was alexander the great a good leader essay

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Alexander The Great Leadership – Greatest of World Conquerors

Great Conquerors: Alexander the Great

Alexander the Great was one of history’s most celebrated conquerors. Born as heir to the Macedonian King, his great ambition led him to take on the high Persian Empire. At its height, Alexander’s empire stretched from modern-day Italy clear to the Himalayas.

Alexander The Great Leadership: A Short Biography

Alexander was born July 20, 356 BC, in Pella, a city in the Ancient Greek Kingdom of Macedonia. As the son of Philip II, King of Macedon, Alexander was raised as a noble Macedonian youth. Alexander's priorities were learning to read, play the lyre, ride, fight, and hunt.

As he got older, his father had the famous Aristotle tutor his son. His father knew he could no longer effectively challenge the mind and body of his son. Aristotle educated Alexander and his companions in various disciplines, such as medicine, philosophy, morality, religion, logic, and art. Many of his study companions would later become generals in his army.

When King Philip was assassinated, Alexander ascended to the throne at age 20. After quelling minor uprisings and rebellions after his father’s death, Alexander began his campaign against the Persian Empire.

Crossing into Asia with over 100,000 men, he began his war against Persia, which lasted more than seven years. Alexander displayed tactical brilliance in the fight against the Persian army, remaining undefeated despite having fewer soldiers.

His successes took him to the edge of India, to the banks of the Ganges River. His armies feared the might of the Indian empires and mutinied, which marked the end of his campaign to the East. He had intended to march further into India, but he was persuaded against it because his soldiers wanted to return to their families.

Alexander died unexpectedly after his return to Babylon. Because his death was sudden and he did not name a successor to his throne, his empire fell into chaos as generals fought to take control.

Alexander the Great is still one of history's most successful military leaders. His conquests shaped not just Eastern and Western culture but also the history of the world.

Alexander The Great Leadership Style

Alexander the Great's leadership style can be characterized by his charisma, tactical brilliance, personal bravery, and ability to inspire loyalty in his troops. He was known to lead from the front, often participating in the thick of battles, which earned him the respect of his soldiers and commanders. Alexander was an innovative strategist who could adapt to changing circumstances and exploit his enemies' weaknesses. In addition, he often incorporated the conquered people into his administration and army, demonstrating a level of tolerance and cultural integration uncommon for his time.

Furthermore, Alexander understood the importance of maintaining morale among his troops, celebrating their victories, and sharing their hardships. He was an adept diplomat, using marriages and alliances to secure his rule and establish stability in his conquered territories. However, his leadership style also had flaws; his ambition and desire for glory sometimes led to rash decisions, and his temper could be volatile. Despite these shortcomings, Alexander the Great's remarkable accomplishments in such a short life have made him one of the most iconic and studied military leaders in history.

Alexander The Great: Leadership Lessons

• Believe in yourself

From a very young age, his parents instilled in Alexander a belief that it was his destiny to conquer the Persian Empire. This belief would stay with Alexander until his deathbed. At a few points in his life, Alexander even believed that he was the Son of Zeus and was to be worshiped. This demonstrates the depth of his self-belief.

Although it may seem to many that such extreme egoism could be harmful, your self-worth and self-confidence need to believe in yourself wholeheartedly. There has never been a leader in the history of the world who did not have a considerable amount of self-belief and confidence. This is how great leaders inspire the same self-confidence and self-worth in their teams and how you can.

Do you genuinely believe in your ability to succeed? If you can't give an outright ‘yes,’ take a closer look at what beliefs hold you back.

• Leverage your team’s strengths.

Alexander was a brilliant and cunning tactician in battle. He knew that the disorganized Persian army would be unable to withstand his phalanxes (a body of troops in a tight military formation). So he used them to their best effect each time, breaking through enemy ranks and forcing the Persians to retreat.

A good leader understands the strengths and weaknesses of his team, and he puts them in positions where they are more likely to succeed.

You might liken it to being a chess player. You have various resources: people with differing skills and abilities. The key is always to learn how to position each person in a role that leverages their strengths.

• Make yourself an unnecessary part of the team.

Although Alexander conquered much of the known world, his empire never survived him. His strength when he was alive became a weakness after his death.

After Alexander had passed away, no one had the charisma or leadership to rule such a vast empire.  Civil war soon broke out, and what Alexander built in one generation was destroyed in the next.

A good leader makes himself indispensable to the team, but a great leader makes himself dispensable! He can leave the team and still have them perform at total capacity.

So please find a way to position your team so you become an unnecessary part of it. When your team can still perform well, you have done your leadership role, even when you remove yourself from the equation.

Alexander The Great: Ambition

Alexander was taken with the character Achilles in Homer's epic tale, the Illiad, in his growing-up years. He decided to model himself after Achilles.

Alexander's teacher was the well-known philosopher Aristotle, and he annotated the full version of The Illiad for Alexander so he could better emulate Achilles. He cherished this gift from his mentor and would even sleep with it under his pillow.

He also received encouragement from his mother, Olympias. Rumors were that she consulted with the gods regarding her son and told him he was a direct descendant of Achilles and Hercules. This fueled the fire inside Alexander.

After taming a wild horse at just 14 years old, his father, Phillip II of Macedonia, was seeking to purchase, he proudly said, "My son, look thee out a kingdom equal and worthy of thyself, for Macedonia is too little for thee."

Weaknesses of Alexander The Great

• His temper was well-known. He could erupt like a volcano, and it was best not to get too close so you wouldn't get any fallout.
• While he was not considered an alcoholic by today's standards, he did turn to spirits heavily on occasion.
• He was too eccentric for many, including those close to him. Because of this, just before his death, he lost the loyalty of many people.

Famous and Well-Known Quotes from Alexander the Great

“I am not afraid of an army of lions led by a sheep; I am afraid of an army of sheep led by a lion.”

“There is nothing impossible to him who will try.”

“I had rather excel others in the knowledge of what is excellent than in the extent of my power and dominion.”

“Remember upon the conduct of each depends on the fate of all.”

“I am indebted to my father for living, but to my teacher for living well.”

“Heaven cannot brook two suns, nor earth two masters.”

“How great are the dangers I face to win a good name in Athens.”

“A tomb now suffices him for whom the whole world was insufficient.”

Random Facts about Alexander The Great

What is Alexander The Great Known For?

During his leadership run between 336 and 323 B.C., he successfully unified the Greek city-states and led the Corinthian League.

How did Alexander The Great die?

The exact causes are unknown as it was not a custom in his day and age to list the cause of death as it is today. The most common belief is he died of typhoid fever (which, along with malaria, was a common form of death during that period in ancient Babylon). This was the theory proposed by the University of Maryland School of Medicine in 1998. Other theories included alcoholic liver disease, fever, and even strychnine poisoning.

King Darius III - Commonly known as "Darius The Great," was the fourth Persian King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire. Darius was the last Achaemenid ruler, reigned from 336 to 330 BCE, and was a crucial figure in the history of Alexander the Great. As the Persian ruler, Darius faced the unstoppable force of Alexander the Great, who sought to conquer the vast Persian Empire. Despite resisting Alexander's invasion, Darius suffered devastating defeats, most notably during the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE and the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BCE. These losses not only showcased Alexander's military prowess but also led to the collapse of the Achaemenid dynasty and the establishment of the Macedonian Empire in its place. While Darius failed to halt Alexander's conquest, his struggles against the Macedonian king exemplify the clash of two major empires in antiquity and the rise of a new era in world history.

Battle of Issus - Occurring in 333 B.C., this battle happened early in Alexander The Great's invasion of Asia, in which he successfully defeated the Persian army led by King Darius III. This battle marked a significant turning point in Alexander the Great's campaign to conquer the Persian Empire. As the young Macedonian king led his forces eastward, he encountered the formidable Persian army commanded by King Darius III at the Pinarus River near Issus.

Despite being outnumbered, Alexander displayed exceptional tactical acumen by exploiting the narrow battlefield to neutralize the Persian numerical advantage. Launching a fierce attack on the Persian left flank with his elite Companion cavalry, Alexander forced Darius to flee the battlefield in haste, securing a decisive victory for the Macedonian army.

