open possibilities for CES research to address equity in novel ways. The reason that increased attention to biophysical attributes may address equity issues stems from the fact that different beneficiaries—that is, groups or individuals who perceive or experience CES in a particular way—may value biophysical attributes in different ways and to different degrees. To offer two extreme examples: A jogger may experience the same CES while exercising in a highly diverse native forest or a forest filled with invasive species, whereas a forager may experience dramatically different CES as a result of changes in spatial or temporal abundance of valued species. The forager's case is one of many possibilities: Biophysical attributes can affect a broad range of CES (e.g., those related to spirituality, ceremony, identity) in crucial ways. These impacts may be particularly important for communities that are highly aware of nuanced ecological condition (e.g., hunters, foragers, cultural practitioners). Specific biophysical attributes may also be especially relevant in and among Indigenous peoples and local communities who place high value on both human and nonhuman kinship bonds (Salmón 2000 ); in some such contexts, humanity and nature are less (or not) distinct, and biophysical features, conditions, and attributes may be just as important as human ones. The challenge is how to carefully and respectfully identify then monitor these connections. One approach is in emerging research on biocultural indicators, which capture aspects of linked biological and cultural systems (Sterling et al. 2017 ). Other potential pathways will likely include drawing on diverse methods, working closely with place-connected communities, and honoring Indigenous and local knowledge and worldviews.

Building on the promising work we describe in this section, we argue that scholars continue to improve the ability of CES to achieve that central goal of ES research: to understand how particular biophysical elements benefit human well-being. We also emphasize that this work should acknowledge its potential blind spots and complications and should strongly consider whether and how different knowledge systems and worldviews approach biophysical attributes (e.g., that those attributes may be inseparable from each other or social systems). To advance in this way may simultaneously achieve two goals: that CES research become more management-relevant and better able to address equity issues rooted in deep connections to ES providers, whether or not that particular term is used. This kind of increased attention to connections between biophysical attributes and CES may bring equity issues to the forefront in management and planning related to ethically complex issues—for example, important debates such as those around novel ecosystems (Burnett et al. 2019 ), or restoration strategies that are focused on biocultural goals rather than solely on native species (Winter et al. 2020 ).

To describe and value CES is complicated. However, without explicit attention to CES, the ideas they represent may be ignored in some decision-making circles. This omission can have important justice-related consequences (Maru et al. 2012 ). In this article, we emphasize how recent advances in CES research can address past deficiencies in the ES conceptual framework—particularly those that have failed to address or even have exacerbated structural inequalities and injustice.

An important question in many CES analyses is how they relate to decision-making. Links to decision-making are still nascent in many cases (Gould et al. 2019 ), and strengthening them will require intentionality from both researchers and decision-makers (Chan and Satterfield 2020 , Mandle et al. 2020 ). Researchers, to achieve that strengthening, must think creatively about how to work with decision-makers at various stages of the research process. One aspect of that collaboration—albeit one much less involved than sustained transdisciplinary collaboration—is to share findings in various formats and for various audiences. Flexibility is important because not all decision-making contexts function the same way, nor do they use the same forms of evidence. To spur ideas related to this aspect of collaboration with decision-makers, table  3 presents multiple examples of ways to share findings related to CES. Notably, many underscore the importance of sharing findings with participants as a precursor to broader dissemination. Just as researchers must make this conscious effort, decision-makers may need to reconsider the types of information they use. They also likely need to pay special attention, in the case of complex CES and their justice implications, to whose voices are included in value- or CES-elicitation processes and to the ways values are characterized.

Examples of ways to more broadly share findings from CES and CES-related research.

Note: The examples primarily encompass approaches and outputs that stem from collaborative, community-based research projects codesigned with community members.

The issues that CES address are weighty and call for transdisciplinary problem-solving. We hope that CES research can provide flexible, powerful avenues to address equity-related concerns that often accompany these issues. We suggest that in order to reach its full potential, CES work should continue and deepen work aligned with the five frontiers described above. These frontiers suggest that CES research, if it maintains its connections with diverse methodologies and epistemologies, may help to strengthen ES approaches, both in general and as they relate to issues of justice and equity (table  1 ). In table  2 , we offer future research questions for each of the frontiers. We suggest and hope that CES work that builds on these frontiers, by answering the questions in table  2 and many others, can include diverse views and voices. By continuing to develop along these frontiers, CES work may begin to address social power relations, representational justice, and other equity concerns that surround and infuse ES research and practice (Berbés-Blázquez et al. 2016 ).

We are grateful for the many people and places that have shared time and ideas with us and with the hundreds of other people conducting CES-related research. We also thank the Natural Capital Project Symposium for hosting the session that inspired this paper.

Author Biographical

Rachelle Gould ( [email protected] ) is an assistant professor in the Sustainability and Global Equity Cluster at the University of Vermont, in Burlington; she is a faculty member of the Rubenstein School of Environment and Resources and the Environmental Program and is a fellow of the Gund Institute for the Environment, also in Burlington, Vermont. Leah Bremer is an environmental science and policy specialist at the University of Hawai´i Economic Research Organization and Water Resources Research Center, in Honolulu, Hawai'i; she is also a cooperating faculty member with the Department of Geography and Environment, the Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Management, and the Biocultural Initiative of the Pacific and is an affiliate of the Gund Institute for the Environment, at the University of Vermont, in Burlington, and a research associate with Fundación Cordillera Tropical in Ecuador, in Cuenca. Pua´ala Pascua is a biodiversity scientist and a biocultural specialist at the Center for Biodiversity and Conservation of the American Museum of Natural History, in New York, New York. Kelly Meza Prado is a public health student at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, at the University of London, in London, England, and was previously a researcher at the University of Minnesota, in Minneapolis, and with the Natural Capital Project, at Stanford University, in Stanford, California.

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The role of tourism impacts on cultural ecosystem services.

1. Introduction

1.1. facilitating cultural ecosystem services–well-being through nature experiences, 1.2. current study, 2.1. participants, 2.2. materials and measures, 2.3. procedure, 4. discussion, limitations and future research, 5. conclusions, author contributions, acknowledgments, conflicts of interest.

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Taff, B.D.; Benfield, J.; Miller, Z.D.; D’Antonio, A.; Schwartz, F. The Role of Tourism Impacts on Cultural Ecosystem Services. Environments 2019 , 6 , 43. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments6040043

Taff BD, Benfield J, Miller ZD, D’Antonio A, Schwartz F. The Role of Tourism Impacts on Cultural Ecosystem Services. Environments . 2019; 6(4):43. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments6040043

Taff, B. Derrick, Jacob Benfield, Zachary D. Miller, Ashley D’Antonio, and Forrest Schwartz. 2019. "The Role of Tourism Impacts on Cultural Ecosystem Services" Environments 6, no. 4: 43. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments6040043

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Cultural ecosystem services of Chinese typical landscapes: Rethinking non-material links between people and their landscapes

• Landscape Architecture and Spatial Planning

Research output : Thesis › internal PhD, WU

Maintaining and enhancing landscapes’ beneficial contributions to a good quality of life is a major challenge of our time. Landscapes have been and are being changed by processes such as urbanization, economic development and ecological restorations which may sharply change the landscapes, and these changes may affect the ways in which people interact with their landscapes. The concept of Ecosystem Services (ES) has been widely adopted by scientists and policymakers as a framework to assess the consequences of landscape interventions, on provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services. CES refer to the benefits people receive from ecosystems in the form of spiritual, religious, recreational, inspirational and educational experiences.

To inform decision-making for sustainable landscape management, an elicitation of people’s concerns associated with their landscapes from socio-cultural perspectives is. However, current approaches of investigating CES have been criticized for voluntary self-exclusion of disciplines, over-valuing tourist-attractive landscapes and neglecting critical social impacts or dynamics. Moreover, due to the limitation of accessible data and applicable methods, rarely does research capture the cultural diversity of CES perceived by local communities and little is known about how CES change under human interventions.

The objective of this research was to investigate the non-material links between people and landscapes by analysing CES from an interdisciplinary perspective, in four typical Chinese landscapes (Dryland agricultural landscape, wetlands, grasslands and coastal wetlands). The research especially addresses the subjective nature of CES perception and the socio-cultural consequences of ecological restoration and conservation projects through their influence on CES perception. The approach incorporates the perceived values that local communities attach to landscapes and overcomes the limited application of non-spatiality explicit CES in broader ecosystem assessment by assessing the perceptions of local communities. Data were gathered by questionnaires survey or semi-structured interviews depending on the local context, as well as participatory mapping and field observations to further diagnose CES appraisal and their spatial distribution.

Synthesizing the findings of this research, there are several conclusions we can draw: 1) In general, Aesthetic services, Recreational services, Education and science, Inspirations, Sense of place, Cultural heritage, Religious and spiritual services and Physical and mental health are all highly perceived in China’s typical landscapes including wetlands, grassland, cultivated lands and coastal wetlands. Social relations were only identified in wetlands and coastal wetlands. 2) Demographic characteristics affect the perception of CES, especially ethnicity, age and education. Although demographic characteristics determine how people perceive CES, no generic rules such as “women tend to perceive more CES than men” or “old people tend to perceive more CES than young people” could be found. 3) Landscape features play a different role in different landscapes, but dominant landscape features are perceived as more important by local communities. The appreciation appeared to be closely linked to the intensity of the interaction and common landscape features are more appreciated than special landscape features. 4) Human interventions, including ecological restoration, conservation and local economic development influence CES perception, by influencing the opportunities for local people to engage with their landscapes, as well as potentially influencing the demographic characteristics of local communities (such as occupation, income and even age composition). Ecological restoration tends to have a positive effect on recreational services but a negative effect on sense of place.

Despite the limitations of data and methods, we showed that considering cultural ecosystem services, local communities, and the way they interact with different landscape features in ecological conservation and landscape management can help to improve conservation effectiveness, and pioneer new co-management arrangements.

This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

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• Communities Social Sciences 100%
• Chinese Social Sciences 100%
• Ecosystem Service Social Sciences 100%
• Demographic Characteristic Psychology 100%
• Sense of Place Social Sciences 33%
• Recreation Business Social Sciences 33%
• Grassland Social Sciences 33%
• Landscape Management Social Sciences 33%

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Cultural ecosystem services of Chinese coastal landscapes and their vulnerability to global change

Dou, Y., Bakker, M. & Carsjens, G.

