what were the causes of world war 2 essay

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World War II

By: History.com Editors

Updated: March 13, 2024 | Original: October 29, 2009

World War II, the largest and deadliest conflict in human history, involved more than 50 nations and was fought on land, sea and air in nearly every part of the world. Also known as the Second World War, it was caused in part by the economic crisis of the Great Depression and by political tensions left unresolved following the end of World War I.

The war began when Nazi Germany invaded Poland in 1939 and raged across the globe until 1945, when Japan surrendered to the United States after atomic bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. By the end of World War II, an estimated 60 to 80 million people had died, including up to 55 million civilians, and numerous cities in Europe and Asia were reduced to rubble.

Among the people killed were 6 million Jews murdered in Nazi concentration camps as part of Hitler’s diabolical “Final Solution,” now known as the Holocaust. The legacy of the war included the creation of the United Nations as a peacekeeping force and geopolitical rivalries that resulted in the Cold War.

Leading up to World War II

The devastation of the Great War (as World War I was known at the time) had greatly destabilized Europe, and in many respects World War II grew out of issues left unresolved by that earlier conflict. In particular, political and economic instability in Germany, and lingering resentment over the harsh terms imposed by the Versailles Treaty, fueled the rise to power of Adolf Hitler and National Socialist German Workers’ Party, abbreviated as NSDAP in German and the Nazi Party in English..

Did you know? As early as 1923, in his memoir and propaganda tract "Mein Kampf" (My Struggle), Adolf Hitler had predicted a general European war that would result in "the extermination of the Jewish race in Germany."

After becoming Chancellor of Germany in 1933, Hitler swiftly consolidated power, anointing himself Führer (supreme leader) in 1934. Obsessed with the idea of the superiority of the “pure” German race, which he called “Aryan,” Hitler believed that war was the only way to gain the necessary “Lebensraum,” or living space, for the German race to expand. In the mid-1930s, he secretly began the rearmament of Germany, a violation of the Versailles Treaty. After signing alliances with Italy and Japan against the Soviet Union , Hitler sent troops to occupy Austria in 1938 and the following year annexed Czechoslovakia. Hitler’s open aggression went unchecked, as the United States and Soviet Union were concentrated on internal politics at the time, and neither France nor Britain (the two other nations most devastated by the Great War) were eager for confrontation.

Outbreak of World War II (1939)

In late August 1939, Hitler and Soviet leader Joseph Stalin signed the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact , which incited a frenzy of worry in London and Paris. Hitler had long planned an invasion of Poland, a nation to which Great Britain and France had guaranteed military support if it were attacked by Germany. The pact with Stalin meant that Hitler would not face a war on two fronts once he invaded Poland, and would have Soviet assistance in conquering and dividing the nation itself. On September 1, 1939, Hitler invaded Poland from the west; two days later, France and Britain declared war on Germany, beginning World War II.

On September 17, Soviet troops invaded Poland from the east. Under attack from both sides, Poland fell quickly, and by early 1940 Germany and the Soviet Union had divided control over the nation, according to a secret protocol appended to the Nonaggression Pact. Stalin’s forces then moved to occupy the Baltic States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) and defeated a resistant Finland in the Russo-Finnish War. During the six months following the invasion of Poland, the lack of action on the part of Germany and the Allies in the west led to talk in the news media of a “phony war.” At sea, however, the British and German navies faced off in heated battle, and lethal German U-boat submarines struck at merchant shipping bound for Britain, sinking more than 100 vessels in the first four months of World War II.

World War II in the West (1940-41)

On April 9, 1940, Germany simultaneously invaded Norway and occupied Denmark, and the war began in earnest. On May 10, German forces swept through Belgium and the Netherlands in what became known as “blitzkrieg,” or lightning war. Three days later, Hitler’s troops crossed the Meuse River and struck French forces at Sedan, located at the northern end of the Maginot Line , an elaborate chain of fortifications constructed after World War I and considered an impenetrable defensive barrier. In fact, the Germans broke through the line with their tanks and planes and continued to the rear, rendering it useless. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea from Dunkirk in late May, while in the south French forces mounted a doomed resistance. With France on the verge of collapse, Italy’s fascist dictator Benito Mussolini formed an alliance with Hitler, the Pact of Steel, and Italy declared war against France and Britain on June 10.