This triumph cemented Alexander's reputation as an unrivaled military commander. It paved the way for the eventual downfall of the Achaemenid Empire and the expansion of Macedonian rule throughout the region.

Persian Customs - During Alexander the Great's reign (356-323 BC), Persian customs played a significant role in shaping the culture of the time. One such custom was the practice of proskynesis, a ceremonial form of obeisance or respect shown by bowing or prostrating before a superior. Alexander sought to incorporate this tradition into his court to solidify his rule over the conquered Persian territories.

Another notable custom was the Persian royal banquet, which exemplified the opulence and grandeur of the Persian court. These banquets featured a lavish spread of food and wine, with guests reclining on luxurious couches and cushions while entertained by musicians and dancers. The adoption of Persian clothing, such as the long-sleeved tunic and trousers, was also joint among Alexander's elite as a symbol of cultural integration. These Persian customs played a significant role in shaping the Hellenistic world during Alexander the Great's reign, blending Greek and Persian cultures in a powerful and lasting way.

Battle of Gaugamela - The Battle of Gaugamela, fought on October 1, 331 BCE, was a pivotal confrontation between Alexander the Great's Macedonian army and King Darius III's Persian forces. Located near present-day Mosul in Iraq, the battle unfolded on a large, open plain that favored Darius's numerically superior army, with chariots and war elephants. Yet, despite the apparent disadvantage, Alexander employed a brilliant strategy that would ultimately lead to a decisive victory.

Alexander used a series of feints and flanking maneuvers to draw the Persian cavalry away from their center, creating gaps in Darius's battle line. He then personally led his elite Companion cavalry through one of these gaps, targeting the vulnerable Persian center and Darius himself. With the imminent threat, Darius was forced to flee the battlefield, leaving his army in disarray.

The victory at Gaugamela had a profound impact on Alexander's campaign. It marked the Achaemenid Empire's fall and the Macedonian Empire's beginning, as Alexander subsequently took control of key Persian cities such as Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. In addition, the Battle of Gaugamela showcased Alexander's tactical genius. It solidified his reputation as one of history's most skilled military commanders, paving the way for his continued conquests in the East.

See the following video summarizing the battle fought in 331 B.C.

King of Macedonia - was a prestigious and influential title held by various rulers of the ancient Macedonian kingdom, a state in the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula. Notable kings include Philip II (382-336 BC), who transformed Macedonia into a dominant military power by reforming its army and expanding its territory. Philip's accomplishments laid the foundation for his son, Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), to build an empire that stretched from the eastern Mediterranean to India. Alexander's military genius and cultural diplomacy facilitated the spread of Hellenistic culture throughout his vast empire, leaving an indelible impact on Western history. Other significant Macedonian kings include Antigonus II Gonatas, who restored Macedonian power in the 3rd century BC. Perseus, the last king of the Antigonid dynasty, unsuccessfully fought against Rome during the Third Macedonian War. The legacy of the kings of Macedonia endures through their remarkable achievements and their role in shaping the ancient world.

Phillip II of Macedon (382-336 BC) - a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon, reigning from 359 to 336 BC. He was the father of Alexander the Great and a member of the Argead dynasty. Philip was a skilled military leader and diplomat who transformed Macedonia into a formidable power in the Greek world.

He implemented significant military reforms during his reign, turning the Macedonian army into a well-organized and highly effective fighting force. He introduced the sarissa, a long spear that gave his phalanx infantry a significant advantage in battle. Philip also employed a combination of infantry, cavalry, and siege equipment, making his army one of the most advanced and flexible of its time.

Philip's diplomacy and strategic marriages helped him secure alliances and expand Macedonian influence. He managed to unite most Greek city-states, except for Sparta, under the League of Corinth. This alliance paved the way for a united Greek campaign against the Persian Empire, although Philip did not live to see the invasion.

In 336 BC, Philip II was assassinated at a wedding celebration by one of his bodyguards, Pausanias of Orestis. His son, Alexander the Great, succeeded in conquering the Persian Empire and creating one of the largest empires in history. Philip's military innovations, diplomacy, and expansionist policies laid the groundwork for Alexander's remarkable achievements.

Alexander III - commonly known as Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), was a king of Macedon and one of the most successful military commanders in history. He was the son of King Philip II and Queen Olympias and ascended to the throne in 336 BC after his father's assassination. Alexander's reign marked a period of unprecedented conquest and expansion as he sought to fulfill his father's plan to invade the Persian Empire.

Alexander's military campaigns began with subjugating the remaining Greek city-states that resisted his rule. Once he consolidated power in Greece, he invaded the Persian Empire in 334 BC. Over the next decade, Alexander defeated Persian King Darius III in several significant battles, ultimately leading to the collapse of the Persian Empire. His conquests extended beyond Persia, reaching as far as Egypt, where he founded the city of Alexandria, and the Indian subcontinent, where he fought against the Indian king Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes.

Throughout his campaigns, Alexander sought to blend Greek and Persian cultures, adopting Persian customs and promoting cultural exchange within his vast empire. His death in 323 BC marked the end of his extraordinary conquests. His empire was eventually divided among his former generals, leading to the Hellenistic period of ancient history.

Alexander the Great's military achievements, cultural integration policies, and the scope of his empire have cemented his legacy as one of the most influential figures in history.

Darius III (c. 380-330 BC) - was the last king of the Achaemenid Empire, also known as the First Persian Empire, ruling from 336 to 330 BC. Born as Artashata, he was a distant relative of the royal Achaemenid lineage and took the throne after the assassination of his predecessor, Artaxerxes IV Arses.

Darius III's reign was marked by the invasion of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great, who sought to avenge previous Persian invasions of Greece and expand his empire. Darius faced Alexander's forces in several significant battles, including the Battle of Issus in 333 BC and the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. Despite having larger armies, Darius was defeated by Alexander's tactical prowess and the superior organization of the Macedonian forces.

The Persian Empire began to disintegrate rapidly after losing at the Battle of Gaugamela. Darius attempted to regroup and maintain control, but his satraps (provincial governors) and generals began to defect, and the empire crumbled. In 330 BC, as Darius was fleeing from Alexander's forces, he was captured and killed by one of his satraps, Bessus, who sought to seize power for himself.

Darius III's reign marked the end of the Achaemenid Empire, one of the ancient world's most powerful and influential empires. The fall of the Persian Empire paved the way for the rise of the Hellenistic period, in which Greek culture and influence spread throughout the territories once ruled by Persia.

This is why Alexander The Great was so great.

Achaemenid Empire

What made Alexander The Great so great?

Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III of Macedon, was one of the most successful military commanders in history, and his greatness stems from several key factors:

• Military Genius:  Alexander demonstrated exceptional military strategy and tactics, inherited partly from his father, King Philip II of Macedon, who was also a brilliant military leader. Alexander's ability to adapt his tactics to different enemies and terrains and his innovative use of cavalry and infantry allowed him to win battles against vastly larger forces.
• Conquests:  His conquests constitute a significant part of his legacy. By age thirty, Alexander had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. This was unprecedented and showcased his military prowess, ambition, and vision.
• Cultural Integration: Alexander's approach to governance was also notable. He sought to integrate Greek culture with the local cultures of the regions he conquered, promoting a fusion known as Hellenism. This cultural integration policy helped spread the Greek language, arts, architecture, and philosophy worldwide, influencing these regions for centuries.
• Education and Influence:  Tutored by Aristotle, one of the greatest philosophers of all time, Alexander was educated in philosophy, science, medicine, and literature. This education influenced his approach to leadership and governance, making him more than just a military leader.
• Legacy:  Despite his empire fragmenting soon after his death, Alexander's conquests had a lasting impact on the world, laying the groundwork for the Hellenistic period. The cities he founded, most notably Alexandria in Egypt, became significant centers of culture and learning.
• Charisma and Leadership:  Alexander was charismatic, inspiring loyalty and admiration from his soldiers and subjects. His leadership skills were evident in his ability to motivate his army and maintain their loyalty over vast distances and through many years of campaigns.
• Physical and Mental Endurance:  Alexander's campaigns were marked by grueling marches, fierce battles, and strategic sieges. His physical and mental stamina, willingness to endure hardships alongside his men, and determination were crucial to his success.