16/01/16 → 8/09/20

Project : PhD

• Chinese 100%
• Communities 100%
• Ecosystem Service 100%
• Demographic Characteristic 100%
• Sense of Place 33%

T1 - Cultural ecosystem services of Chinese typical landscapes

T2 - Rethinking non-material links between people and their landscapes

AU - Dou, Yuehan

N1 - WU thesis 7583 Includes bibliographical references. - With summary in English

PY - 2020/9/8

Y1 - 2020/9/8

N2 - Maintaining and enhancing landscapes’ beneficial contributions to a good quality of life is a major challenge of our time. Landscapes have been and are being changed by processes such as urbanization, economic development and ecological restorations which may sharply change the landscapes, and these changes may affect the ways in which people interact with their landscapes. The concept of Ecosystem Services (ES) has been widely adopted by scientists and policymakers as a framework to assess the consequences of landscape interventions, on provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services. CES refer to the benefits people receive from ecosystems in the form of spiritual, religious, recreational, inspirational and educational experiences.To inform decision-making for sustainable landscape management, an elicitation of people’s concerns associated with their landscapes from socio-cultural perspectives is. However, current approaches of investigating CES have been criticized for voluntary self-exclusion of disciplines, over-valuing tourist-attractive landscapes and neglecting critical social impacts or dynamics. Moreover, due to the limitation of accessible data and applicable methods, rarely does research capture the cultural diversity of CES perceived by local communities and little is known about how CES change under human interventions.The objective of this research was to investigate the non-material links between people and landscapes by analysing CES from an interdisciplinary perspective, in four typical Chinese landscapes (Dryland agricultural landscape, wetlands, grasslands and coastal wetlands). The research especially addresses the subjective nature of CES perception and the socio-cultural consequences of ecological restoration and conservation projects through their influence on CES perception. The approach incorporates the perceived values that local communities attach to landscapes and overcomes the limited application of non-spatiality explicit CES in broader ecosystem assessment by assessing the perceptions of local communities. Data were gathered by questionnaires survey or semi-structured interviews depending on the local context, as well as participatory mapping and field observations to further diagnose CES appraisal and their spatial distribution.Synthesizing the findings of this research, there are several conclusions we can draw: 1) In general, Aesthetic services, Recreational services, Education and science, Inspirations, Sense of place, Cultural heritage, Religious and spiritual services and Physical and mental health are all highly perceived in China’s typical landscapes including wetlands, grassland, cultivated lands and coastal wetlands. Social relations were only identified in wetlands and coastal wetlands. 2) Demographic characteristics affect the perception of CES, especially ethnicity, age and education. Although demographic characteristics determine how people perceive CES, no generic rules such as “women tend to perceive more CES than men” or “old people tend to perceive more CES than young people” could be found. 3) Landscape features play a different role in different landscapes, but dominant landscape features are perceived as more important by local communities. The appreciation appeared to be closely linked to the intensity of the interaction and common landscape features are more appreciated than special landscape features. 4) Human interventions, including ecological restoration, conservation and local economic development influence CES perception, by influencing the opportunities for local people to engage with their landscapes, as well as potentially influencing the demographic characteristics of local communities (such as occupation, income and even age composition). Ecological restoration tends to have a positive effect on recreational services but a negative effect on sense of place.Despite the limitations of data and methods, we showed that considering cultural ecosystem services, local communities, and the way they interact with different landscape features in ecological conservation and landscape management can help to improve conservation effectiveness, and pioneer new co-management arrangements.

AB - Maintaining and enhancing landscapes’ beneficial contributions to a good quality of life is a major challenge of our time. Landscapes have been and are being changed by processes such as urbanization, economic development and ecological restorations which may sharply change the landscapes, and these changes may affect the ways in which people interact with their landscapes. The concept of Ecosystem Services (ES) has been widely adopted by scientists and policymakers as a framework to assess the consequences of landscape interventions, on provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural ecosystem services. CES refer to the benefits people receive from ecosystems in the form of spiritual, religious, recreational, inspirational and educational experiences.To inform decision-making for sustainable landscape management, an elicitation of people’s concerns associated with their landscapes from socio-cultural perspectives is. However, current approaches of investigating CES have been criticized for voluntary self-exclusion of disciplines, over-valuing tourist-attractive landscapes and neglecting critical social impacts or dynamics. Moreover, due to the limitation of accessible data and applicable methods, rarely does research capture the cultural diversity of CES perceived by local communities and little is known about how CES change under human interventions.The objective of this research was to investigate the non-material links between people and landscapes by analysing CES from an interdisciplinary perspective, in four typical Chinese landscapes (Dryland agricultural landscape, wetlands, grasslands and coastal wetlands). The research especially addresses the subjective nature of CES perception and the socio-cultural consequences of ecological restoration and conservation projects through their influence on CES perception. The approach incorporates the perceived values that local communities attach to landscapes and overcomes the limited application of non-spatiality explicit CES in broader ecosystem assessment by assessing the perceptions of local communities. Data were gathered by questionnaires survey or semi-structured interviews depending on the local context, as well as participatory mapping and field observations to further diagnose CES appraisal and their spatial distribution.Synthesizing the findings of this research, there are several conclusions we can draw: 1) In general, Aesthetic services, Recreational services, Education and science, Inspirations, Sense of place, Cultural heritage, Religious and spiritual services and Physical and mental health are all highly perceived in China’s typical landscapes including wetlands, grassland, cultivated lands and coastal wetlands. Social relations were only identified in wetlands and coastal wetlands. 2) Demographic characteristics affect the perception of CES, especially ethnicity, age and education. Although demographic characteristics determine how people perceive CES, no generic rules such as “women tend to perceive more CES than men” or “old people tend to perceive more CES than young people” could be found. 3) Landscape features play a different role in different landscapes, but dominant landscape features are perceived as more important by local communities. The appreciation appeared to be closely linked to the intensity of the interaction and common landscape features are more appreciated than special landscape features. 4) Human interventions, including ecological restoration, conservation and local economic development influence CES perception, by influencing the opportunities for local people to engage with their landscapes, as well as potentially influencing the demographic characteristics of local communities (such as occupation, income and even age composition). Ecological restoration tends to have a positive effect on recreational services but a negative effect on sense of place.Despite the limitations of data and methods, we showed that considering cultural ecosystem services, local communities, and the way they interact with different landscape features in ecological conservation and landscape management can help to improve conservation effectiveness, and pioneer new co-management arrangements.

UR - https://edepot.wur.nl/526721

U2 - 10.18174/526721

DO - 10.18174/526721

M3 - internal PhD, WU

SN - 9789463954631

PB - Wageningen University

CY - Wageningen

ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Evaluating cultural ecosystem services of urban residential green spaces from the perspective of residents' satisfaction with green space.

• 1 Department of Resource and Environmental Science, Henan University of Economics and Law, Zhengzhou, China
• 2 School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, China
• 3 Jiyang College, Zhejiang Agricultural & Forestry University, Zhuji, China

Green spaces in residential areas provide multiple cultural ecosystem services (CES), which can contribute to human health by increasing the frequency of residents' visits. We evaluated the CES of residential green spaces by assessing residents' satisfaction with these spaces in the city of Zhengzhou, China. The data reveal the supply capacity of CES in residential green spaces: the results suggest that the level of recreational services is low, whereas the residents' satisfaction with the sense of place and neighborhood relations is high. The lower the frequency of residents who visit a park outside the residential area, the higher the satisfaction with the CES. This suggests that residential green spaces can effectively compensate for the lack of nearby parks owing to their proximity to residents' living quarters. The CES in residential communities increased as vegetation coverage increased, indicating that natural vegetation is a source of CES. In addition, the results showed that residents' perceptions of plant decoration, landscape patterns, and management and infrastructure in particular can effectively improve the level of CES, and this could compensate for CES that have shrunk owing to low green space coverage. This study has practical significance and value for the planning and design of residential green spaces, offering suggestions for urban landscape planners and decision makers. Future research should combine the residents' perception of demand and supply of CES and should clarify the gap and trade-off between them.

Introduction

The ecosystem services of urban green spaces can be defined as services that improve the welfare of urban residents who enjoy green spaces ( 1 ). These services include support, regulation, supply, and cultural ecosystem services (CES) ( 2 ). CES can be provided by green spaces for leisure, tourism, cultural education, aesthetic appreciation, and spiritual needs ( 3 ), all of which account for a large proportion of the ecosystem services in an urban green space ( 4 ). Residents' physical and mental health, especially social belonging, group identity, and social integration, are closely related to environmental services ( 5 ). In recent years, CES have become a trending topic in urban ecosystem services research. However, compared with other types of ecosystem services, research on CES is still in its infancy because its intangible characteristics are difficult to quantify.

Currently, several researchers are exploring various means to study the CES of urban green spaces (6–13). Survey questionnaires, the most commonly used evaluation method, can be direct or indirect. Direct methods includes face-to-face ( 5 , 6 ), email ( 7 , 8 ), or network ( 9 , 10 ) surveys, which evaluate CES according to residents' visit frequency to green spaces, activity types, and perceptions of CES. Indirect methods capture pictures of the target place and then invite residents to give scores to the CES reflected by the different green space landscapes or land use types in the pictures ( 11 , 12 ). Although face-to-face questionnaires are an effective way to evaluate urban ecosystem services, they are also difficult, mainly because of the high cost ( 8 ).

Previous studies have quantified CES in green areas from the residents' perceptions ( 10 , 13 ), producing CES scores for subjective cognition and distinguishing the importance of different CES ( 9 , 14 – 16 ). Moreover, by detecting the population's perspective on need, this research has described the demand for CES. The trade-off between the demand and supply of CES is also a popular research topic that can provide constructive suggestions for urban management and planning. CES supply in urban areas is characterized by the spatial distribution and physical attributes of urban green spaces, such as the amount, size, type, water bodies, facilities, and biodiversity ( 17 ). Residents' satisfaction with their surrounding physical environment is commonly used in studies concerning the well-being of humans ( 18 , 19 ); such parameters objectively portray the status (i.e., positive or negative) of an urban environment from the residents' perspective. Therefore, the evaluation of residents' satisfaction with CES can directly present the supply capacity of CES, which will facilitate any adjustment of the physical characteristics of green spaces. However, few studies have assessed CES from the perspective of residents' satisfaction with green spaces.

Urban residents around the world express a desire for contact with nature and one another, including attractive environments, recreational and play areas, privacy, active roles in the design of the community, and a sense of community identity ( 20 ). A positive correlation exists between human health and urban green spaces ( 21 – 23 ). Urban green spaces refer to natural vegetation in cities, including highly artificial green spaces, such as roadside green parks, residential green space, and natural woodland, which provide a variety of ecosystem services, especially recreational and entertainment areas with CES. Numerous studies have focused on the CES of urban parks, forests, wetlands, and other popular green spaces ( 6 , 24 , 25 ), whereas residential areas have received minimal attention. With the rapid expansion of cities and resultant growth of the urban population, as well as the limited natural vegetation in cities, urban residential areas are becoming gradually dominated by environments that have a high population density and a low green space density. In particular, the green areas of urban residential areas in developing countries are often correlated with real estate prices ( 26 ), which leads directly to the prevalence of urban human settlements and environmental inequity ( 27 ). Scholars have therefore pointed out that the remaining green spaces should make up for the shortage of other green land types, such as roadside and residential green spaces ( 9 ). The distance between urban green spaces (e.g., parks) and residents determines the use frequency of these spaces ( 10 , 28 , 29 ). Residential green spaces are the most common and frequently used land types and have multiple ecosystem functions and services (e.g., biodiversity protection, climatic adjustment, energy saving, and recreation). Therefore, evaluating and exploring the CES characteristics of green areas in high-density residential areas can provide valuable references for urban ecosystem research. As an essential component of urban green spaces, residential green spaces are characterized particularly by high fragmentation and heterogeneity, and huge differences exist among residential districts, which are correlated with various landscape planners, property managers, and residents with different socioeconomic status. Hence, research on CES in urban residential green spaces is difficult to conduct. Many studies have reported that the design of urban landscapes greatly influences the well-being and behavior of users and nearby inhabitants ( 18 , 30 ). CES in high-density residential areas are thus more important than the regulative and supporting services of green spaces. Moreover, magnifying the CES in limited spaces is significant. Investigating and assessing CES in residential areas can further enrich the theories and practices of ecosystem services in urban green spaces.