On June 14, German forces entered Paris; a new government formed by Marshal Philippe Petain (France’s hero of World War I) requested an armistice two nights later. France was subsequently divided into two zones, one under German military occupation and the other under Petain’s government, installed at Vichy France. Hitler now turned his attention to Britain, which had the defensive advantage of being separated from the Continent by the English Channel.

To pave the way for an amphibious invasion (dubbed Operation Sea Lion), German planes bombed Britain extensively beginning in September 1940 until May 1941, known as the Blitz , including night raids on London and other industrial centers that caused heavy civilian casualties and damage. The Royal Air Force (RAF) eventually defeated the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain , and Hitler postponed his plans to invade. With Britain’s defensive resources pushed to the limit, Prime Minister Winston Churchill began receiving crucial aid from the U.S. under the Lend-Lease Act , passed by Congress in early 1941.

Hitler vs. Stalin: Operation Barbarossa (1941-42)

By early 1941, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria had joined the Axis, and German troops overran Yugoslavia and Greece that April. Hitler’s conquest of the Balkans was a precursor for his real objective: an invasion of the Soviet Union, whose vast territory would give the German master race the “Lebensraum” it needed. The other half of Hitler’s strategy was the extermination of the Jews from throughout German-occupied Europe. Plans for the “Final Solution” were introduced around the time of the Soviet offensive, and over the next three years more than 4 million Jews would perish in the death camps established in occupied Poland.

On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed Operation Barbarossa . Though Soviet tanks and aircraft greatly outnumbered the Germans’, Russian aviation technology was largely obsolete, and the impact of the surprise invasion helped Germans get within 200 miles of Moscow by mid-July. Arguments between Hitler and his commanders delayed the next German advance until October, when it was stalled by a Soviet counteroffensive and the onset of harsh winter weather.

World War II in the Pacific (1941-43)

With Britain facing Germany in Europe, the United States was the only nation capable of combating Japanese aggression, which by late 1941 included an expansion of its ongoing war with China and the seizure of European colonial holdings in the Far East. On December 7, 1941, 360 Japanese aircraft attacked the major U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii , taking the Americans completely by surprise and claiming the lives of more than 2,300 troops. The attack on Pearl Harbor served to unify American public opinion in favor of entering World War II, and on December 8 Congress declared war on Japan with only one dissenting vote. Germany and the other Axis Powers promptly declared war on the United States.

After a long string of Japanese victories, the U.S. Pacific Fleet won the Battle of Midway in June 1942, which proved to be a turning point in the war. On Guadalcanal, one of the southern Solomon Islands, the Allies also had success against Japanese forces in a series of battles from August 1942 to February 1943, helping turn the tide further in the Pacific. In mid-1943, Allied naval forces began an aggressive counterattack against Japan, involving a series of amphibious assaults on key Japanese-held islands in the Pacific. This “island-hopping” strategy proved successful, and Allied forces moved closer to their ultimate goal of invading the mainland Japan.

Toward Allied Victory in World War II (1943-45)

In North Africa , British and American forces had defeated the Italians and Germans by 1943. An Allied invasion of Sicily and Italy followed, and Mussolini’s government fell in July 1943, though Allied fighting against the Germans in Italy would continue until 1945.

On the Eastern Front, a Soviet counteroffensive launched in November 1942 ended the bloody Battle of Stalingrad , which had seen some of the fiercest combat of World War II. The approach of winter, along with dwindling food and medical supplies, spelled the end for German troops there, and the last of them surrendered on January 31, 1943.

On June 6, 1944–celebrated as “D-Day” –the Allies began a massive invasion of Europe, landing 156,000 British, Canadian and American soldiers on the beaches of Normandy, France. In response, Hitler poured all the remaining strength of his army into Western Europe, ensuring Germany’s defeat in the east. Soviet troops soon advanced into Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Romania, while Hitler gathered his forces to drive the Americans and British back from Germany in the Battle of the Bulge (December 1944-January 1945), the last major German offensive of the war.

An intensive aerial bombardment in February 1945 preceded the Allied land invasion of Germany, and by the time Germany formally surrendered on May 8, Soviet forces had occupied much of the country. Hitler was already dead, having died by suicide on April 30 in his Berlin bunker.