Alexander the Great's achievements were so extraordinary that they have left a permanent mark on world history, making him a figure of fascination and study even thousands of years after his death.

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What as the Achaemenid Empire?

The Achaemenid Empire was founded by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BCE; it was an ancient Persian empire that spanned three continents, encompassing parts of modern-day Iran, Turkey, Egypt, and beyond. As the largest empire of its time, the Achaemenids wield immense power and influence, fostering cultural exchange and administrative innovations that shaped history.

The empire's relationship with Alexander the Great began when he ascended the Macedonian throne in 336 BCE and embarked on a campaign to conquer Persia. Alexander's military brilliance and ambition led him to defeat King Darius III, the last Achaemenid ruler, in a series of pivotal battles, such as Issus and Gaugamela.

These victories enabled Alexander to dismantle the Achaemenid Empire, replacing it with the Macedonian Empire, which stretched from Greece to the Indus River. The fall of the Achaemenids under Alexander's conquest significantly impacted the political landscape of the ancient world. It marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period, during which Greek culture spread throughout the conquered territories.

Leadership & Organisations

11 Leadership Lessons from Alexander the Great

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Although the ‘Great Man’ theory of leadership belongs to the scrapheap of history, its allure continues to mystify. Underlying this theory is the assumption that if the right man (yes, it is often assumed to be a man) for the job emerges, he will almost magically take control of a situation and lead a group of people into safety or success. While such leaders are rare, there are times when a singular individual steps out from the crowd and serves as a paragon of leadership.

One such individual was Alexander the Great; one of history’s most famous warriors and a legend of almost divine status in his own lifetime. He falls into the elite category of individuals who changed the history of civilisation and shaped the present world as we know it.

From a leadership perspective, it’s not very difficult to say that Alexander was without peer. He could be magnanimous toward defeated enemies and extremely loyal toward his friends. As a general, he led by example, leading from the front.

Alexander’s reign illustrates a number of important leadership lessons which remain applicable to business and political chiefs today:

1. Have a compelling vision

Alexander’s actions demonstrate what can be accomplished when a person is totally focused—when he or she has clarity coupled with a ‘magnificent obsession’. Through dramatic gestures and great rhetorical skills, Alexander spoke to the collective imagination of his people and won the commitment of his followers.

2. Be unsurpassed in execution

Alexander not only had a compelling vision, he also knew how to make that vision become reality. By maintaining an excellent information system, he was able to interpret his opponent’s motives and was a master at coordinating all parts of his military machine. No other military leader before him ever used speed and surprise with such dexterity. He knew the true value of the statement “One is either quick or one is dead!”

3. Create a well-rounded executive team

Alexander also knew how to build a committed team around him and operated in a way that allowed his commanders to build on each other’s’ strengths.

4. Walk the talk

Alexander set the example of excellence with his leadership style; he led his troops quite literally from the front. When his troops went hungry or thirsty, he went hungry and thirsty; when their horses died beneath them and they had to walk, he did the same. This accessibility only changed when he succumbed to the luxury of Persian court life.

5. Encourage innovation

Alexander realised the competitive advantage of strategic innovation. Because of his deft deployment of troops, his support for and reliance on the creativity of his corps of engineers, and his own logistical acumen, his war machine was the most advanced of its time.

6. Foster group identification

Alexander created a very astute propaganda machine to keep his people engaged. His oratory skills, based on the simple language of his soldiers, had a hypnotic influence on all who heard him. He made extensive use of powerful cultural symbols which elicited strong emotions. These ‘meaning-management’ actions, combined with his talent for leading by example, fostered strong group identification among his troops, and motivated his men to make exceptional efforts.

7. Encourage and support followers

Alexander knew how to encourage his people for their excellence in battle in ways that brought out greater excellence. He routinely singled people out for special attention and recalled acts of bravery performed by former and fallen heroes, making it clear that individual contributions would be recognised. He also had the ability to be a ‘container’ of the emotions of his people through empathetic listening.

8. Invest in talent management

Extremely visionary for his time, Alexander spent an extraordinary amount of resources on training and development. He not only trained his present troops but also looked to the future by developing the next generation.

9. Consolidate gains

Paradoxically, three of Alexander’s most valuable lessons were taught not through his strengths but through his weaknesses. The first of these is the need to consolidate gains. Alexander failed to put the right control systems in place to integrate his empire and thus never really savoured the fruit of his accomplishments. Conquest may be richly rewarding, but a leader who advances without ensuring the stability of his or her gains stands to lose everything.

10. Succession planning

Another lesson Alexander taught by omission is the need for a viable succession plan. He was so focused on his own role as king and aspiring deity that he could not bring himself to think of the future when he was gone. As a result, political vultures tore his vast empire apart after his death.

11. Create mechanisms of organisational governance

The final lesson that the case of Alexander illustrates (again by omission) is the paramount importance of countervailing powers. Leaders have the responsibility to put proper mechanisms of organisational governance into place, using checks and balances to prevent faulty decision-making and the abuse of power.

Alexander began his reign as an enlightened ruler, encouraging participation by his ‘companions’—loyal soldiers drawn from the noble families in Macedonia. But like many rulers before him, he became addicted to power. Hubris raised its ugly head. As time passed, Alexander’s behaviour became increasingly domineering and grandiose. He tolerated nothing but applause from his audience, so his immediate circle kept their reservations to themselves. As a result he lost touch with reality, another factor leading to his failure to consolidate his empire.

About the author(s)

Manfred f. r. kets de vries.

is the Distinguished Clinical Professor of Leadership Development & Organisational Change at INSEAD and the Raoul de Vitry d'Avaucourt Chaired Professor of Leadership Development, Emeritus. 

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Anonymous User

17/08/2020, 10.32 am

It's a great piece of information on how Alexander became 'Alexander The Great' and also the lessons from his failures are worth learning. Everyone would enjoy reading his saga but very few will be able to implement his strategy as not everyone is born with the fearless heart.

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15/03/2019, 06.10 am

i am doing a project and this is really helpful

04/03/2019, 11.43 pm

can you please name some books that gives insight on the psychology of alexander the great???

28/04/2016, 02.10 pm

I have now come to know on why he is named as "Alexander the Great" Thanks for sharing these inspirational traits found in this successful leader. It is something one needs to look forward to.

23/04/2015, 07.28 pm

I am happy to find this post very useful for me, as it contains lot of information. I always prefer to read the quality content and this thing I found in you post. Thanks for sharing!

22/04/2015, 04.06 pm

Intimately, the post is really the greatest on that worthwhile topic. I fit in with your conclusions and definitely will eagerly look forward to your next updates. Just saying thanks cannot simply be enough, for the amazing clarity in your writing.

10/04/2015, 06.25 pm

I am pretty much amazed of the article content. I learned a lot from the interesting topics that are being discussed. It's my pleasure to visit and learned things and facts of this page. I will be visiting this site more often for I am very intrigue with the topic that indeed catches my interest.

22/11/2014, 07.46 pm

Excellent translation to leadership lessons, Prof. I am currently reading Corporate Chanakya - the translation of Arthashastra written by Chanakya, at same time of Alexander and his greatest adversary, to Corporate world

Best Regards, Abhishek

Zahid Hussain Khalid

21/11/2014, 12.32 pm

Steven Pressfield, in his book, Alexander - The Virtues of War, has summed up these 11 Leadership Lessons from Alexander the Great in just two words: Cardia (Heart) and Dynamis (The Will to Fight). Anyone blessed with a fearless heart and equipped with the weapons of knowledge and wisdom does not only have the will to fight through all odds for achieving his goals but to quietly teach the world real meaning of the word leadership too!

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ENCYCLOPEDIC ENTRY

Alexander the great.

Alexander the Great, a Macedonian king, conquered the eastern Mediterranean, Egypt, the Middle East, and parts of Asia in a remarkably short period of time. His empire ushered in significant cultural changes in the lands he conquered and changed the course of the region’s history.

Geography, Human Geography, Social Studies, Ancient Civilizations

Photo of a marble bust of a man.

Photograph by Kenneth Garrett, National Geographic

Alexander the Great , also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia is known as one of the greatest generals in all history.