The influencing factors of CES in urban green spaces are a key research topic, which could provide important and practical information for the planning and management of urban green spaces. The CES in urban green spaces are often related to residents' socioeconomic status (e.g., age, income level, marriage, and profession) ( 14 , 31 – 34 ). Specifically, residents' socioeconomic status is closely related to the subjectivity and intangibility of CES. In addition, urban morphologies and land use may affect CES in large-scale green spaces. For instance, CES in wetlands are better than in other land types ( 9 , 35 ). The quality and quantity of green space landscapes are the important influencing factors of CES ( 36 ), along with green space size ( 37 ), green space accessibility ( 38 ), natural properties of green spaces ( 9 , 14 , 39 ), and species composition and biodiversity ( 40 , 41 ). Studies have found that cleanliness and proper management ( 9 ), as well as infrastructure ( 42 ), contribute greatly to improvement of CES in green spaces. Green spaces in residential areas offer various CES, such as walking, exercise, aesthetic appreciation, neighborhood exchanges, stress-relieving activities, and activities that foster a good mood. Hence, exploring the influencing factors of CES in residential green spaces should provide important practical guidance for landscape planning and the design of green spaces in residential areas.

Previous studies have focused on residents' satisfaction with their living environment ( 10 , 14 , 33 , 42 ). Physical and natural environments exert significant effects on residential satisfaction with the aspects of the natural environment, convenient transportation, environmental health, urban security, the convenience of public facilities, and the sociocultural environment. However, the following questions remain: (1) How does the natural environment affect the human perspective of the residential environment? (2) How satisfied are people with urban green spaces in residential areas? (3) What is the current level of CES in the residential green spaces of high-density communities? (4) Is the vegetation coverage of green spaces a major factor that affects CES? (5) What physical environment of residential green spaces contributes the most to CES? These questions can be answered by evaluation of CES and exploration of the possible determinant factors of CES in residential green spaces.

This study aimed to evaluate the level of CES in green spaces of residential areas by examining the satisfaction of residents and to explore the possible factors affecting the function of residential green spaces (e.g., coverage of green space in the residential areas, social factors, residents' use of green spaces, and management) and the key issues that should be addressed.

Materials and Methods

A total of 40 residential communities in Jinshui District, Zhengzhou City, Henan Province, China, comprised the study area. Zhengzhou, the capital of Henan Province, is Henan's largest and most populated city and has an area of 7,446 km 2 and 9.88 million inhabitants as at 2018. Most housing estates in the Jinshui District are relatively mature, containing not only medium vegetation coverage but also housing built before 2010. We assumed that these housing estates would provide a stable and objective level of CES.

Among the 40 major cities in China, Zhengzhou has the highest population density at 15,000 people/km 2 , and the urban land conflict is most prominent. The current urbanization rate of Zhengzhou is 78.2%, ranking 30th in China, and the urbanization process in this city is advancing rapidly. Many real estate resources have been built, but their overall quality is low. In particular, Zhengzhou has low green space coverage and property management with different levels. Gaps between the living environment of Zhengzhou's urban residents and other first-tier cities in China (e.g., Beijing, Shanghai, Shenzhen, and Guangzhou) are evident; that is, Zhengzhou lags behind in terms of urbanization and economic development. Evaluating the current supply capacity of the CES of residential areas can provide a scientific reference for improving the living environment and well-being of Zhengzhou residents.

Zhengzhou is divided into six administrative districts and seven provincial direct counties. Jinshui District is one of the most economically developed urban areas in the province, with a total area of 135.3 km 2 and a population of 1.402 million. Jinshui District is the area with the largest population and the most developed economy in Zhengzhou ( Figure 1 ). Compared with the other districts' residential areas, the real estate development area in Jinshui District is the largest, earliest, and most mature. The residential projects developed in the Jinshui District are composed of 50% ordinary housing and almost 40% villas and affordable housing. These patterns are closely related to the comprehensive functions undertaken by the Jinshui District and the spatial development strategy of “Northward and Eastward Expansion.” The dominant type of residential area in the Jinshui District is the reason why this area was chosen for the case study ( 43 ).

Figure 1 . The geographical locations of the selected 40 residential communities.

Jinshui District is also the most active urban expansion area in Zhengzhou. The demand for residential areas from the urban population is increasing, leading to development of high-density residential areas in the region at the expense of green spaces and a reduction of ecosystem services.

Classification and Evaluation Indicators of Cultural Ecosystem Services in Green Spaces in Residential Areas

CES can be classified under the non-material benefits provided by ecosystems ( 44 ). CES in urban green spaces are globally categorized into seven types: aesthetic information, recreation, cultural heritage, education, social relations, health, and spiritual/religious values ( 2 , 45 , 46 ). In residential areas, CES could be defined as opportunities for residents to enjoy recreational activities, aesthetic appreciation, social contact with neighbors, and stress-relieving activities and to strengthen the sense of belonging. CES in residential green spaces are divided into five types: recreation, aesthetics, social relations, a sense of belonging, and spiritual demand ( Table 1 ). Recreational services refer to various recreational activities available in the residential green space for the residents, including exercise, walking, dog walking, childcare, and running. Recreational services are evaluated by measuring the frequency and duration of residents' participation and their satisfaction. Aesthetic services are residents' aesthetic perceptions of the overall landscape and plant collocation in residential green spaces, and they are evaluated by the residents' overall satisfaction with the aesthetics of the above two factors. Social relations services provide residents with opportunities to communicate with neighbors and release emotional stress. This service is evaluated through the communication frequency of residents with family members, friends, or neighbors, as well as their satisfaction with neighborhood relations. The evaluation index for the sense of belonging involves residents' satisfaction with respect to how welcoming and nurturing the environment is. Finally, spiritual services involve spiritual experience and spiritual release in residential green spaces. The evaluation indexes for spiritual services include satisfaction with pressure relief features and the quietness of the environment. The quality of urban green spaces is widely evaluated by residents' satisfaction with various functions ( 15 , 19 , 34 ). Therefore, in our study, we applied the satisfaction with CES to identify the level of CES.

Table 1 . Selected CES and their indicators.

Data Collection

A face-to-face survey was used to explore the attitudes of residents in Zhengzhou City toward the different types of CES in the residential green spaces. To ensure the adequacy of the sample size, as well as the authenticity of the questionnaire, we selected 40 sites from the 215 residential communities in Jinshui. These sites, all of which were built after 2000, have at least 600 households. The area of the 40 residential estates ranged from 0.38 to 33 hm 2 , and the vegetation cover ratio was between 13 and 58%. In China, a residential community is the smallest residential unit within a limited space ( Figure 1 ). Each residential community has unique characteristics, such as vegetation coverage, water bodies, public activity spaces, management, infrastructure, vegetation structure, and plant species. Moreover, different communities are relatively independent and closed. Therefore, our study investigated residents' overall satisfaction with different types of CES and the use of green spaces in these sites.

To truly express the impact of green spaces on residents' activities, the data were collected on weekends and official holidays from June 2017 to August 2018. The survey was conducted between 09:00 and 19:00. Our interviewees were mainly residents who are inactive in the green spaces of the community. A household survey was used as a supplement to ensure a sufficient sample size. A total of 4,519 respondents were interviewed, with between 93 and 135 interviewees from each of the 40 communities. First, residents' use of green spaces and satisfaction with different types of CES were collected to evaluate the cultural service levels of the green spaces. Then, the residents' satisfaction with green space management and infrastructure was investigated. Finally, the most satisfying and unsatisfying factors with regard to the residential green spaces were collected, covering management, water services, public activity spaces, green coverage, facilities, plant collocation, and the landscape pattern of the green spaces, to analyze the subjective physical environment of the residential areas by investigating the influencing factors of CES in the residential green spaces. The collected physical environment indicators included real vegetation coverage, the number of public activity spaces, including the existence of water bodies, and the management level. With the use of Google's high-definition imagery, object-oriented automatic classification was applied to extract the real vegetation coverage, which refers to the vertical projection area of vegetation (including leaves, stems, and branches) on the ground as a percentage of the total area of the residential area. The number of public activity spaces (e.g., squares, water bodies, children's play facilities, gazebos, promenades, and places for physical exercise) was obtained during the survey of residents' satisfaction with CES. A total of 40 residential areas were categorized into two groups: residential areas with water body settings and those without. The management of residential green spaces was subjectively divided into three levels: good, medium, and poor.

Data Analysis

All data aggregation and statistical analyses were conducted in Microsoft Excel and SPSS v21. First, we analyzed the descriptive statistics to explore the socioeconomic characteristics of the respondents (gender, age, income, education, and the use of residential green spaces) and their ways of using green areas ( Table 2 ). The level of respondents' satisfaction with the various CES in the residential green spaces was scored 1–10, with 1 indicating poor satisfaction and 10 maximum. The overall satisfaction with CES was calculated as an average of satisfaction with seven types of CES, including recreation, the aesthetics of the green space landscapes and plant collocation, neighborhood relations, the sense of place, stress-relieving features, and the quietness of the environment. Pearson's correlation analysis was used to investigate the relationship among the various CES in the residential green spaces (Pearson's coefficient) ( Table 3 ). Linear regression analyses were applied to test the possible variables affecting the level of CES. The analysis process was as follows ( 47 ): single-factor results were derived from a univariate linear regression model that included a single variable ( Table 4 ), and significant variables emerging from the single-factor models ( p < 0.05) were then included in subsequent multivariate linear models (i.e., social–economic attributes, green spaces' use, frequency of visits to parks outside the residential area, and the subjective and objective physical environmental variables) ( Table 5 ), which were examined in a series of backward stepwise elimination procedures. The final multivariate linear regression models included all the demographic variables and the successive inclusion of significant variables from the socioeconomic factors, use of green space, and the physical environmental variables selected by the backward stepwise procedures ( p < 0.05).

Table 2 . Respondents' demographic characteristics and use of residential green spaces.

Table 3 . Pearson's correlation coefficient of the different CES.

Table 4 . Relationship between residents' satisfaction on different CES and demographic characteristics, use frequency of green spaces and variables of physical environment with the univariate linear regression analysis.

Table 5 . Effects of residents' socioeconomic attributes, use characteristic and physical environment of green spaces on the total level of CES with the multivariate linear regression analysis.