World War II Ends (1945)

At the Potsdam Conference of July-August 1945, U.S. President Harry S. Truman (who had taken office after Roosevelt’s death in April), Churchill and Stalin discussed the ongoing war with Japan as well as the peace settlement with Germany. Post-war Germany would be divided into four occupation zones, to be controlled by the Soviet Union, Britain, the United States and France. On the divisive matter of Eastern Europe’s future, Churchill and Truman acquiesced to Stalin, as they needed Soviet cooperation in the war against Japan.

Heavy casualties sustained in the campaigns at Iwo Jima (February 1945) and Okinawa (April-June 1945), and fears of the even costlier land invasion of Japan led Truman to authorize the use of a new and devastating weapon. Developed during a top secret operation code-named The Manhattan Project, the atomic bomb was unleashed on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in early August. On August 15, the Japanese government issued a statement declaring they would accept the terms of the Potsdam Declaration, and on September 2, U.S. General Douglas MacArthur accepted Japan’s formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

African American Servicemen Fight Two Wars

World War II exposed a glaring paradox within the United States Armed Forces. Although more than 1 million African Americans served in the war to defeat Nazism and fascism, they did so in segregated units. The same discriminatory Jim Crow policies that were rampant in American society were reinforced by the U.S. military. Black servicemen rarely saw combat and were largely relegated to labor and supply units that were commanded by white officers.

There were several African American units that proved essential in helping to win World War II, with the Tuskegee Airmen being among the most celebrated. But the Red Ball Express, the truck convoy of mostly Black drivers were responsible for delivering essential goods to General George S. Patton ’s troops on the front lines in France. The all-Black 761st Tank Battalion fought in the Battle of the Bulge, and the 92 Infantry Division, fought in fierce ground battles in Italy. Yet, despite their role in defeating fascism, the fight for equality continued for African American soldiers after the World War II ended. They remained in segregated units and lower-ranking positions, well into the Korean War , a few years after President Truman signed an executive order to desegregate the U.S. military in 1948.

World War II Casualties and Legacy

World War II proved to be the deadliest international conflict in history, taking the lives of 60 to 80 million people, including 6 million Jews who died at the hands of the Nazis during the Holocaust . Civilians made up an estimated 50-55 million deaths from the war, while military comprised 21 to 25 million of those lost during the war. Millions more were injured, and still more lost their homes and property. 

The legacy of the war would include the spread of communism from the Soviet Union into eastern Europe as well as its eventual triumph in China, and the global shift in power from Europe to two rival superpowers–the United States and the Soviet Union–that would soon face off against each other in the Cold War .

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The Road to War: understanding the causes of World War II

The Second World War was one of the deadliest and most devastating conflicts in human history, claiming the lives of tens of millions of people across the globe.

While the war's causes are complex and multifaceted, it is generally agreed that a combination of factors, including economic instability, political tensions, and territorial ambitions, contributed to the outbreak of hostilities in 1939.

World War II began when Nazi Germany invaded Poland on the 1st of September 1939.

However, this single action was not the only reason why the world fell into a global conflict for the second time.

Instead, there were both long-term and short-term causes that meant that the attack on Poland began the war. 

Long-term verses short-term causes

Every historical event occurs because of a series of events that happened beforehand. Things that directly lead to another event are called ‘Causes’.

Some causes occurred immediately before the event began, while others existed for several years before they caused the event.

• Causes that occurred only a few hours, days or weeks before the event are called 'Short Term Causes'
• Causes that existed for years, decades or centuries before the event are called 'Long Term Causes' 

Long-term causes of WWII

1. the treaty of versailles.

When World War One ended in 1918, the various countries involved had to decide how to punish Germany for starting the war.

To do this, leaders from countries across the world met at the Palace of Versailles in France in 1919 to create an official document to outline the specific punishments.

This document was called the Treaty of Versailles.

Each of the leaders had different desires for what to do to Germany. Prime Minister Clemenceau of France wanted the punishment to be severe so that Germany would not have the strength or resources to start another war.

On the other hand, the President of America, Woodrow Wilson, had a 14-point strategy that he believed would create world peace in a way that wasn't too harsh to Germany. 