Alexander was born in 356 B.C.E. in Pella, Macedonia, to King Philip II. As a young boy, Alexander was taught to read, write, and play the lyre. He developed a life-long love of reading and music. When Alexander was a teenager, his father hired Aristotle to be his private tutor. He studied with Aristotle for three years and from Aristotle ’s teachings, Alexander developed a love of science, particularly of medicine and botany . Alexander included  botanists and scientists in his army to study the lands he conquered .

In 336 B.C.E., at age 20, Alexander became king of Macedonia when a political rival assassinated his father. Alexander began his reign by subduing rivals in the Greek and Macedonian regions. At a council of the League of Corinth, he was chosen as the commander of a military invasion of Asia. King Alexander began his invasion of the Middle East in 334 B.C.E. He spent most of his reign on a military campaign through northeast Africa and southwestern Asia.

Alexander built many new cities in the lands he conquered , including Alexandria in Egypt. He went on to conquer the lands of the Persian Empire, establishing more cities, and like Alexandria, often naming them after himself. His conquest continued through Asia until he reached the shores of the Ganga (Ganges) River in India. At this point, his army refused to continue further into India, exhausted and discouraged by heavy rains.

Alexander was 32 when he died in 323 B.C.E.

During his 13-year reign as the king of Macedonia, Alexander created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.

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During the first half of the fourth century B.C., Greek poleis, or city-states, remained autonomous. As each polis tended to its own interests, frequent disputes and temporary alliances between rival factions resulted. In 360 B.C., an extraordinary individual, Philip II of Macedon (northern Greece), came to power. In less than a decade, he had defeated most of Macedon’s neighboring enemies: the Illyrians and the Paionians to the west and northwest, and the Thracians to the north and northeast. Phillip II instituted far-reaching reforms at home and abroad. Innovations—improved catapults and siege machinery, as well as a new kind of infantry in which each soldier was equipped with an enormous pike known as a sarissa—placed his armies at the forefront of military technology. In 338 B.C., at the pivotal Battle of Chaeronea in Boeotia, Philip II completed what was to be the last phase of his domination when he became the undisputed ruler of Greece. His plans for war against Asia were cut short when he was assassinated in 336 B.C. Excavations of the royal tombs at Vergina in northern Greece give a glimpse of the vibrant wall paintings and rich decorative arts produced for the Macedonian royal court ( 37.11.8-.17 ), which had become the leading center of Greek culture.

The reign of Alexander the Great (336–323 B.C.) would change the face of Europe and Asia forever ( 10.132.1 ; 55.11.11 ). As crown prince, he received the finest education in the Macedonian court under his celebrated tutor Aristotle. At the age of twenty, already a charismatic and decisive leader, Alexander quickly harnessed the Macedonian forces that his father’s reforms had made into the premier military power in the region. In 334 B.C., he led a grand army across the Hellespont in Asia. With some 43,000 infantry and 5,500 cavalry, it was the most formidable military expedition ever to leave Greece. The first to reach Asiatic soil, Alexander leapt ashore, cast a spear into the land, and dramatically claimed the continent as “spear won.” In a remarkable campaign that lasted eleven years, he went on to fulfill his claim and more by conquering the Persian empire of western Asia and Egypt, and by continuing into Central Asia as far as the Indus Valley. In the end, he was defeated by his own army, which insisted on returning to Greece. On the way back, he died of fever in Babylon at the age of thirty-three. All the lands that he had conquered were divided up among his generals ( 52.127.4 ), and it was these political divisions that comprised the many kingdoms of the Hellenistic period (323–31 B.C.).

Hemingway, Colette, and Seán Hemingway. “The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great.” In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History . New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/alex/hd_alex.htm (October 2004)

Further Reading

Greece and Rome. Introduction by Joan Mertens . New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1987. See on MetPublications

Adams, W. Lindsay, and Eugene N. Borza, eds. Philip II, Alexander the Great, and the Macedonian Heritage . Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, 1982.

Barr-Sharrar, Beryl, and Eugene N. Borza, eds. Macedonia and Greece in Late Classical and Early Hellenistic Times . Studies in the History of Art, vol. 10. Washington, D.C.: The National Gallery of Art, 1982.

Grant, Michael, and John Hazel. Who's Who in Classical Mythology . London: Dent, 1993.

Hornblower, Simon, and Antony Spawforth, eds. The Oxford Classical Dictionary . 3d ed., rev. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Mertens, Joan R. Greek Bronzes in the Metropolitan Museum of Art . MMA Bulletin 43. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1985. See on MetPublications

Troxell, Hyla A. Studies in the Macedonian Coinage of Alexander the Great . New York: American Numismatic Society, 1997.

Williams, Dyfri, and Jack Ogden. Greek Gold: Jewelry of the Classical World . Exhibition catalogue. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1994.

Additional Essays by Seán Hemingway

• Hemingway, Seán. “ Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Greek Hydriai (Water Jars) and Their Artistic Decoration .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Hellenistic Jewelry .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Intellectual Pursuits of the Hellenistic Age .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Mycenaean Civilization .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Africans in Ancient Greek Art .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade and their Influence on Greek Art .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Greek Gods and Religious Practices .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ The Art of Classical Greece (ca. 480–323 B.C.) .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Athletics in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ The Technique of Bronze Statuary in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Cyprus—Island of Copper .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Music in Ancient Greece .” (October 2001)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Etruscan Art .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Prehistoric Cypriot Art and Culture .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Seán. “ Minoan Crete .” (October 2002)

Additional Essays by Colette Hemingway

• Hemingway, Colette. “ Art of the Hellenistic Age and the Hellenistic Tradition .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Greek Hydriai (Water Jars) and Their Artistic Decoration .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Hellenistic Jewelry .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Intellectual Pursuits of the Hellenistic Age .” (April 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Mycenaean Civilization .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Retrospective Styles in Greek and Roman Sculpture .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Africans in Ancient Greek Art .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Ancient Greek Colonization and Trade and their Influence on Greek Art .” (July 2007)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Architecture in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Greek Gods and Religious Practices .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Art of Classical Greece (ca. 480–323 B.C.) .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Labors of Herakles .” (January 2008)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Athletics in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Technique of Bronze Statuary in Ancient Greece .” (October 2003)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Women in Classical Greece .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Cyprus—Island of Copper .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Music in Ancient Greece .” (October 2001)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) and Art .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Etruscan Art .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Prehistoric Cypriot Art and Culture .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Sardis .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Medicine in Classical Antiquity .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Southern Italian Vase Painting .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Theater in Ancient Greece .” (October 2004)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ The Kithara in Ancient Greece .” (October 2002)
• Hemingway, Colette. “ Minoan Crete .” (October 2002)

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Alexander the Great: A Comprehensive Summary

• Author: K.L. Woida
• Last Updated: February 9, 2024
• First Published: January 19, 2023
• Publisher: Crunch Learning
• Ancient Greece

Table of Contents

Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and one of the greatest military leaders in history. The time period in which Alexander the Great lived and rose to power is referred to as ‘ Classical Greece ‘. He was born in July of 356 BCE in Pella, the capital of Macedon. His father was King Philip II of Macedon, and his mother was Queen Olympias. Together with his sister, he was raised in the royal court of Macedon.

Alexander the Great’s Early Life

In 343 BCE King Philip II hired the famous philosopher Aristotle to teach his son. Over three years Aristotle taught Alexander about philosophy, poetry, drama, science, and politics.  More specifically, Alexander learned about the works of Homer, and in particular the ‘Iliad’, which is one of the oldest pieces of literature. Aristotle gave him an annotated copy of the work, which Alexander apparently kept with him on the military campaigns he undertook later in life.

In 341 BCE sixteen years old Alexander became a soldier and went to his first military expedition, in which he fought against the Thracians. He helped his father at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE against the united armies of Athens and Thebes. Unfortunately, Philip II married Cleopatra Eurydice and rejected Alexander’s mother Olympias. Alexander and his mother were forced to flee from Macedonia.

Alexander the Great the Macedonian King

In 336 BCE, Philip II was assassinated, and Alexander became the king of Macedon.  However, since the title of king in Macedonia was not passed down from father to son, nineteen years old Alexander was determined to take the throne. For instance, he won the support of the Macedonian army, which pledged to help him maintain control of the throne.