Ethics Approval

This study was carried out in accordance with the recommendations of the ethical standards of Henan University of Economics and Law. The protocol was approved by Henan University of Economics and Law. All subjects gave written informed consent in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Social and Economic Characteristics of the Respondents

Table 2 presents the demographic characteristics of the survey respondents and their mean satisfaction with the CES in their residential green spaces. A total of 4,519 residents in 40 residential areas were interviewed. The percentage of female respondents (50.28%) was slightly higher than that of the male ones (49.72%). Most respondents were within the age range of 30–39 years (24.36%), followed by 21–29 (19.7%), <20 (17.1%), 40–49 (15.17%), >60 (13.6%), and 50–59 years (10.07%). In terms of educational attainment, most of the respondents had an undergraduate degree (28.54%) or had completed junior high school or lower (27.73%), junior college (21.3%), or high school (18.05%). The smallest percentage of respondents had a post-graduate degree (4.38%). As for monthly income, respondents with no income represented the largest percentage (31.6%); followed by those earning 3,000–5,000 RMB (29.25%), 1,000–3,000 RMB (25.5%), and 5,000–10,000 RMB (18.55%); and last those earning above 10,000 RMB (5.1%). Almost half of the respondents had lived in the community area for more than 5 years (40.16%), followed by those residing in the area for 1–3 (24.45%) and 3–5 years (22.54%), and last those living in the community for <1 year (14.68%).

Cultural Ecosystem Services Satisfaction Levels in the Residential Green Spaces

Figure 2 shows the residents' satisfaction level with CES in the residential green spaces, which is based on the respondents' reported usage and satisfaction regarding residential green spaces. Satisfaction with neighborhood relations obtained the highest average score of 7.73 (from a scale of 1 to 10), followed by the sense of belonging (6.81), vegetation landscape aesthetics (6.62), and plant collocation aesthetics (6.56). Satisfaction with recreation services, the quietness of the environment, and stress-relieving features obtained the lowest average scores (6.36, 6.40, and 6.52, respectively). The average overall residents' satisfaction score was 6.71. These results reveal that the residents' satisfaction with various types of CES is relatively similar. The relationship between different CES of green spaces was analyzed using Pearson's correlation ( Table 3 ), which revealed significant positive correlations ( p < 0.01). The main activities of residents in residential green spaces include walking, childcare, and resting ( Figure 2 ), which accounted for 48.24, 33.89, and 27.17% of the activities, respectively. In addition, residents exercise (18.47%), meet and chat with friends (10.56%), walk their dogs (7.34%), participate in cultural activities (e.g., singing, dancing, calligraphy, playing chess or cards, and painting) (5.69%), ride bicycles (4.04%), and drink tea (1.24%).

Figure 2 . Residents' satisfaction score on cultural ecosystem services (CES) and the main recreational activities in the residential green spaces.

Residents frequently visit residential green spaces ( Table 2 ). Approximately 40% of the interviewed residents visit residential green spaces every day, and 30.87% visit at least three times per week. In addition, 11.68% of residents visit residential green spaces at least three times per month, and 18.07% pay occasional visits. However, most residents stay in residential green spaces for a short time: 44.05% stay for nearly half an hour, whereas 37.65% stay for 1–2 h. The proportion of residents staying for a longer time than this is relatively low, with 5.91 and 3.87% staying for 3 and >3 h, respectively. Walking is the major activity of the residents who stay in the residential green spaces for 1–2 h, whereas engaging in social communications and drinking tea are the primary activities of residents who stay for roughly 3 h. Moreover, social communication is the reason why residents stay longer than 3 h.

A statistical analysis of the residents' frequency of communicating with neighbors and friends in the residential green spaces was also performed. The results returned a high overall frequency: 27.95 and 30.71% of the residents chat with others every day and at least three times a week, respectively, and 11.58% chat with other people at least three times every month. Only 17.18 and 12.56% of residents occasionally and hardly chat with neighbors and friends, respectively. In addition, almost half of the respondents pay occasional visits to parks outside the residential areas (43.58%), whereas the lowest proportion visits these parks every day (10.26%). In addition, several people visit parks at least three times a week (24.37%) or at least three times a month (21.79%).

Determinants of Cultural Ecosystem Services in Residential Green Spaces

According to the univariate linear regression model between the socioeconomic characteristics and residents' satisfaction with CES ( Table 4 ), gender, length of stay, and education background showed no significant correlations. Interestingly, the proportion of people in the age group 21–29 years was negatively correlated with multiple CES, whereas that in the age group 50–59 years was positively correlated with the satisfaction of neighborhood relations and sense of belonging, whereas the age group >60 years was significantly correlated with satisfaction with a quiet environment and a sense of belonging. With respect to income level, residents earning 1,000–3,000 RMB were only slightly satisfied with plant collocation aesthetics.

Most residents were dissatisfied with the management, water facilities, and the public activity spaces in the residential green spaces ( Figure 3 ), accounting for 27.53, 19.10, and 14.44% of the total resident population. Moreover, 11.21, 6.89, 5.05, and 4.11% of the residents were not satisfied with the green space coverage, infrastructure, plant collocation, and landscape patterns, respectively. The residents viewed vegetation coverage, public activity spaces, and management as the most important factors that should be considered in the selection of future residential green spaces ( Figure 4 ). The proportions of residents highly concerned with vegetation coverage, public activity spaces, and management were highest, reaching 46.45, 44.29, and 39.73%, respectively. Moreover, those concerned about water facilities, landscape patterns, basic facilities, and plant collocation were 34.62, 33.78, 29.38, and 28.76%, respectively. The basic facilities in residential green spaces include ornamental, artistic, functional, or other equipment for services.

Figure 3 . Proportion of respondents who are satisfied and dissatisfied with the quality of residential green spaces.

Figure 4 . Proportion of respondents who are concerned about the future quality of residential green spaces.

The total level of CES was significantly affected by both the objective and subjective physical environments of the residential green spaces ( Table 4 ). The results from a univariate linear regression showed that the vegetation coverage, management level, number of public activity spaces, and settings of water bodies in residential green spaces were significantly correlated with CES. The proportion of residents who were satisfied with the physical environment, including plant decoration, the coverage of green spaces, the water bodies for public activities, and the landscape patterns of residential green spaces, was significantly correlated with almost all types of CES.

The real vegetation coverage and the proportion of residents who were satisfied with plant decorations and landscape patterns were the only physical environment variables to emerge as significant in the multivariate analysis ( Table 5 ), and their association with the total level of CES was examined after progressive adjustment for different blocks of variables. The proportion of residents who were satisfied with the coverage of green space was removed in the final model; we supposed it could be attributed to the multicollinearity between landscape pattern, plant decoration, and coverage of green spaces. However, the relationship between objective physical environment variables and CES attenuated after adjustment for other variables, indicating that CES was mainly influenced by residents' subjective perception of the physical environment. In addition, the percentage of residents occasionally visiting parks outside the residential areas was also significantly correlated with the level of CES.

Although some studies have suggested that CES in residential green spaces are less valuable than those in urban green spaces, many researchers have stated that the inherent cultural value does not determine the use frequency of residents and that the distance to green spaces is closely related to individual interests ( 6 , 10 , 24 , 34 , 48 , 49 ). Therefore, evaluating CES will further enrich the study of urban ecosystem services.

We defined the satisfaction level with CES <4 as low, 4–7 as medium, and >7 as high. The total satisfaction level with CES in the residential green spaces in Zhengzhou was medium (6.71), whereas residents' satisfaction with different types of CES varied. Satisfaction with the recreational services obtained the lowest score, which can be attributed to the absence of public activity spaces and facilities in most residential green spaces. Satisfaction with the overall landscape aesthetics of residential green spaces and plant collocation was relatively high, signifying the good aesthetic service level in residential green spaces in Zhengzhou. The level of spiritual services was complicated. Satisfaction with neighborhood relations and sense of belonging was the highest, whereas satisfaction with stress-relieving features and quietness was lower than the previous two factors.

Unlike previous studies, our study evaluated CES by examining residents' satisfaction, which was lowest for recreational services and highest for sense of place and neighborhood relations ( Figure 2 ). Previous studies have highlighted that recreational services in urban green spaces have the highest value among all relevant factors ( 10 , 50 ), whereas other studies have discovered that aesthetic features are most important ( 13 , 14 , 51 ). In this study, residents' satisfaction with the different CES in residential green spaces was analyzed to evaluate the supply capacity of CES. Gaps between the supply and demand of CES mostly account for the significant difference between our results and other research. However, identification of CES is mainly based on the subjective perception of residents, which produces great variability. Cultural background, customs, social status, and other socioeconomic factors influence people's perception of CES. In addition, the type of green space involved in different research also has an effect.

Multiple CES originate from the natural attributes of urban green spaces. Significantly positive correlations have commonly been observed among the different types of CES ( 9 , 10 , 13 , 52 ). However, other studies have also discovered significantly negative correlations ( 14 ). Respondents might find it difficult to distinguish between the different types of CES, indicating that various types of CES are concentrated in a specific space ( 13 , 53 ). This finding implies internal correlation and inseparable natural attributes of the various types of CES and further proves the binding effect of different CES, which might be related to the fact that the different types of CES derive from the natural attributes of the ecosystem (i.e., the surrounding natural environment).

In dense urban regions, CES provided by residential green spaces can stimulate the residents' positive attitude toward neighborhood relations, which could compensate for environmental inequality in the urban area that is, the insufficiency of other popular or large green spaces. Urban parks and woods are the most important among the different types of green spaces ( 10 ), providing high social, economic, environmental, and ecological services and values. However, the spatial distribution of these green spaces varies widely in urban areas, thereby contributing to widespread environmental inequities. The relationship between CES and residents' visit frequency to parks outside their communities in our study demonstrated that residential green spaces can effectively compensate for the lack of nearby parks owing to their proximity to residents' living areas. Therefore, the construction, investment, planning, and design of residential green spaces should be paid additional attention.

Socioeconomic Attributes of Cultural Ecosystem Services in Residential Green Spaces

CES in green spaces are stable and can be directly determined by the green landscape. Initially, we suppose the length of living in a community was believed to have caused polarization of residents' subjective evaluation of CES in green spaces. Residents who live in a community for a long time frequently visit residential green spaces, are more familiar with the surrounding environment than other groups, and thus make extensive subjective evaluations. Moreover, such residents are more socially integrated than residents who have been living in the community for a short time ( 42 ). However, residents may eventually become increasingly dissatisfied with the unreasonable characteristics of green spaces, resulting in low satisfaction with the different CES. Conversely, a short time of residence may easily polarize evaluation owing to the freshness of the residential environment. However, no significant correlation between residents' interest in CES and length of residence was observed in the present study, which can be attributed to the stability of the cultural service characteristics of the landscape in the residential green spaces of the 40 residential communities selected. In other words, established CES characteristics are difficult to change once the landscape is formed. Previous studies have reported that the landscapes in urban green spaces play an important role in improving the CES in an ecosystem ( 51 , 54 – 57 ). Given this fact, reasonable and scientific planning and design of the landscape become extremely important for the future. Nassauer et al. stated that the ecologically innovative designs of metropolitan residential landscapes were conducive to the enhancement of long-term cultural sustainability ( 58 ).