However, the final treaty was particularly cruel. There were five things in the document that enraged a lot of Germans:

• Germany had to accept full blame for starting World War One
• Germany had to pay 6,600 million pounds for starting the war
• Germany was not allowed an army larger than 100,000 men, and was allowed no thanks, air force nor submarines.
• Germany had to give up control of a region called the Rhineland, which was an important industrial centre
• Various parts of Germany were handed over to other countries and Germany was banned from ever joining with Austria (called the Anschluss )

These terms sent Germany into a deep economic crisis in the 1920s, with many people losing jobs and struggling to feed their families.

Just when Germany was recovering at the end of the decade, the Great Depression hit, which sent Germans into poverty again.

The German people were outraged and blamed the Treaty of Versailles for their suffering.

In the hope of finding a solution to their problems, the Germany people voted for Adolf Hitler, who promised to undo the terms of the treaty.

2. Hitler's military aggression

After Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933, he immediately began ignoring the terms of the Treaty of Versailles.

He began increasing the size of the Germany army and investing in the latest military equipment and strategies.

In 1934, he officially increased the size of the army beyond the 100,000 limit and created a German air force.

The rest of the world were fully aware that these things were occurring, but they didn't intervene to enforce the terms of the treaty, because many people in other countries had come to believe that the treaty was too harsh, and they were willing to give Germany some flexibility.

Then, in 1936, Hitler marches German troops back into the Rhineland. This was a clear moment of military aggression, and it may have been a test to see what the rest of the world would do.

Even though the rest of Europe was alarmed and voiced concern, no punishments were handed to Germany, and they were allowed to occupy the region again.

Britain in particular didn't respond to Hitler's actions, as it was preoccupied with its own domestic economic and political issues at the time.

The British politicians believed that the general public did not want to engage in another costly conflict so soon after the devastation of World War I.

Additionally, the British government believed that Germany's actions were not necessarily aggressive, but rather an attempt to restore its own territorial integrity. 

Some leaders were sympathetic to the German cause since they thought that the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh and we willing to grant Hitler some concessions if it meant that another world war could be avoided.

Hitler was now more confident that he could expand further, and aimed to take back former German lands that had been taken away after World War One.

In March 1938, he marched into Austria, where Hitler forced the Austrian people to vote on whether they would like to join with Germany into a single country.

The results of the vote indicated that 99% of Austrians wanted Anschluss, which Hitler then promised to create.

"Anschluss" was the term used to describe the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany.

Alarmed, Austrian leaders called on Britain and France to intervene. When these countries sent their concerns to Hitler, he simply promised that the Anschluss was the end of his military invasions, and Europe said that they believed him and did nothing.

However, Hitler had no intention of stopping there and, six months, he sent a demand to the neighbouring country of Czechoslovakia to hand back the former German region of the Sudetenland or face invasion.

Short-term causes of WWII

1. chamberlain's appeasement strategy.

The Prime Minister of Britain, Neville Chamberlain, thought that Hitler's threat was too much of a warning to ignore.

As a result, he met with Hitler three times during September of 1938 to try and find a way of preventing any future war.

Most of Europe still remembered the horror of the First World War, and Chamberlain believed that the world should do anything they could to avoid a repeat of that.

Chamberlain believed that he could 'appease' Hitler, which meant that Chamberlain wanted to find a way to make Hitler happy enough that he wouldn't start another war. 

Following their meetings, Hitler and Chamberlain signed the 'Munich Agreement', which stated that Hitler would be given the Sudetenland if he promised not to invade Czechoslovakia.

Chamberlain was pleased that Hitler had signed a promise to do no further military conquests, while Hitler was pleased that he had been able to take back a former German region.

Chamberlain's approach to avoiding the outbreak of another war by satisfying Hitler's territorial demands is known as 'appeasement'.

2. Hitler's invasion of Czechoslovakia

Unfortunately, Hitler had no intention of stopping there. In March 1939, he invaded Czechoslovakia anyway.

Despite the promise made to Chamberlain, no European country stepped in to stop Germany.

Hitler came to believe that Europe was so afraid of war that he could continue to invade other countries and there would be no punishments.

However, the rest of Europe began to realise that fear of war was simply allowing one country to do whatever they wanted, and that something had to be done.

When information began circulating that Hitler was now preparing to invade Poland, a number of European countries realised that war might be a real option.