Conquests of Alexander the Great

Although he was a feudal king, Alexander did not immediately gain the support of many of the differing city-states across Greece.  In fact, the death of his father, caused several of the city-states to revolt, which forced Alexander to respond with force. Alexander inherited a strong and well-trained army, and he immediately set out to expand the kingdom. He first turned his attention to the Greek city-states, which he quickly brought under his control.  For example, Alexander the Great and his forces famously destroyed the army of Thebes and destroyed the city as a warning to other Greek city-states. He then set his sights on the vast Persian Empire, which stretched from modern-day Turkey to India.

In 334 BCE Alexander arrived at the city of Troy where he faced the Persian king Darius III. Alexander and his forces quickly defeated Darius’s Persian army, and by the autumn that same year he crossed the southern coast of Asia Minor to the town of Gordium, where his army remained during the winter. In 333 BCE, the forces of Alexander again faced off against the Persian army and although the army of Alexander the Great was outnumbered, he again managed to defeat Darius, prompting the Persian king to flee.

​In November of 333 BCE, Alexander was proclaimed king of Persia after he caught and captured the Persian king – Darius III. Next, Alexander the Great shifted his forces to carry out the conquest of Egypt, in which he easily succeeded. Egypt fell without offering much resistance, and in 331 BCE Alexander founded the great city of Alexandria.

The End of Alexander the Great

Alexander had set out to conquer the known world. He led his army on a series of campaigns across Asia Minor, Egypt, and the Persian Empire, defeating every army that stood in his way. He conquered the Persian Empire and became the ruler of a vast territory that stretched from Greece to India.  However, the next advances of his army would be his last and eventually lead to his end.

Following his success in Egypt, Alexander the Great marched his forces east into modern-day Iran.  From there, Alexander continued his campaigns towards India, where he defeated the army of King Porus. According to history, it was a bloody battle in which the army of India had 200 war elephants, from which the Macedonian army barely defended themselves.

Alexander wanted to conquer the whole world, but his army began to show signs of rebellion. As the soldiers refused to go into further campaigns, mostly due to exhaustion and the tropical heat, Alexander had no choice but to return home. During the trip back across India many of his soldiers suffered from illness, injury and death.  In fact, Alexander the Great was wounded at the time, but he recovered in 325 BCE and continued his way through the Persian Gulf.

Once in Babylon, he began to draw up plans for an attack on Africa. However, Alexander the Great died in June of 323 BCE after suffering from a fever and pain. It is believed that the cause of death was likely malaria or typhoid fever.  Although some historians have suggested that he may have been poisoned. He 32 years old when he died.

After his death, his empire was divided among his generals, who fought for control of the various territories. Eventually, the empire was divided into three main parts: the Seleucid Empire, the Ptolemaic Kingdom, and the Antigonid Kingdom. The Seleucid Empire was founded by Seleucus, one of Alexander’s generals, and comprised much of the territory he conquered in the east, including modern-day Iraq and Syria. The Ptolemaic Kingdom was founded by another of Alexander’s generals, Ptolemy, and included Egypt and parts of the Mediterranean. The Antigonid Kingdom, founded by Antigonus, one of Alexander’s generals, included Macedon and parts of Greece. The time period in ancient Greece that occurred following the death of Alexander the Great is referred to as ‘ Hellenistic Greece ‘.

Legacy of Alexander the Great

Despite his short life, Alexander the Great left a lasting legacy and is remembered as one of the greatest military leaders in history.  Alexander was known for his bravery and tactical genius on the battlefield. He was also a visionary leader who sought to unite the diverse peoples of his empire through a common culture and language. He founded a number of cities, including Alexandria in Egypt, which became a center of learning and culture.

Alexander’s conquests had a profound impact on the ancient world, spreading Greek culture and language throughout the conquered territories. He is remembered for his military genius and his ability to inspire and lead his troops.

Alexander the Great’s legacy is still felt today. He is often depicted as a heroic figure in literature and popular culture, and his life and deeds have been the subject of numerous books, movies, and television shows. Despite the controversy surrounding his life and conquests, Alexander the Great remains an important figure in world history.

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7 Reasons Alexander the Great Was, Well, Great

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When Alexander III of Macedon died in Babylon at just 32 years old, he ruled a territory that spanned three continents and covered nearly 2 million square miles (5 million square kilometers). Not only was he the king of his native Macedonia, but he was also ruler of the Greeks, the king of Persia and even an Egyptian pharaoh .

So, did he deserve the title Alexander the Great? Absolutely.

"It's hard to imagine another human being whose personal choices had an impact on more people's lives for many centuries than Alexander," says historian Elizabeth Carney, an Alexander scholar from Clemson University in South Carolina.

"Because of the decisions Alexander made, hundreds of thousands of people died, any number of political entities disappeared or were replaced. And perhaps most importantly, he helped launch this vast cultural enterprise that combined aspects of the Greek and Macedonian world with aspects of the various worlds he conquered."

With that in mind, here are some other big things about him.

• Aristotle Was His High School Teacher
• His Father Was Pretty Great Too
• Alexander Knew How to Crush a Rebellion
• He Stomped the Persian Empire
• He Was a Globalist
• Alexandria Became the Intellectual Capital of the World
• He May Have Been the World's First Action Hero

1. Aristotle Was His High School Teacher

OK, there was no such thing as high school in the fourth century B.C.E., but young Alexander was famously tutored from the ages of 14 to 16 by none other than Aristotle , one of the fathers of Western philosophy and arguably the greatest intellectual mind of Ancient Greece.

Aristotle would have been around 40 years old when he was hired by Alexander's powerful father Phillip II as a court philosopher. Aristotle, a student of Plato, wasn't yet a philosophical superstar and would have taught the prince science and math in addition to literature and philosophy.

What exactly was Aristotle's influence on the man Alexander would become? Historians can only guess. One clue is that Alexander loved the works of Homer and is rumored to have slept with a copy of "The Iliad." And Alexander didn't forget his geography lessons when he marched his army across the known world.

"Great advances in science, especially in geographical knowledge, were made as a result of Alexander's campaigns," wrote Michael Tierney in a 1942 study of Alexander and Aristotle , "and that they were possible is unquestionably due to Aristotle."

But both Tierney and Carney are unconvinced that Aristotle's political teachings on good government and good citizens shaped the way that Alexander operated as a leader.

"Is Alexander's political thinking affected by Aristotle?" asks Carney. "I would tend to say not at all."

2. His Father Was Pretty Great Too

The Kingdom of Macedonia was a political backwater before Alexander's father Phillip turned it into a military superpower. Tired of being pushed around by Greek city-states like Athens and Thebes, Phillip transformed the ragtag Macedonian army into a well-oiled fighting machine.

The pride of the Macedonian military was its well-trained cavalry and an unbreakable infantry formation called the Macedonian phalanx . Armed with elongated hunting spears called sarissas — 18-foot (5.5-meter) wooden poles with iron tips — Phillip's infantry would march in tight formations of eight men across and 16 deep. Each row would lower its spears in succession, impaling charging armies and horses.

When 20-year-old Alexander took the throne after Phillip was assassinated in 336 B.C.E., he inherited his father's army that had already crushed Macedonia's rivals on the Greek mainland and was rolling toward Persia.

Phillip is best remembered as the father of Alexander the Great, but Alexander may never have achieved his greatness if not for Phillip's huge head start. Historians still struggle to figure out who deserves the most credit for Macedonia's dominance.

"Rarely in history does somebody so able and famous have an equally able and famous successor," says Carney. "It makes it very hard to draw a line."

3. Alexander Knew How to Crush a Rebellion

After Phillip's death, several towns and territories under Macedonian control tried to break free. While young Alexander was busy getting the northern kingdoms of Thrace and Illyria back in line, the Greek leaders of Thebes heard a rumor that Alexander had actually been killed in battle.

No such luck. When Alexander received word that the Macedonian garrison in Thebes was under attack, he and his army flew to the fight, supposedly covering 300 miles (482 kilometers) in just 12 days . In the ensuing Battle of Thebes, Alexander decided to send a clear message. Anyone who crosses Macedonia will not only be defeated, but obliterated.