Age is the main influence on satisfaction with CES in residential green spaces in this study. The proportion of residents who were 21–29 years old demonstrated significantly negative correlations with recreation, aesthetics, neighborhood relations, stress-relieving features, and sense of belonging ( p < 0.001). This finding reveals that these young residents are the least satisfied with the different CES among the other residents of the community. This phenomenon can be attributed to the low satisfaction of this age group with the management and infrastructure of residential green spaces, which are key factors that determine residents' satisfaction with the CES in green spaces. The age group 21–29 years showed significantly negative correlations with the management and infrastructure of green spaces. Moreover, this age group was mainly composed of single individuals. Compared with married residents, single residents are less satisfied with CES and the surrounding residential environment ( 33 , 58 , 59 ). The respondents in the age group >50 years exhibited positive correlation with satisfaction regarding sense of belonging. Previous studies have reported that, compared with other age groups, older people possess a stronger sense of belonging ( 14 ) and aesthetic appreciation ( 60 ) of the urban environment, which can be attributed to their higher visit frequency to urban green spaces.

The low-income groups in our study demonstrated dissatisfaction with CES. The higher the proportion of residents with a 1,000–3,000 RMB income level, the lower the satisfaction with plant collocation. This result is consistent with the findings of Riechers et al., who discovered that residents with lower incomes had weaker natural cognition, cultural heritage, sense of social belongingness, and satisfaction with urban green spaces than those with higher incomes ( 14 ). Several studies have reported that low-income groups, or those with low socioeconomic status, were more frustrated than high-income individuals ( 28 , 61 ), which may affect their satisfaction with the surrounding green spaces and thus causes negative impacts on their health. Moreover, studies have proven that income level is positively related to interpersonal relationships and the physiological and psychological health of residents ( 28 ). However, the present study determined that the gender and cultural level of residents had no significant impact on satisfaction with CES in residential green spaces.

Cultural Ecosystem Services and Visit Duration in Residential Green Spaces

Urban residents frequently visit residential green spaces; hence, CES in the green spaces within residential areas cannot be ignored. In this study, ~40% of residents visited residential green spaces every day. The visit frequency of residents has been a focus of studies on CES in urban green spaces. The higher the visit frequency, the higher the CES level in the green spaces, which is because visiting green spaces is conducive to physiological and psychological health ( 29 , 42 , 62 , 63 ). Many studies have measured the CES level in green spaces using the visit frequency of urban residents ( 9 , 48 , 53 , 58 , 64 ). This study discovered that the visit frequency of residents showed no significant effect on their satisfaction with CES. This result is consistent with other studies, in which the visit frequency of residents to urban green spaces was discovered to have no significant correlation with the CES value ( 10 ), satisfaction with green spaces ( 6 ), or people's psychological health ( 47 ). Subjective evaluation of residents' demand for CES emphasizes the attributes of green spaces, such as their type, area, distance, and landscape pattern, whereas the evaluation of CES supply is influenced not only by the physical characteristics of green spaces but also by the individual differences of residents, such as age ( 14 ), individual emotional factors ( 6 ), social group ( 65 ), and even survey research methods ( 6 ). In this study, respondents belonging to the age group 21–29 years only occasionally visit green spaces. These respondents showed the lowest satisfaction with the aesthetics of the green spaces, which explains the correlation between visit frequency and CES.

Visit time, especially of 1–2 h of duration, is important in the investigation of the satisfaction with CES in green spaces. The proportion of residents in this study staying in the residential green spaces for this duration was high, and the satisfaction of these residents with the recreational services and stress-relieving features was proportionally high. Previous study have revealed that the visit time of residents and the flow duration of cultural services in the residential green spaces last for 1–2 h ( 6 ), and we also found that the proportion of residents visiting green spaces for 1–2 h was positively correlated with the percentage of residents walking ( Table 4 ). Walking was the main activity of residents staying for this duration, and this activity can greatly improve the physiological and psychological health of residents. However, many roads in residential areas have mixed purposes that include sidewalks, car lanes, facilities for bicycles and electric bicycles, and private car parking lots. In the 10 residential areas with the highest proportion of walking, six areas implement a sidewalk–car lane separated system. Although the remaining four areas adopt a sidewalk–car lane mixed system, large gardens or clustered green spaces hinder walking activities. Therefore, future planning and design of residential green spaces should create landscapes that are appropriate and safe for walking (e.g., designated sidewalks). If the green spaces in the community are limited, then public activity spaces should be enlarged to meet the residents' demands for walking activities.

Effects of Vegetation Coverage in Residential Green Spaces on Cultural Ecosystem Services

CES can be improved by increasing green coverage in residential green spaces. Increasing the area of urban green spaces can effectively optimize the biodiversity and carbon fixation of soils ( 66 ), regulate the urban microclimate, and reduce surface runoff. However, few studies have focused on the relationship between urban vegetation coverage and CES. Given similar demographic conditions, socioeconomic factors, and living conditions, residents have been found to be happier in larger surrounding green spaces and more satisfied with the surrounding environment than in smaller ones ( 67 ). The size of urban green spaces may directly influence their popularity ( 16 ). In this study, both objective and subjective green coverage were significantly related to total satisfaction with CES ( Figures 5 , 6 ). This inference can explain why residents show great concern with the green coverage in residential communities ( Figure 4 ). Natural vegetation is the source of CES that can increase spiritual and aesthetic services. High green coverage can provide many chances for residents to engage with nature and provide space for water bodies, in particular. In addition, public activity spaces are frequently used in residential communities to stimulate the residents' recreational activities: our study found that both the number and diversity of public activity spaces were higher in residential communities with high green coverage than in those with low green coverage.

Figure 5 . Correlation between the total satisfaction on cultural ecosystem services (CES) and the real vegetation coverage.

Figure 6 . Correlation between the total satisfaction on cultural ecosystem services (CES) and the proportion of residents who are satisfied with residential vegetation coverage.

With the increase in urban populations and the growing need for housing, urban residential areas are often dominated by high-density communities at the expense of green space. Hence, increasing CES and improving the living environment of residents in a limited green space are an important issue that must be addressed. We found that both residents' perception of plant decoration and landscape patterns in the residential green spaces could directly increase CES ( Tables 4 , 5 ). Several studies have suggested that vegetation characteristics (e.g., diversity, vegetation types, abundance, color, new species, morphology, density, and configuration structure) ( 7 , 16 , 37 ), spatial structure, and layout of urban green spaces ( 6 ) can influence CES. The close-to-nature attribute of green spaces has been widely accepted as an effective means to improve urban green spaces ( 9 , 16 , 37 ). Moreover, numerous studies have proved that the quality of green spaces is extremely important in improving the physiological and psychological health of residents ( 47 , 68 ). In this study, residential communities with high green coverage and large lawn areas are popular with residents owing to their accessibility and aesthetics. By contrast, dense shrub vegetation is not conducive to the improvement of green space CES owing to non-accessibility and the possibility of mosquito infestation. In Zhengzhou, half of the residential communities with high green coverage are dominated by dense shrub, which may be due to the low management cost, easy pruning, and accessible irrigation. Therefore, we recommend the cultivation of trees is economical and practical in dense urban residential areas. For communities with low green coverage, the lack of CES can be compensated for by increasing the public activity spaces.

Perception of Infrastructure and Management as the Key Influencing Factors of Cultural Ecosystem Services in Green Spaces

Infrastructure in residential green spaces includes public activity spaces (e.g., small squares, gardens, and pavilions), water facilities (e.g., fountains, pools, and artificial lakes), recreation facilities (e.g., fitness and integrated playground equipment), and artistic decorations (e.g., sculptures, chairs, streetlights, and other indicators). The results of this study suggest that satisfaction with the infrastructure in residential green spaces exhibits a significant positive correlation with the overall satisfaction with CES ( Figure 7 ). The positive effects of infrastructure and the convenience of urban green spaces in improving satisfaction with CES have been established by several research studies ( 10 , 13 , 34 , 59 , 69 ). Furthermore, public activity spaces in residential areas, especially green spaces in squares and gardens, can improve satisfaction with CES. These spaces were the second most important consideration of residents when selecting communities to live in, next to green spaces coverage. Moreover, the water facilities in residential green spaces, which is the fourth most important resident concern, can improve satisfaction with CES in green spaces ( Figure 4 ). Many studies have established the crucial role of wetlands (artificial or natural) in urban green spaces in improving CES ( 35 , 49 , 70 – 72 ). Plieninger observed that urban residents in Eastern Germany frequently visit water bodies ( 13 ) and often give a high evaluation ( 51 ). In summary, urban residents highly prefer wetland and water bodies. However, the water facilities in many communities in Zhengzhou are wasted or improperly managed. Therefore, residential green spaces should receive efforts to strengthen the layout and management of water landscapes and water facilities in the future.

Figure 7 . Correlation between the satisfaction on cultural ecosystem services (CES) and satisfaction on management and infrastructure.

Management of residential green spaces could improve CES greatly in residential green spaces ( Figure 7 ). Many studies have proved that satisfaction with urban residential spaces is closely related to a graceful visual landscape ( 34 , 37 ). However, the management of green spaces, such as irrigation, clipping, cleaning, and tidying, can directly influence the aesthetic characteristics of green spaces. These characteristics ( Figure 8 ) include (1) cleanliness, which is the top concern of residents ( 9 ) and can directly influence the satisfaction with the residential environment ( 59 ); (2) standardization, which involves preventing the use of green spaces for other purposes, such as hanging out clothes and providing parking lots for bicycles, electric bicycles, and even motor vehicles; and (3) uneven heights of vegetation, drought events, and weed spreading, which may be present in residential green spaces owing to inadequate daily management (e.g., lack of clipping, irrigating, and weeding). Management was the third concern of residents in residential green spaces ( Figure 4 ): therefore, additional attention and effort should be dedicated to performing regular high-quality maintenance and management of residential green spaces in the future.

Figure 8 . Differences in the management level between the residential communities with the lowest (above) and highest (below) satisfaction on the cultural ecosystem services (CES) in green spaces.

Limitations

Our study has several major limitations. This study only selected five types of CES, namely, leisure and entertainment services, spiritual services, aesthetic services, sense of belonging, and social relations. Other CES (e.g., landscape identity, education, history, religion, and heritage values), which are popularly involved in other research, were not included in our study. The main reason for this exclusion was that the residential areas selected in this study were built only after 2000. We hypothesized that the values of cultural heritage, education, history, and religion would be relatively weak. All 40 residential areas are located in the populated areas of Zhengzhou, which are mainly characterized by dense buildings, as determined by the socioeconomic status levels of developing countries. Future studies should explore the influences of spatial infrastructure arrangements in green spaces on CES, including vegetation type, quantity and area of public activity spaces, type and amount of infrastructure, form and area of water landscapes, and other objective factors. Moreover, landscape and species composition and structure (landscape and vegetation) should also be investigated because such factors could influence residents' contribution to CES in the residential green spaces. The answers to these issues could provide direct scientific references for the landscape planning and design of residential green spaces. Moreover, we chose 40 residential areas within neighboring cells to ensure a sufficient sample size (number of families > 600) and minimize the impact of the surrounding environment on the CES satisfaction of residential green spaces. However, these residential areas include high-rise buildings (>18 floors), mid-rise buildings (7–18 floors), and low-rise buildings (4–6 floors) and are characterized by various types and styles of buildings. These conditions may have affected residents' direct perception and satisfaction with green space landscapes. We suggest that future research focuses on residential areas with consistent socioeconomic levels, including housing prices, architectural styles, green space coverage, management levels, geographical locations, and surrounding green space distribution, to explore the rational arrangement of the green space landscape pattern in a limited space. Such selection will further improve the green space ecosystem services and human well-being and provide a direct theoretical basis for the spatial planning and design of urban green space landscapes.