3. Hitler's invasion of Poland

Both Britain and France made a formal declaration to Hitler that if he invaded Poland, that they would declare war on him. Chamberlain was convinced that the clear threat of war would be enough to scare Hitler.

Hitler, by contrast, was convinced that Britain and France were bluffing. He thought that his recent experience with these countries showed that they were too afraid of another world war to follow through on their threats. 

So, on the 1st of September 1939, German troops invaded Poland. Upon receiving word of this attack, Britain declared war on Germany and the Second World War began.

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World War Two – Causes

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World War Two began in September 1939 when Britain and France declared war on Germany following Germany’s invasion of Poland. Although the outbreak of war was triggered by Germany’s invasion of Poland, the causes of World War 2 are more complex.

Treaty of Versailles

In 1919, Lloyd George of England, Orlando of Italy, Clemenceau of France and Woodrow Wilson from the US met to discuss how Germany was to be made to pay for the damage world war one had caused.

Woodrow Wilson wanted a treaty based on his 14-point plan which he believed would bring peace to Europe.

Georges Clemenceau wanted revenge. He wanted to be sure that Germany could never start another war again.

Lloyd George personally agreed with Wilson but knew that the British public agreed with Clemenceau. He tried to find a compromise between Wilson and Clemenceau.

Germany had been expecting a treaty based on Wilson’s 14 points and were not happy with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles. However, they had no choice but to sign the document.

The main terms of the Treaty of Versailles were:

• War Guilt Clause – Germany should accept the blame for starting World War One
• Reparations – Germany had to pay 6,600 million pounds for the damage caused by the war
• Disarmament – Germany was only allowed to have a small army and six naval ships. No tanks, no airforce and no submarines were allowed. The Rhineland area was to be de-militarised.
• Territorial Clauses – Land was taken away from Germany and given to other countries. Anschluss (union with Austria) was forbidden.

The German people were very unhappy about the treaty and thought that it was too harsh. Germany could not afford to pay the money and during the 1920s the people in Germany were very poor. There were not many jobs and the price of food and basic goods was high. People were dissatisfied with the government and voted to power a man who promised to rip up the Treaty of Versailles. His name was Adolf Hitler.

Hitler’s Actions

Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany in January 1933. Almost immediately he began secretly building up Germany’s army and weapons. In 1934 he increased the size of the army, began building warships and created a German airforce. Compulsory military service was also introduced in 1935.

Although Britain and France were aware of Hitler’s actions, they were also concerned about the rise of Communism and believed that a stronger Germany might help to prevent the spread of Communism to the West.

In 1936 Hitler ordered German troops to enter the Rhineland. At this point the German army was not very strong and could have been easily defeated. Yet neither France nor Britain was prepared to start another war.

Hitler also made two important alliances during 1936. The first was called the Rome-Berlin Axis Pact and allied Hitler’s Germany with Mussolini’s Italy. The second was called the Anti-Comitern Pact and allied Germany with Japan.

Hitler’s next step was to begin taking back the land that had been taken away from Germany. In March 1938, German troops marched into Austria. The Austrian leader was forced to hold a vote asking the people whether they wanted to be part of Germany.

The results of the vote were fixed and showed that 99% of Austrian people wanted Anschluss (union with Germany). The Austrian leader asked Britain, France and Italy for aid. Hitler promised that Anschluss was the end of his expansionist aims and not wanting to risk war, the other countries did nothing.

Hitler did not keep his word and six months later demanded that the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia be handed over to Germany.

Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of Britain, met with Hitler three times during September 1938 to try to reach an agreement that would prevent war. The Munich Agreement stated that Hitler could have the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia provided that he promised not to invade the rest of Czechoslovakia.

Hitler was not a man of his word and in March 1939 invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia. Despite calls for help from the Czechoslovak government, neither Britain nor France was prepared to take military action against Hitler. However, some action was now necessary and believing that Poland would be Hitler’s next target, both Britain and France promised that they would take military action against Hitler if he invaded Poland. Chamberlain believed that, faced with the prospect of war against Britain and France, Hitler would stop his aggression. Chamberlain was wrong. German troops invaded Poland on 1st September 1939.