According to the Greek historian Diodorus of Sicily , 6,000 Theban soldiers and citizens were killed and 30,000 captured before the city was burned to the ground. He wrote:

The tactics were cruel, but the message was received. Alexander was the undisputed new ruler of the Greeks.

4. He Stomped the Persian Empire

The Persian Empire had ruled the Mediterranean for two centuries when Alexander marched his 50,000-man army across the Hellespont to face King Darius III, who reportedly commanded a total Persian army of more than 2.5 million men .

The pivotal battle came near the Persian town of Gaugamela, where Darius had the land flattened and cleared to give advantage to his horse-drawn chariots. The Persians numbered 250,000 at Gaugamela, a seemingly insurmountable five-to-one advantage over the Macedonians, but Darius ended up playing right into Alexander's hand.

In what's known as a "pawn sacrifice," Alexander sent in thousands of troops to draw Darius' resources to the right flank. The sacrificed troops were able to distract Darius long enough for Alexander to launch a cavalry attack through a weak link in the center of the Persian line. Darius turned and fled as the famed Macedonian cavalry, led by Alexander, steamrolled through the Persian defenses.

After Darius was murdered by one of his cousins (and his head presented to Alexander), Alexander was crowned the new king of all of Persia, extending the Macedonian empire from modern-day Israel through Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan.

5. He Was a Globalist

Alexander's conquests, not only of the Persian Empire, but also Egypt and parts of India, launched the Hellenistic period, during which elements of Greek culture and politics were spread throughout the vast Macedonian Empire.

Alexander wasn't a Greek nationalist, intent on imposing Greek customs on every land he conquered. Instead, he folded foreign customs and religious beliefs into the fabric of his growing empire, winning the loyalty of his newly conquered subjects. The result was a Greek-speaking network of trade and military power that ruled the Mediterannean and Near East for three centuries.

6. Alexandria Became the Intellectual Capital of the World

Alexander founded more than 70 cities during his eight-year, 11,000-mile (17,703-kilometer) march throughout the Middle and Near East, but none compared to the grandeur that was Alexandria in Egypt.

Although Alexander chose the spot for the coastal city that bore his name, he didn't design it nor live long enough to see it flourish. After Alexander's death, the Macedonian Empire was chopped into three and ruled by each of his generals. Egypt fell under the control of Ptolemy and became known as the Ptolemaic Dynasty.

The Ptolemies spoke Macedonian Greek and filled Alexandria with Greek-style public buildings, including the famous library, which once held an estimated 700,000 scrolls , the greatest repository of knowledge in the ancient world.

The brilliant Greek mathematicians Euclid and Eratosthenes called Alexandria home, and the Ptolemaic navy commanded a huge fleet that pushed Alexandria's discoveries out into the wider world.

When Alexander died suddenly in Babylon from a fever at just 32 years old, the Ptolemies intercepted his funeral procession on the way back to Macedonia and built a glass sarcophagus in Alexandria where subjects could pay tribute to Alexander's mummy for centuries.

7. He May Have Been the World's First Action Hero

Alexander's heroics were written up in a series of fictionalized adventure stories called the " Alexander Romance ", some of which date back to within a century of his death in 323 B.C.E.. Medieval versions are chock-full of sexy escapades, narrow escapes and colorful illustrations.

Next to the Bible and Quran, it's argued that the "Alexander Romance" traveled further and was translated into more languages than any other ancient collection of stories.

Fourteenth-century texts include the tale of Alexander exploring the ocean depths using a diving bell . But when Alexander settles on the ocean floor, his mistress double-crosses him, eloping with her lover and leaving him stranded in the deep.

For Carney, the popularity of the "Alexander Romance" reflects the enduring allure of this world-changing figure.

"Alexander grabbed people's imagination," says Carney. "That he was so young; that he wasn't defeated in a major battle; that things happened so quickly; he was such a risk taker and he went to all these places that seemed exotic."

Alexander's mother, Olympias, deserves credit for his rise to greatness, too. Greek historians report that she had several rival heirs to the throne murdered after Phillip's death.

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• Ancient History

Why Alexander was not so 'great': The horrific reality of history's most famous conqueror

Alexander the Great, a name synonymous with conquest and unparalleled leadership, has long been celebrated for his military achievements and the vast empire he built in a relatively short span of time.

Yet, like all historical figures, his legacy is controversial, and not all aspects of his reign are nothing short of tyrannical.

This article seeks to delve into the lesser-known side of Alexander, challenging the traditional narrative that paints him solely as a visionary leader and conqueror.

By examining the consequences of his military campaigns, his governance, and personal behavior, we aim to present a more nuanced view of a man who, for all his greatness, had his share of flaws and controversies. 

What everyone knows about Alexander the Great

Before Alexander's ascent to power, the Macedonian Empire had already begun to establish itself as a formidable force in the ancient world.

Under the leadership of King Philip II, Alexander's father, Macedonia had undergone significant military and administrative reforms.

By 338 BCE, Philip had successfully unified most of the city-states of mainland Greece under Macedonian hegemony, following his victory at the Battle of Chaeronea.

This victory set the stage for the empire's expansion, with plans to invade the Persian Empire already in motion.

However, in 336 BCE, Philip's assassination led to a sudden change in leadership, thrusting the young Alexander into the limelight.

Alexander's early reign was marked by challenges, as he had to quell revolts and solidify his position as the rightful ruler.

By 334 BCE, having secured his base in Macedonia and Greece, he embarked on his ambitious campaign against the Persian Empire.

Over the next decade, his military genius was evident in battles such as Issus in 333 BCE and Gaugamela in 331 BCE, leading to the eventual fall of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.

Yet, while these conquests are often highlighted, the broader historical context reveals a world in flux, with various powers vying for dominance and a young king navigating the challenges of leadership, diplomacy, and warfare. 

The staggering toll of his military successes

Alexander's military campaigns, while undeniably showcasing his strategic acumen, came with significant costs and consequences for both the conquered and the conquerors.

As he pushed through Asia Minor, Egypt, Persia, and into India, the sheer scale of his conquests meant that vast regions were subjected to the upheavals of war.

Cities like Tyre and Thebes faced severe destruction, with the latter being razed in 335 BCE as a punitive measure, leading to the loss of countless lives and cultural heritage.

The human toll of these campaigns was immense. Not only did thousands of soldiers from both sides perish in battle, but civilians too bore the brunt of the war's aftermath.

Forced migrations, enslavements, and the disruption of local economies became commonplace in the wake of Alexander's victories.

For instance, after the Siege of Tyre in 332 BCE, much of the city's population was either executed or sold into slavery.

Furthermore, the rapid expansion of his empire posed significant administrative challenges.

While Alexander attempted to integrate the diverse cultures under his rule, often through policies of marriage and shared governance, these efforts were not always successful.

Revolts and uprisings were frequent, as regions struggled under the weight of Macedonian rule and the imposition of foreign customs.

Economically, the constant warfare drained the resources of the empire.

The need to maintain large armies, coupled with the destruction of infrastructure in conquered territories, meant that the economic stability of the region was often precarious. 

How quickly he turned on his own friends and allies

While Alexander was known to reward loyalty generously, instances of perceived betrayal or challenges to his authority were met with swift and often brutal responses.

One of the most notable incidents was the execution of Philotas, one of his trusted commanders and the son of Parmenion, a senior general.

Accused of conspiring against Alexander, Philotas was subjected to torture and subsequently executed in 330 BCE.

Following this, Alexander, perhaps out of fear of a wider conspiracy or as a precautionary measure, also ordered the assassination of Parmenion, despite his long-standing service to both Alexander and his father, Philip II.

Another significant event was the murder of Cleitus the Black in 328 BCE.

During a heated argument, fueled by alcohol, Cleitus, who had previously saved Alexander's life at the Battle of Granicus, criticized the king's adoption of Persian customs and accused him of forgetting his Macedonian roots. In a fit of rage, Alexander killed Cleitus with a spear.

This impulsive act deeply affected Alexander, leading to profound remorse and mourning.

The Pages' Conspiracy, around 327 BCE, further highlighted Alexander's growing paranoia.