Conclusions

Exploring CES in residential green spaces could greatly enrich urban ecosystem services research. The most important research is to clarify the relationship between ecosystem services and human well-being. In this study, we found that walking, childcare, and resting were the most common recreational activities of residents. The results of the analysis show that satisfaction with recreational services in the residential green spaces was the lowest (6.26, 1–10), which can be attributed to the absence of public activity spaces. In contrast, satisfaction with neighborhood relations and the sense of place was the highest at 7.73 and 6.81, respectively, followed by aesthetic services (6.59), indicating that the spiritual and aesthetic services in the residential green spaces are excellent. Age and income status can influence residents' satisfaction with CES: young individuals (21–29 years old) expressed the lowest satisfaction with residential green spaces than did other groups, which might be influenced by their single status and their low satisfaction with the infrastructure in the residential environment.

Satisfaction with CES significantly increased with vegetation coverage, indicating that green vegetation is a source of high CES satisfaction. Compared with other factors, high green coverage is mostly preferred by residents. In addition, public activity spaces, management, infrastructure, and water landscapes are the other key influencing factors of CES satisfaction. Therefore, to maximize CES in residential green spaces, we suggest that public activity spaces should be increased and the daily management of residential areas should be improved when green coverage is limited. Moreover, basic facilities, particularly water landscapes, should be encouraged during the planning and design of residential green spaces. These steps are more effective and realistic in improving the CES of green spaces within areas of dense building density than increasing green space areas.

We suggest that the subjective indicators perceived by residents contribute more to CES than the objective physical environment of residential green spaces. The main reason is that CES refers to human well-being provided by green spaces, which implies residents' demand for green spaces. Future research on the relationship between green spaces' characteristics and CES should consider the physical environment (e.g., biodiversity, green space coverage, species matching, and landscape characteristics) preferred by residents, especially the gaps between the actual and the preferred characteristics favored by residents. For example, understanding the socioeconomic attributes of CES could clarify the demand characteristics of different social groups for urban green space. We suggest future research should pay more attention to different social groups' diverse demands of CES, for example, the use characteristics of the different types of urban green spaces and the diverse landscapes of the same green type. Such consideration will help ameliorate the existing planning and management of urban green spaces, maximize CES, and then protect human health. We suggest the future evaluation of urban green spaces should combine the residents' perception of demand and supply of CES, clarify the gap and trade-off between them, and then determine the key elements that affect the demand of residents, which is the fundamental purpose of urban ecosystem service research. We suggest that the answers to the above research questions will help provide constructive suggestions for building a multifunctional urban green space landscape, which is a path to urban environmental equality and a sustainable urban landscape.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Author Contributions

All authors listed have made a substantial, direct and intellectual contribution to the work, and approved it for publication.

This work was supported by the Chinese National Natural Science Foundation under Grant Nos. 31600375, 31872688, and 41901238 and the Key Scientific and Technological Project of Henan Province (192102310003).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Tingzhen Zhang, Yizhen Hong, and other students from the Department of Resource and Environmental Science, Henan University of Economics and Law, for their contributions to the survey during 2017–2018. We are also grateful to the reviewers for their valuable comments that helped improve this manuscript.

Supplementary Material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00226/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: cultural ecosystem services, residential districts, green space, satisfaction, physical environment

Citation: Mao Q, Wang L, Guo Q, Li Y, Liu M and Xu G (2020) Evaluating Cultural Ecosystem Services of Urban Residential Green Spaces From the Perspective of Residents' Satisfaction With Green Space. Front. Public Health 8:226. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2020.00226

Received: 12 December 2019; Accepted: 14 May 2020; Published: 17 July 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Mao, Wang, Guo, Li, Liu and Xu. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Guanghua Xu, guanghua0418@163.com

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

• DOI: 10.1016/j.scs.2024.105643
• Corpus ID: 271045667

Non-ecological factors affect human interaction with urban nature and perception of cultural ecosystem services

• Tian Tian , Sitong Huang , +3 authors Yue Che
• Published in Sustainable cities and… 1 July 2024
• Environmental Science, Sociology

62 References

Investigating the civic emotion dynamics during the covid-19 lockdown: evidence from social media, disparities in city-wide park use before and during the covid-19 pandemic: a case study of atlanta, georgia, modeling risks in marine protected areas: mapping of habitats, biodiversity, and cultural ecosystem services in the southernmost atlantic coral reef., understanding the dynamic changes in wetland cultural ecosystem services: integrating annual social media data into the solves, the impact of greenspace proximity on stress levels and travel behavior among residents in pasig city, philippines during the covid-19 pandemic, how to accurately assess cultural ecosystem services by spatial value transfer an answer based on the analysis of urban park, urban park use and self-reported physical, mental, and social health during the covid-19 pandemic: an on-site survey in beijing, china, the urban ecosystem services index as a new indicator for sustainable urban planning and human well-being in cities, using social media photos and computer vision to assess cultural ecosystem services and landscape features in urban parks, use of smartphone mobility data to analyze city park visits during the covid-19 pandemic, related papers.

Showing 1 through 3 of 0 Related Papers

Re-grazing of an alpine pasture sustains ecosystem services

• Ramm, Elisabeth
• Andrade-Linares, Diana R.
• Garcia-Franco, Noelia
• Han, Jincheng
• von Heßberg, Andreas
• Dashpurev, Batnyambuu
• Jentsch, Anke
• Krämer, Alexander
• Schloter, Michael
• Wiesmeier, Martin
• Dannenmann, Michael

Alpine pastures have shaped the landscapes of the European Alps for millennia. However, more and more alpine pastures have been abandoned since the 1950s, e.g., due to the work intensiveness at high altitudes. Such abandonment of alpine pastures in the long term leads to natural reforestation. And despite ample potential surface in the mountains, the pressure to provide important ecosystem services by pastures under the auspices of climate change nowadays concentrates on the lowlands, because already abandoned alpine pastures are still very rarely re-established. Meanwhile, it has been widely acknowledged that alpine pastures fulfill important provisioning, regulating, and cultural ecosystem services, with particularly cultural landscape and plant and faunistic biodiversity being at risk due to reforestation. Cattle grazing during summer not only means a soil disturbance which can increase plant biodiversity, but also increases nutrient availability and has unclear effects on soil organic carbon and associated soil functions. However, the precise effects of grazing have only rarely been proven. To test whether the preservation of intact alpine pastures by re-introducing cattle grazing is worth supporting, it is important to evaluate the effects of re-grazing on the soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks, the soil nitrogen (N) cycling, and water contamination with nutrients. Within the SUSALPS (Sustainable use of alpine and pre-alpine grassland soils in a changing climate) project, a typical alpine pasture in the German Alps abandoned in 1955 (Brunnenkopf, Ammergauer Alpen) is being re-grazed since 2018 with the traditional robust old cow breed "Murnau-Werdenfelser". Here, we compared non-grazed to different grazed areas (low grazing intensity, high grazing intensity, bare soil due to trampling) after five years of experimental re-grazing. The data show a non-significant effect of grazing on N cycling, with only the bare soil area (6% of the pasture) showing increased gross N mineralization and soil nitrate concentrations. The nitrate concentration in the drainage water stayed overall very low (range 0.3-2.2 mg N L-1). What was striking, however, is a strong and statistically significant re-grazing-induced increase in the SOC stock by 11.8 t SOC ha-1 in five years although we corrected for bulk density increases. Our results suggest that extensive grazing- and trampling-induced changes in belowground plant biomass, the soil microbiome, and overall productivity, are fostering soil functions of an alpine grassland soil. These findings are for the first time underpinning the presumed positive effects of grazed alpine pastures on soil functions with data.

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Land use changes in the environs of Moscow

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Persuasive Speech Thesis Statement

Persuasive speech generator.

Crafting a persuasive speech hinges on a compelling thesis statement – the linchpin that anchors your argument and guides your audience. The potency of your speech is encapsulated in this singular sentence, making it essential to perfect. Below, we delve into the anatomy of persuasive speech thesis statements, offering examples to inspire, guidelines to streamline the writing process, and pro tips to ensure your message resonates powerfully. Ready to persuade and captivate? Dive in.

What is a Persuasive Speech Thesis Statement? – Definition

A persuasive speech thesis statement is a concise declaration that clearly expresses the main argument or stance of your speech. Unlike an informative speech thesis statement which simply informs, a persuasive speech thesis aims to convince the audience to adopt a particular viewpoint or take a certain action. It serves as the foundation of your argument, providing a roadmap for your listeners and guiding the content of your speech.

What is a good thesis statement Example for a persuasive speech?

A good thesis statement for a persuasive speech should be clear, concise, arguable, and specific. Here’s an example:

Topic: Reducing meat consumption for environmental purposes.

Thesis Statement: “Reducing our meat consumption by half can significantly decrease our carbon footprint, lessen water usage, and help in preserving essential ecosystems, making it not just a dietary choice but a responsibility for the environment.”

This thesis statement makes a clear argument, states why the audience should care, and is backed by several points that can be elaborated upon during the speech.