Failure of Appeasement

Appeasement means giving in to someone provided their demands are seen as reasonable. During the 1930s, many politicians in both Britain and France came to see that the terms of the Treaty of Versailles had placed restrictions on Germany that were unfair. Hitler’s actions were seen as understandable and justifiable.

When Germany began re-arming in 1934, many politicians felt that Germany had a right to re-arm in order to protect herself. It was also argued that a stronger Germany would prevent the spread of Communism to the west.

In 1936, Hitler argued that because France had signed a new treaty with Russia, Germany was under threat from both countries and it was essential to German security that troops were stationed in the Rhineland. France was not strong enough to fight Germany without British help and Britain was not prepared to go to war at this point. Furthermore, many believed that since the Rhineland was a part of Germany it was reasonable that German troops should be stationed there.

In May 1937, Neville Chamberlain became Prime Minister of Britain. He believed that the Treaty of Versailles had treated Germany badly and that there were a number of issues associated with the Treaty that needed to be put right. He felt that giving in to Hitler’s demands would prevent another war.

This policy, adopted by Chamberlain’s government became known as the policy of Appeasement.

The most notable example of appeasement was the Munich Agreement of September 1938.

The Munich Agreement, signed by the leaders of Germany, Britain, France and Italy, agreed that the Sudetenland would be returned to Germany and that no further territorial claims would be made by Germany. The Czech government was not invited to the conference and protested about the loss of the Sudetenland. They felt that they had been betrayed by both Britain and France with whom alliances had been made. However, the Munich Agreement was generally viewed as a triumph and an excellent example of securing peace through negotiation rather than war.

This famous picture shows Chamberlain returning from Munich with the paper signed by Hitler declaring ‘Peace in our time.’

When Hitler invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia in March 1939, he broke the terms of the Munich Agreement. Although it was realised that the policy of appeasement had failed, Chamberlain was still not prepared to take the country to war over “..a quarrel in a far-away country between people of whom we know nothing.” Instead, he made a guarantee to come to Poland’s aid if Hitler invaded Poland.

Political Causes of World War 2: Failure of the League of Nations

The League of Nations was an international organisation set up in 1919 to help keep world peace. It was intended that all countries would be members of the League and that if there were disputes between countries they could be settled by negotiation rather than by force. If this failed then countries would stop trading with the aggressive country and if that failed then countries would use their armies to fight.

In theory the League of Nations was a good idea and did have some early successes. But ultimately it was a failure.

The whole world was hit by a depression in the late 1920s. A depression is when a country’s economy falls. Trade is reduced, businesses lose income, prices fall and unemployment rises.

In 1931, Japan was hit badly by the depression. People lost faith in the government and turned to the army to find a solution. The army invaded Manchuria in China, an area rich in minerals and resources. China appealed to the League for help. The Japanese government were told to order the army to leave Manchuria immediately. However, the army took no notice of the government and continued its conquest of Manchuria.

The League then called for countries to stop trading with Japan but because of the depression many countries did not want to risk losing trade and did not agree to the request. The League then made a further call for Japan to withdraw from Manchuria but Japan’s response was to leave the League of Nations.

In October 1935, Italy invaded Abyssinia. The Abyssinians did not have the strength to withstand an attack by Italy and appealed to the League of Nations for help.

The League condemned the attack and called on member states to impose trade restrictions with Italy. However, the trade restrictions were not carried out because they would have little effect. Italy would be able to trade with non-member states, particularly America. Furthermore, Britain and France did not want to risk Italy making an attack on them.

In order to stop Italy’s aggression, the leaders of Britain and France held a meeting and decided that Italy could have two areas of land in Abyssinia provided that there were no further attacks on the African country. Although Mussolini accepted the plan, there was a public outcry in Britain and the plan was dropped.

The main reasons for the failure of the League of Nations can be summarised into the following points:

Not all countries joined the League Although the idea for the League of Nations had come from Woodrow Wilson, there was a change of government in the United States before the signing of the treaty and the new Republican government refused to join. As a punishment for having started World War One, Germany was not allowed to join and Russia was also excluded due to a growing fear of Communism. Other countries decided not to join and some joined but later left.

The League had no power.  The main weapon of the League was to ask member countries to stop trading with an aggressive country. However, this did not work because countries could still trade with non-member countries. When the world was hit by depression in the late 1920s countries were reluctant to lose trading partners to other non-member countries.