The alleged plot by the royal pages, the young nobles serving the king, led to the execution of the main conspirators, including Callisthenes, the court historian who had opposed the practice of proskynesis, a Persian court custom that Alexander had tried to introduce to his Macedonian court.

While these incidents paint a picture of a ruler increasingly distrustful of even his closest allies, it's also worth noting that Alexander had moments of magnanimity.

He often honored the families of fallen comrades and showed great respect to the likes of Ptolemy, Hephaestion, and other loyal officers.

However, as his empire expanded and the challenges of governance grew, the fine line between mistrust and necessary caution became increasingly blurred.

His alarmingly erratic and narcissistic behaviour

Alexander, for all his military genius and vision of a united empire, exhibited personal behaviors and character traits that have been subjects of criticism over the centuries.

One of the most frequently discussed aspects of his personality was his temper.

Impulsive and at times uncontrollable, his anger led to decisions that were both politically and personally costly.

The killing of Cleitus the Black, a close friend and officer, during a heated argument is a stark example of this impulsiveness.

While the act was one of immediate regret for Alexander, it underscored the volatile nature of his emotions.

His relationship with alcohol also raised concerns. Excessive drinking sessions were common, and many of his decisions, both personal and administrative, were influenced by his inebriated state.

Some historians speculate that alcohol might have played a role in exacerbating his temper and making some of his more controversial decisions.

Another significant character flaw was his growing sense of divinity.

Influenced by the cultures he conquered, especially the Egyptian and Persian traditions of deifying rulers, Alexander began to view himself as a god-like figure.

This behavior was not well-received by his Macedonian peers, leading to tensions within his inner circle.

Furthermore, as his conquests grew, so did his sense of paranoia. The execution of trusted officers like Philotas and the old general Parmenion, based on suspicions of conspiracy, highlighted a growing mistrust of even his closest allies.

This paranoia, coupled with his belief in his own divinity, created an environment where dissent was dangerous, and loyalty was constantly tested.

The impact on the cultures he conquered

Recognizing the vastness and diversity of his newly acquired territories, Alexander actively sought to amalgamate various cultures under a unified administrative system.

One of the most significant impacts was the spread of Hellenistic culture, a blend of Greek and local customs, traditions, and practices.

This process, known as Hellenization, saw the proliferation of Greek art, architecture, language, and philosophy across regions as diverse as Egypt, Persia, and parts of India.

Cities like Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, and Pergamon in Asia Minor became thriving centers of Hellenistic culture.

Greek became the lingua franca, facilitating communication and trade across vast distances. 

In regions like Persia, Alexander adopted a dual approach. He retained many of the existing administrative structures, understanding their efficiency in managing local affairs.

At the same time, he introduced Greek settlers and officials to ensure loyalty to his regime.

This melding of Macedonian and Persian governance was evident when he adopted Persian court customs and attire, a move that, while aiming to bridge cultures, often alienated his Macedonian compatriots.

However, this cultural diffusion came at a cost. As Hellenistic culture became dominant, many indigenous cultures and traditions faced the threat of being overshadowed or entirely erased.

In regions like Persia, a civilization with a rich history and its own sophisticated culture, the imposition of Greek customs often led to tensions.

While some local elites adopted Hellenistic ways to gain favor or better integrate into the new administrative setup, others resisted, leading to cultural clashes.

Furthermore, Alexander's policy of "fusion" sought to integrate the ruling Macedonians with the conquered populations.

He arranged mass weddings, most notably in Susa, where Macedonian soldiers were married to Persian women.

This was a symbolic gesture, aiming to create a new ruling class that combined both Macedonian and Persian elements.

However, these policies were not without challenges. In places like Bactria and Sogdiana (modern-day Afghanistan and parts of Uzbekistan), resistance to Macedonian rule was fierce, leading to prolonged conflicts.

Moreover, the establishment of Greek cities and colonies often meant the displacement of local populations.

These new cities, while marvels of Hellenistic architecture and planning, sometimes stood on the ruins of older, indigenous settlements.

The spread of Greek religious practices and pantheon also challenged local religious traditions, leading to syncretism in some cases but erasing certain local deities and rituals in others.

The introduction of foreign customs and officials in these regions often met with resentment, leading to revolts that Alexander had to suppress with force.

Why we rarely hear about these aspects of Alexander

The story of Alexander the Great, like many historical narratives, has been shaped by the perspectives of those who recorded it.

Over the centuries, his image has been molded, sometimes into that of a visionary leader and unparalleled military genius, and at other times, into a ruthless conqueror with unchecked ambitions.

The challenge for modern historians lies in sifting through these narratives to arrive at a more balanced understanding of the man and his legacy.

Much of what we know about Alexander comes from sources written centuries after his death.

Historians like Arrian, Plutarch, and Diodorus Siculus, while providing invaluable insights, relied on earlier works, many of which are now lost.

These accounts, influenced by the political and cultural contexts of their times, often oscillate between hagiography and criticism.

For instance, while Arrian's portrayal leans towards admiration, emphasizing Alexander's military prowess and leadership qualities, other accounts highlight his flaws, excesses, and instances of cruelty.

Furthermore, the Hellenistic world's narratives, from which many of our primary sources originate, had their own biases.

The political landscape post-Alexander was marked by rivalries among his successors, and the histories written during this period often reflected the vested interests of different Hellenistic dynasties.

The glorification or vilification of Alexander was, at times, a tool to legitimize or challenge the rule of these successor kingdoms.

In recent times, with the advent of new archaeological findings and a more critical approach to ancient texts, there has been a push to reevaluate Alexander's legacy.

This involves not only revisiting Greek and Roman sources but also exploring Persian, Indian, and other regional accounts to construct a more holistic picture.

Such endeavors highlight the importance of diverse perspectives in historical analysis, reminding us that history, far from being a fixed narrative, is a dynamic discourse shaped by time, place, and the storyteller's lens.

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72 Alexander The Great Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best alexander the great topic ideas & essay examples, ⭐ good research topics about alexander the great, 🧐 interesting topics to write about alexander the great, ❓ alexander the great essay questions.