100 Persuasive Speech Thesis Statement Examples

• Mandatory vaccinations are crucial for public health.
• Vegetarianism can significantly reduce global environmental damage.
• Schools should abolish standardized tests.
• Solar energy is the future of global power.
• Animal testing for cosmetics should be banned worldwide.
• Online education can be more effective than traditional classroom settings.
• Ban on single-use plastics is essential for marine conservation.
• Euthanasia should be legalized under specific circumstances.
• Governments should regulate social media to combat fake news.
• Higher education should be free for all citizens.
• Workplace dress codes are outdated and unnecessary.
• Young adults should be mandated to take a gap year before college.
• Juvenile offenders should never be treated as adults in the legal system.
• Artificial intelligence poses more risks than benefits.
• GMOs are safe and beneficial for global food security.
• Children under 16 shouldn’t have access to smartphones.
• Censorship in media does more harm than good.
• Parents should be held accountable for their children’s cyberbullying actions.
• Organic farming is essential for future food sustainability.
• Space exploration is a waste of money that could be better spent on Earth’s problems.
• Pro athletes deserve their high salaries due to their unique skills and market demand.
• The death penalty is an outdated form of punishment.
• Video games don’t lead to violent behavior in youths.
• Mandatory voting would strengthen democracies.
• Physical education in schools is essential for youth health.
• Corporal punishment is detrimental to children’s well-being.
• Taxing sugary drinks can decrease obesity rates.
• All countries should adopt a universal basic income.
• Modern zoos are ethical and beneficial for wildlife conservation.
• Children’s exposure to screen time should be limited for cognitive development.
• Countries should prioritize refugees over other immigrants.
• Binge-watching TV shows can lead to psychological issues.
• Public transport should be free to reduce traffic congestion.
• Companies should be taxed more for carbon emissions.
• Homeschooling can provide a more personalized education than traditional schools.
• Medical marijuana should be legalized worldwide.
• Advertising to children should be strictly regulated.
• Fast fashion is detrimental to both the environment and society.
• Child actors are often exploited and laws should protect them more rigorously.
• Cybersecurity education should be a mandatory part of school curriculums.
• Celebrity endorsements in politics do more harm than good.
• Gender-neutral bathrooms promote inclusivity and should be standardized.
• Self-driving cars are the solution to urban traffic woes.
• The gig economy undermines workers’ rights.
• Print books are superior to e-books for cognitive absorption.
• Intermittent fasting has more benefits than traditional dieting.
• Capitalism needs significant reforms to address modern challenges.
• Professional networks are more beneficial than academic degrees in today’s job market.
• Pets should be adopted from shelters instead of being purchased from breeders.
• Drone deliveries are the future of e-commerce.
• Modern architecture should prioritize sustainability over aesthetics.
• Mental health days should be a standard employment benefit.
• Religious institutions should pay taxes.
• Athletes caught doping should face lifetime bans.
• All public places should offer free Wi-Fi.
• Parenting classes should be mandatory for expectant parents.
• Soft skills are more important than hard skills in today’s workforce.
• College athletes should be paid for their efforts.
• Digital currency will replace traditional money.
• Forest conservation is more important than urban expansion.
• Remote work improves employee productivity and well-being.
• Traditional college is becoming obsolete.
• Public figures have a right to personal privacy.
• Extreme adventure sports should have stricter regulations.
• Recycling should be legally mandatory for households.
• Local tourism is more sustainable than international travel.
• Artificial sweeteners do more harm than natural sugars.
• Digital detoxes are essential for mental health.
• Nuclear energy is a necessary alternative in the climate change battle.
• Fossil fuels need to be phased out within the next decade.
• The pay gap is a pervasive issue that needs addressing.
• Mandatory military service strengthens nations.
• Multilingual education from a young age has cognitive and cultural benefits.
• Cultural appropriation in fashion and art should be discouraged.
• Childhood vaccination should not be optional.
• Public speaking skills should be a mandatory part of the school curriculum.
• Reality TV promotes negative stereotypes and should be reformed.
• The 4-day workweek improves overall quality of life.
• Bottled water is an environmental and economic disaster.
• Governments should fund scientific research over military endeavors.
• Telemedicine is as effective as in-person consultations.
• The arts are just as important as sciences in education.
• Elitism in Ivy League schools undermines the education system.
• Human cloning has more ethical concerns than benefits.
• Paternity leave should be equal to maternity leave.
• Junk food advertising should be banned during children’s television programming.
• Sustainable living should be a core part of school education.
• Immigration policies should be more compassionate.
• Philanthropy by billionaires isn’t a solution to systemic societal issues.
• Traditional media is losing its credibility.
• Fast food chains should be accountable for the obesity epidemic.
• Urban gardens are essential for community well-being.
• Virtual reality can revolutionize education.
• Tabloid journalism threatens democratic processes.
• Every city should have green rooftops.
• Adventure travel is more than a trend; it’s a learning experience.
• Plastics in cosmetics harm both the environment and consumers.
• Youth activism is reshaping global politics.
• The universal right to internet access should be a fundamental human right.
• The rise of influencer culture negatively impacts societal values.

Remember, these are broad topics and may need to be adjusted to fit specific audiences or contexts. They aim to serve as inspiration and a starting point for your persuasive speeches.

Persuasive Speech Thesis Statement Examples for College

Crafting the right thesis for a college-based persuasive speech can mold opinions, drive actions, and shape futures. Here’s a set of examples aiming at various issues relevant to the college experience.

• Implementing mental health services in colleges is crucial to support student well-being.
• Every college should offer free online course alternatives to reduce student costs.
• Limiting textbook prices will make higher education more accessible.
• Extracurricular activities are just as vital as academics in shaping a student’s character.
• Campus security measures should be increased to ensure student safety.
• Colleges should foster an environment that promotes free speech and open dialogue.
• The fraternity and sorority system requires an overhaul to combat systemic issues.
• Online courses can be more tailored and efficient than traditional classroom lectures.
• Mandatory internships should be integrated into every college curriculum.
• College tuition fees should be proportional to post-graduate income levels.

Persuasive Speech Thesis Statement Examples on Pollution

Pollution, in its many forms, threatens our health, environment, and future. These thesis statements shed light on the pressing need for action and awareness in tackling this universal concern.

• Air pollution’s long-term health impacts make it a silent global crisis.
• Ocean plastic pollution threatens not only marine life but human survival.
• Urbanization without proper waste management systems exacerbates land pollution.
• Implementing stricter emission standards can significantly reduce vehicular pollution.
• Industrial water pollution is the leading cause of freshwater habitat loss.
• Noise pollution in urban areas has unrecognized psychological implications.
• Electronic waste is the new environmental crisis of the digital age.
• Encouraging sustainable agriculture can mitigate soil pollution.
• Light pollution affects human circadian rhythms and needs to be addressed.
• The cosmetic industry must be held accountable for microplastic pollution.

Persuasive Speech Thesis Statement Examples for Introduction

Setting the right tone at the start of your speech is crucial. An impactful thesis statement in your introduction can capture attention and shape the direction of your persuasive message.

• Today’s consumerist society threatens the planet’s finite resources.
• Advancements in technology are eroding genuine human connections.
• Our dietary choices have profound implications for our health and environment.
• Childhood education shapes a nation’s future more than any policy.
• The rise of digital currencies can revolutionize the global financial system.
• The media landscape shapes public perception more than factual events.
• Combating climate change is not a choice but a necessity.
• The fashion industry’s practices are at odds with ethical consumerism.
• Urban planning and green spaces directly impact societal well-being.
• The future of transportation lies in sustainable energy sources.

Persuasive Speech Thesis Statement Examples for Conclusion

A powerful ending requires a conclusive thesis statement, reinforcing your argument and ensuring your message resonates after the speech ends.

• Confronting gender biases isn’t a niche issue but central to societal progress.
• Without collective action, endangered species face an irreversible fate.
• Privacy in the digital age is not a luxury, but a fundamental right.
• Without conscious effort, traditional cultures risk fading into oblivion.
• Sustainable living isn’t a trend but the only way forward.
• Local businesses are the backbone of a thriving community.
• Without reforms, the healthcare system will collapse under its weight.
• The arts, often underfunded, are essential for holistic human development.
• Youth engagement in politics can reshape outdated policies.
• Technology, without ethical boundaries, poses a threat to human autonomy.

How do you start a thesis statement for a persuasive speech?

Starting a thesis statement for a persuasive speech is pivotal in setting the tone and direction for the rest of the speech. Here’s how to begin crafting one:

• Identify Your Topic : Understand the topic you’ll be addressing. This might seem obvious, but having a clear topic in mind ensures your thesis remains focused.
• Understand Your Audience : Tailor your thesis statement to appeal to the audience’s values, beliefs, and interests.
• State Your Position Clearly : A persuasive speech thesis statement must make a claim or express an opinion that you will support and develop throughout the speech.
• Make It Arguable : Ensure your thesis presents a viewpoint someone might challenge. It should not be a plain statement of fact.
• Keep It Concise : An effective thesis is concise and direct, avoiding vague words or overly complex sentence structures.
• Start with a Strong Word : Words like “must,” “should,” “ought to,” can make your thesis more forceful.

Example : Instead of saying “Exercise is good for health,” you might say, “Regular exercise is essential for maintaining a healthy body and mind.

How do you write a thesis statement for a persuasive essay? – Step by Step Guide

Writing a compelling thesis statement for a persuasive essay is crucial, as it sets the tone and direction for the rest of your essay. Here’s a step-by-step guide to help you craft an effective thesis statement:

1. Understand the Essay Prompt: Before crafting your thesis, ensure you thoroughly understand the essay prompt or question. This provides clarity on what you’re being asked to argue or address.

2. Choose a Specific Topic: Narrow down a broad subject to a specific topic that is suitable for the essay’s length. The more specific you are, the more concise and to the point your argument will be.

3. Take a Clear Stance: A persuasive essay requires a clear stance on the topic. Decide what your position is after analyzing all angles of the topic.

4. Conduct Preliminary Research: Before finalizing your thesis, do some preliminary research to ensure ample evidence and examples are available to support your stance. This will also help you gauge the strength of your argument.

5. Draft a Preliminary Thesis Statement: Begin by drafting a broad statement, which you’ll refine in subsequent steps.

6. Be Specific: General statements lack punch. Instead of saying, “Air pollution is bad,” you could say, “Air pollution from vehicular emissions has detrimental health effects and contributes significantly to global warming.”

7. Ensure Your Thesis is Arguable: A good persuasive essay thesis should be debatable. It’s essential that your thesis presents an opinion or claim that others could dispute.

8. Revise and Refine: After drafting, take a step back and review your thesis. Can it be more specific? Stronger? More concise? Does it truly encapsulate the main point of your essay? Adjust as necessary.

9. Seek Feedback: It’s beneficial to get feedback from peers or instructors about your thesis statement. They might offer a perspective or critique that you hadn’t considered.

10. Position Your Thesis: Traditionally, a thesis statement is placed near the end of the introduction. This helps your reader understand the argument you’ll be making in your essay.

Example: If writing about the influence of media on young minds, a potential thesis might be: “The omnipresence of media, especially social media, has a profound impact on adolescents, influencing their mental health, body image, and perceptions of reality, necessitating strict regulatory measures.

Tips for Writing a Persuasive Speech Thesis Statement

• Be Clear and Direct : Avoid ambiguity. Your audience should immediately understand your stance.
• Stay Focused : Your thesis should address one main idea or argument. Avoid trying to tackle too many issues at once.
• Back It Up : While the thesis itself is a statement, always ensure you have evidence to support your claim in the body of your speech.
• Avoid Neutral Language : Use strong, definitive language to convey your position.
• Test Your Thesis : Before finalizing, ask yourself if someone could oppose your thesis. If the answer is no, it might not be argumentative enough.
• Position It Properly : Typically, the thesis statement should be among the first things your audience hears, so they understand the context and direction of your speech.
• Stay Authentic : While it’s essential to be persuasive, ensure your thesis aligns with your beliefs and knowledge. Authenticity can make your argument more convincing.

In summary, crafting a strong thesis statement for a persuasive speech or essay provides a clear direction for your argument, engages your audience, and makes your message memorable. Ensure it’s concise, specific, and backed by evidence.