• History: Plutarch’s Vision of Alexander the Great One of the greatest strengths of Alexander’s character is his vision, ambition, and thirst to succeed. The same corruption leads to Philotus disrespecting the king by claiming that he is enjoying the fruits of his […]
• Political and Cultural Impact of Alexander the Great’s Conquests Due to many territories that he conquered, the dominion that Alexander the Great had was regarded as one of the greatest in the history of the world. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
• What if Alexander the Great Has Lived Longer And all of this by the time he died at the age of 32, raising the question of what Alexander could have accomplished if he had lived longer.
• Alexander the Great (1956) by Robert Rossen The classic film, Alexander the Great, follows the life of Alexander the Great, a successful military commander of all time who had conquered most of the known world by the time of his death at […]
• Alexander the Great and Stoicism Just like his father he proved to be a great warrior and led his army to conquer the whole world, at least the world known to the Greeks.
• Alexander the Great: Western Civilization The spread of the Greek language to other parts of the world was due to the introduction of the Macedonian culture to the Persian Empire.
• Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Legacy In the background of this pressure Alexander took up his campaign to Persia, conquering the people of the country and then taking their wealth and the surviving soldiers to his empire.
• Alexander the Great: A Pioneer of Western Civilization Alexander the Great used the Roman Empire to spread Greek civilization to Europe and the rest of the world. The Greek Macedonian Empire that was established by Alexander the Great extended to many parts of […]
• Image of Sculpture of Alexander the Great The image provided is identified as the sculpture of Alexander the Great. It was made out of marble during the reign of Alexander the Great and was initially found in Greece.
• Alexander the Great: The First Superhero of Western Civilization Thus, despite the irrefutable victories of Alexander the Great, it is difficult to call him the first true superhero of Western civilization because of the methods to which he resorted.
• The Genius of Alexander the Great The sight of the assassination of his father is said to have possibly haunted him for the rest of his life, both as a king and during his private life.
• Alexander the Great, Military Intellectual When Olympia was pregnant, the god’s are said to have communicated to her and the husband in a dream on the nature of the child to be born.
• Alexander the Great’s Conquest of Persian Empire The death of Alexander the Great shook the empire, beginning the process of the division and undoing of his legacy as many of the conquered regions saw opportunities to relinquish the Hellenistic rule.
• Alexander the Great – the King of Macedonia Alexander, the king of Macedonia or more commonly, Alexander the Great is thought to be the most significant military leader of the ancient world.
• Alexander the Great’s Reign Alexander the Great is often considered the best leader in his times because he introduced a new order in the world by uniting the east with the west.
• Alexander the Great: The Blending of Cultures The evidence of his greatness is revealed by the massive conquests he made. He was assassinated in the process, and Alexander took over the throne.
• King’s Life: Alexander the Great Alexander and his father Philip the king had a conflict, when the king decided to marry Cleopatra Eurydice who was a relative to one of kings general.
• Comparison of the Leadership Style of Solon and Alexander the Great
• Alexander the Great and Caesar – Two Prominent World Rulers
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• Alexander the Great: His Relationship with his Father. How he came to Power?
• One Of The Greatest Military Intellectual Of All Times
• Alexander the Great’s Success was a Combination of Genius, Bold Thinking, and Pure Luck
• Alexander the Great: Strenghts and Weaknesses as a Person, Statesman and Leader
• Alexander the Great vs Napoleon Bonaparte, What I Got so Far?
• Analysis of the Mysteries Surrounding the Death of Alexander the Great, the Basileus of Macedon, Hegemon of the Hellenic League, Shahanshah of Persia, Pharaoh of Egypt and Lord of Asia
• Analysis of the Painting, Alexander the Great Receiving the Family of Darius III by Francois-Xavier Fabre
• Comparing Alec D’Urberville and Alexander
• Confucius, Alexander the Great & Socrates
• Does Alexander the Great Deserve His Reputation?
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• Biography and Life Work of Alexander the Great, a Macedonian General
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• Alexander The Great And His Works Impact On The World Well
• King of Macedonia and Ancient Greece
• Alexander The Great: Establishing The Supremacy Of Western Thought
• Evaluation of the Leadership Strategy of Alexander the Great vs. Near Eastern Imperial Rule
• Logistics And Sieges Of Alexander The Great
• Methodology of Machiavelli and Alexander The Great
• Neo-Freudian Psychoanalytical Theory Paper on Alexander the Great
• The Fascination and Relevance of Alexander the Great in the Contemporary World
• Who Was Alexander the Great?
• What Did Alexander Learn From Aristotle?
• How Did Alexander the Great’s Conquest Impact the Greek People?
• What Was the Significance of the Victory at Issus for Alexander the Great and the Defeat for Darius?
• Does Alexander the Great Deserve His Title “The Great?”
• What Were Alexander’s Strengths as a Politician?
• How Did Alcohol Affect Alexander the Great?
• Does Alexander the Great Merit His Exalted Historical Reputation?
• How Did Alexander the Great Manage to Conquer So Much Territory So Quickly?
• Was Alexander the Great Greek?
• How Great Was Alexander the Great?
• What Legacy Did Alexander the Great Leave Behind?
• What Were the Achievements of Alexander the Great in Macedonia?
• Why Alexander the Great Was a Great Military Leader?
• What Were Alexander’s Strengths as a Military Leader?
• How Did Philip and Olympias Individually Influence Alexander’s Development?
• What Was the Leadership Strategy of Alexander the Great?
• Why Was Alexander Anxious About His Succession?
• Was Alexander Inconsistent in His Treatment of Conquered Cities? If So or if Not, How and Why?
• How Did Alexander the Great Change a History?
• Is Alexander the Great One of the Greatest Military Leaders of the Time?
• How Did Alexander Die?
• What Was Alexander’s Hope for Greek Culture?
• Who Was Alexander’s Hero? How Do You Think Having a Hero Impacted Alexander?
• How Far Did Alexander’s Empire Spread?
• What Was Alexander’s Goal to Unite the People of His New Empire?
• How Did Alexander Deal With Enemies and Potential Opponents?
• Was Alexander the Great an Idealistic Visionary Who Wanted to Create a New Society by Combining the Best of Greek and Persian Culture?
• How Do the Elements of Greek Culture Affect the Plot of Alexander the Great?
• Chicago (A-D)
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Essay on Alexander the Great

Alexander, famous in history as Alexander the Great, was the son of Philip of Macedon. Macedon or Macedonia was a kingdom, situated up in the north of Greece. It was a mountainous country.

The Greeks from their plains looked upon the Macedonians as barbarians. But, like the Greeks, the Macedonians belonged to the Aryan race and regarded themselves as Greeks.

They were brave and sturdy and worked hard on their rocky soil to live.

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When the Greek city states on the mainland of Greece were fighting among themselves and heading towards decline, Macedon became very powerful under a remarkable warrior named Philip. Philip became king in 359 B.C. and became ambitious enough to extend his power. The weakness of the city states gave him a golden opportunity. He raised a powerful army famous as the Macedonian Phalanx.

It was a new type of military force. The soldiers in the Phalanx stood shoulder to shoulder like solid walls, line after line. Each soldier covered his body by holding a huge shield in his left hand. In his right hand, he held a long spear. As the Phalanx advanced in that shape, their bodies were protected by shields from the enemy arrows, while then- long spears pierced the bodies of the enemies when they advanced to fight. On either side of the marching Phalanx, there were soldiers on horseback to attack the enemy. The Macedonian Phalanx presented an advanced art of warfare in Western military system.

Taking advantage of the weakness of the Greek city states, Philip of Macedon invaded them and destroyed their freedom. Ultimately, he became the supreme master of the entire Greek world. With unlimited ambition, Philip next prepared to invade the Persian Empire in the East. As he was about to march on his eastern expedition, he suddenly fell dead in hands of an assassin in the year 336 B.C.

Alexander, the son of Philip of Macedon, was only twenty years old when his father met his unexpected death. He was born in 356 B.C. As bold as his father and much more ambitious, young Alexander ascended the throne of Macedon and assured the waiting army that he would soon take up the invasion of the East. His generals and soldiers did not doubt the ability of their young monarch and his liking for battles.

Alexander’s mother Olympias had inspired her son from his childhood to become a great hero like the Greek heroes of the epics of Homer. In his romantic dream, he hoped of becoming a hero like the mythical Achilles.

When Alexander was only 13, his father appointed the famous Greek philosopher Aristotle as the tutor of the young prince. It was from that great teacher that Alexander got the vision of a wider world, a desire for knowing many subjects, and for discovering new things for sake of knowledge. Temperamentally, Alexander was proud, haughty, cruel revengeful and emotional. At the same time, his education made him enlightened and cultured. He was a curious mixture of bad and good qualities, vices and virtues.

From his early youth, Alexander received a good military training and showed his genius as a born soldier. When Philip was fighting his famous battle of Chaeronea to conquer Greece, the 18 year old Alexander assisted his father as the commander of the cavalry force and amazed the army by daring acts of heroism. The Macedonian soldiers since then regarded the young hero as a rare general and became devoted to him as their future leader. His energy, tact, courage and ability, as well as thirst for battles proved his worth as a prospective conqueror.

The death of king Philip brought to young Alexander his opportunity for greatness. His father had prepared the ground for his rise. He was now the undisputed leader of Macedon and Greece and the supreme commander of the Macedonian army to which were joined the Greek soldiers of the mainland. With everything ready, Alexander looked towards the East to undertake the mission of his father’s hopes.

Some of the Greek city states felt that the death of king Philip was the end of Macedonian supremacy. They, therefore, rose in revolt to regain independence. But Alexander was too strong for them. He taught a lesson to the revolting city states by destroying the city state of Thebes completely. All houses of that place were raged to ground except the house of a poet named Pindar and a few places of worship. As a demonstration of his anger, he slaughtered six thousand people of thebes. Many others were sold as slaves.

By such extreme cruelty, Alexander silenced the Greek city-states into submission. They were forced to accept him as their leader and subscribed soldiers to his army for the invasion of the East. As the leader of the Greek race Alexander at last proceeded towards the East in the year 334 B.C. His brief career as a world conqueror began.

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• Alexander’s Invasion and its Effects on India

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Alexander The Great: Facts, Biography and Accomplishments

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