Text prompt

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Generate a Persuasive Speech Thesis Statement on adopting a plant-based diet

Write a Persuasive Speech Thesis Statement for supporting local businesses

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Xjtlu holds its first three minute thesis competition

Author catherine diamond.

Editor Tamara Kaup and Patricia Pieterse

12 Jul 2024

The finalists of XJTLU's first Three Minute Thesis competition, with the judges and Professor Adam Cross Credit: XJTLU

Could you describe 90,000 words of research in just three minutes? That’s just what nine PhD students did as XJTLU recently wrapped up its first Three Minute Thesis competition.

The annual worldwide contest, started by The University of Queensland in 2008, celebrates doctoral research by asking PhD students to explain their research within three minutes and with only one static presentation slide.

After preliminary selection, nine students from across the University’s schools and academies were chosen to present in XJTLU’s final.

They finalists were:

Dr Sophie Sturup, Senior Associate Professor in the Design School’s Department of Urban Planning and Design, was one of the five judges. She explains why academics being able to speak effectively to anyone about their research in three minutes is useful.

“It gives you a way of letting people in on the secret you have been working on all this time,” she says.

The judges named Peiyun Li the winner and Yuhua Duan the runner-up. Both students are in the Department of Health and Environmental Sciences in the School of Science. Professor Adam Cross, Associate Vice-President for Education, awarded the trophies.

Li explains why she joined the competition: “At first, I signed up just to practice my presentation skills. However, when I carefully read the competition requirements, I realised it would be an important opportunity for my future career.”

Peiyun Li, winner of XJTLU’s Three Minute Thesis final, is a PhD student in the Department of Health and Environmental Sciences. Credit: Peiyun Li

Reaching a wider audience

Li says that researchers in her field need to be able to clearly communicate their findings and suggestions to different audiences, including the public and policymakers, to advocate for the importance of conservation.

“Unlike other academic presentations, this competition required me to use familiar terms so everyone could grasp the gist of my research. It was excellent training and a challenge for me,” she says.

Li and Duan both encountered difficulties while creating their presentations, with Li highlighting the complexity of balancing the introduction, results, and discussion in only three minutes.

Duan agrees, saying: “Three minutes is a short time to present a complete research thesis. It is necessary not only to set up the experimental background so that the audience can understand the significance of the subject, but also to present our experimental design and results.”

Runner-up in XJTLU’s Three Minute Thesis final: Yuhua Duan, a PhD student in the Department of Health and Environmental Sciences. Credit: Yuhua Duan

Dr Sturup explains both Li’s and Duan’s abilities to distill all aspects of their research into three-minute presentations led to their being awarded the top prizes.

She says: “Both students talked about their research specifically. Their whole talk was about what they were doing and why.

“They both made a strong connection between what they were doing and how it was going to solve a problem or help some problem they felt passionately about in some way.”

Li and Duan found the experience valuable and recommended other PhD students take part next year.

Duan says: “I think it’s a good way for PhD students to practise presenting in English. And in the process of preparing for the competition, everyone needs to think about how to quickly capture the focus and significance of our scientific research.”

Li will go on to represent XJTLU at the 2024 Asia-Pacific Three Minute Thesis Competition in October.

The judges of the competition were:

Dr Sophie Sturup , Senior Associate Professor in the Department of Urban Planning and Design, Design School;

Dr Ye Bai , Senior Associate Professor in the Department of Economics, IBSS;

Dr Sekar Raju , Senior Associate Professor in the Department of Biological Sciences, School of Science;

Dr Hua Li, Senior Language Lecturer in the English Language Centre, School of Languages; and

Ran Zang , a PhD student in Civil Engineering, Design School and one of the awardees of Best Presentation in the 2023 XJTLU Postgraduate Research Symposium.

Professor Zhoulin Ruan, Vice President of Academic Affairs, gives an opening speech at XJTLU’s Three Minute Thesis Competition . Credit: XJTLU

By Catherine Diamond

Edited by Tamara Kaup and Patricia Pieterse

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The Unique Burial of a Child of Early Scythian Time at the Cemetery of Saryg-Bulun (Tuva)

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Pages:  379-406

In 1988, the Tuvan Archaeological Expedition (led by M. E. Kilunovskaya and V. A. Semenov) discovered a unique burial of the early Iron Age at Saryg-Bulun in Central Tuva. There are two burial mounds of the Aldy-Bel culture dated by 7th century BC. Within the barrows, which adjoined one another, forming a figure-of-eight, there were discovered 7 burials, from which a representative collection of artifacts was recovered. Burial 5 was the most unique, it was found in a coffin made of a larch trunk, with a tightly closed lid. Due to the preservative properties of larch and lack of air access, the coffin contained a well-preserved mummy of a child with an accompanying set of grave goods. The interred individual retained the skin on his face and had a leather headdress painted with red pigment and a coat, sewn from jerboa fur. The coat was belted with a leather belt with bronze ornaments and buckles. Besides that, a leather quiver with arrows with the shafts decorated with painted ornaments, fully preserved battle pick and a bow were buried in the coffin. Unexpectedly, the full-genomic analysis, showed that the individual was female. This fact opens a new aspect in the study of the social history of the Scythian society and perhaps brings us back to the myth of the Amazons, discussed by Herodotus. Of course, this discovery is unique in its preservation for the Scythian culture of Tuva and requires careful study and conservation.

Keywords: Tuva, Early Iron Age, early Scythian period, Aldy-Bel culture, barrow, burial in the coffin, mummy, full genome sequencing, aDNA

Information about authors: Marina Kilunovskaya (Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation). Candidate of Historical Sciences. Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Dvortsovaya Emb., 18, Saint Petersburg, 191186, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Vladimir Semenov (Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation). Candidate of Historical Sciences. Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences. Dvortsovaya Emb., 18, Saint Petersburg, 191186, Russian Federation E-mail: [email protected] Varvara Busova  (Moscow, Russian Federation).  (Saint Petersburg, Russian Federation). Institute for the History of Material Culture of the Russian Academy of Sciences.  Dvortsovaya Emb., 18, Saint Petersburg, 191186, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected] Kharis Mustafin  (Moscow, Russian Federation). Candidate of Technical Sciences. Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.  Institutsky Lane, 9, Dolgoprudny, 141701, Moscow Oblast, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected] Irina Alborova  (Moscow, Russian Federation). Candidate of Biological Sciences. Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.  Institutsky Lane, 9, Dolgoprudny, 141701, Moscow Oblast, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected] Alina Matzvai  (Moscow, Russian Federation). Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology.  Institutsky Lane, 9, Dolgoprudny, 141701, Moscow Oblast, Russian Federation E-mail:  [email protected]

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Presentation Master's thesis - Daniel Sensen - Psychological Research Methods

Roeterseilandcampus - Gebouw G, Straat: Nieuwe Achtergracht 129-B , Ruimte: 3.03

In the rapidly evolving field of educational technology, the application of artificial intelligence (AI) to personalize learning paths offered promising opportunities for enhancing student learning outcomes. This research investigated the implementation of a Deep Knowledge Tracing (DKT) model within the StudyGo platform, an online learning platform used by Dutch secondary education students. This model built the foundation to generate personalized learning paths for students. In the analysis, the study compared two groups of students: those who utilized the personalized learning paths feature and those who engaged in self-directed learning. The results revealed that while the DKT model achieved promising predictive accuracy, its implementation in generating personalized learning paths did not significantly enhance learning outcomes for students compared to self-directed learners. These findings underscored the complexities and challenges of leveraging AI for educational personalization, suggesting that future research should prioritize experimental setups to better test the efficacy of adaptive systems, given that current studies primarily focus on prediction accuracy within test data sets or simulated data approaches. 

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Out of the Centre

Savvino-storozhevsky monastery and museum.

Zvenigorod's most famous sight is the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery, which was founded in 1398 by the monk Savva from the Troitse-Sergieva Lavra, at the invitation and with the support of Prince Yury Dmitrievich of Zvenigorod. Savva was later canonised as St Sabbas (Savva) of Storozhev. The monastery late flourished under the reign of Tsar Alexis, who chose the monastery as his family church and often went on pilgrimage there and made lots of donations to it. Most of the monastery’s buildings date from this time. The monastery is heavily fortified with thick walls and six towers, the most impressive of which is the Krasny Tower which also serves as the eastern entrance. The monastery was closed in 1918 and only reopened in 1995. In 1998 Patriarch Alexius II took part in a service to return the relics of St Sabbas to the monastery. Today the monastery has the status of a stauropegic monastery, which is second in status to a lavra. In addition to being a working monastery, it also holds the Zvenigorod Historical, Architectural and Art Museum.

Belfry and Neighbouring Churches

Located near the main entrance is the monastery's belfry which is perhaps the calling card of the monastery due to its uniqueness. It was built in the 1650s and the St Sergius of Radonezh’s Church was opened on the middle tier in the mid-17th century, although it was originally dedicated to the Trinity. The belfry's 35-tonne Great Bladgovestny Bell fell in 1941 and was only restored and returned in 2003. Attached to the belfry is a large refectory and the Transfiguration Church, both of which were built on the orders of Tsar Alexis in the 1650s.  

To the left of the belfry is another, smaller, refectory which is attached to the Trinity Gate-Church, which was also constructed in the 1650s on the orders of Tsar Alexis who made it his own family church. The church is elaborately decorated with colourful trims and underneath the archway is a beautiful 19th century fresco.

Nativity of Virgin Mary Cathedral

The Nativity of Virgin Mary Cathedral is the oldest building in the monastery and among the oldest buildings in the Moscow Region. It was built between 1404 and 1405 during the lifetime of St Sabbas and using the funds of Prince Yury of Zvenigorod. The white-stone cathedral is a standard four-pillar design with a single golden dome. After the death of St Sabbas he was interred in the cathedral and a new altar dedicated to him was added.

Under the reign of Tsar Alexis the cathedral was decorated with frescoes by Stepan Ryazanets, some of which remain today. Tsar Alexis also presented the cathedral with a five-tier iconostasis, the top row of icons have been preserved.

Tsaritsa's Chambers

The Nativity of Virgin Mary Cathedral is located between the Tsaritsa's Chambers of the left and the Palace of Tsar Alexis on the right. The Tsaritsa's Chambers were built in the mid-17th century for the wife of Tsar Alexey - Tsaritsa Maria Ilinichna Miloskavskaya. The design of the building is influenced by the ancient Russian architectural style. Is prettier than the Tsar's chambers opposite, being red in colour with elaborately decorated window frames and entrance.

At present the Tsaritsa's Chambers houses the Zvenigorod Historical, Architectural and Art Museum. Among its displays is an accurate recreation of the interior of a noble lady's chambers including furniture, decorations and a decorated tiled oven, and an exhibition on the history of Zvenigorod and the monastery.

Palace of Tsar Alexis

The Palace of Tsar Alexis was built in the 1650s and is now one of the best surviving examples of non-religious architecture of that era. It was built especially for Tsar Alexis who often visited the monastery on religious pilgrimages. Its most striking feature is its pretty row of nine chimney spouts which resemble towers.

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