The League had no army Soldiers were to be supplied by member countries. However, countries were reluctant to get involved and risk provoking an aggressive country into taking direct action against them and failed to provide troops.

Unable to act quickly The Council of the League of Nations only met four times a year and decisions had to be agreed by all nations. When countries called for the League to intervene, the League had to set up an emergency meeting, hold discussions and gain the agreement of all members. This process meant that the League could not act quickly to stop an act of aggression.

All of these factors together were principal causes of World War 2.

This article is part of our larger educational resource on World War Two. For a comprehensive list of World War 2 facts, including the primary actors in the war, causes, a comprehensive timeline, and bibliography, click here.

This post is part of our collection of resources on Nazi Germany.  Click here for our comprehensive information resource on the society, ideology, and key events in Nazi Germany.

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Deciphering World War II: Causes, Key Events, and Consequences

There may be few topics in history with diverse interpretations and profoundly insightful viewpoints, like World War II. It is perceived as the war that turned the world around, shaped the politics of this day, and ultimately defined a course of development of humanity in different ways. Moreover, this topic needs to generate more diversity of opinions, like the D-Day topic. With each country presenting its ideas and historians continuing to shape modern opinions, it is imperative to analyze the World War II topic again. In this pursuit, this study analyzes World War II political causes, war front aspects, and social challenges in the aftermath, extensively interrogating various historical perspectives on D-Day.

Table of content

Unraveling the Political Catalysts of the Global Conflict

To understand various opinions that shaped perspectives on World War II, it is imperative to consider the political causes that triggered this 5-year armed conflict. Historians reckon that World War II was a series of multifaceted events influenced by numerous factors and consequently having multiple causes. Nonetheless, they agree to a series of events by considering what they call ‘proximate causes’. Moreover, there is an agreement among historians that political factors which led to World War II were the Treaty of Versailles, the failure of Appeasement, the League of Nations’ failure, and Hitler’s actions.

The Versailles Treaty: A Peace Pact or Prelude to War?

Regarding the Treaty of Versailles, historians look for the causes of World War II in World War I through remedies sought to prevent another war. Under the Treaty of Versailles, four political leaders from England (Lloyd George), Italy (Orlando), France (Clemenceau), and the US (Woodrow) met in 1919 to discuss ways of making Germany pay for the damage it had done in World War I. Historians point out a disagreement between the approaches since France wanted revenge, while the US proposed a 14 point-plan. Since Lloyd knew that the British public shared France’s sentiments and agreed with Woodrow, so he reached a middle-ground compromise between two extremes.

Consequently, the treaty’s terms included clauses on war guilt, reparations, disarmament of Germany, and non-union with Austria (Anschluss), among other requirements. Historians named it an unbalanced treaty with postulations that only forced crippling peace. It greatly influenced Germany’s economy and is seen by historians as closely related to Hitler’s rise to power. Historians opine that global depression, despite being non-political, shaped political events in Europe by creating unfavorable economic conditions, which also became political. It is against this background that Hitler ascended to power in 1933. Historians opine that Hitler’s rise to power was the most likely cause of the war. However, many add that the rise did not happen in a vacuum. The treaty made Germans breathe anger and betrayal, and Hitler’s appeal to them was about his promise of restoring the honor of Germans stripped by the treaty.

Moreover, Hitler knew that citizens viewed the lopsided deal in the treaty as shameful and punitive. The reparations to rebuild Belgium and parts of France destroyed in the war and the restriction of its army to only a defensive skeleton army gave Hitler a campaigning ticket. Hitler promised to rip the Treaty of Versailles and explained the German predicament resulting from Jewish, Bolsheviks, and corrupt politicians’ betrayal. He insisted that Germany never lost the war and convinced citizens not only to vote for him but convinced them that pursuing military glory was the country’s way to honor him. Upon his rise to power, Hitler started to pursue his long-term objectives of conquering Europe, which historians call akin to eating an artichoke leaf by leaf. They note that Hitler’s ambitions beyond Germany can be traced in his writings in prison when he asserted the ‘Lebensraum’ call for expanding Germany’s living space. Upon his ascension to power, his politics, supported by the Weimar Republic’s right wings, established a totalitarian regime, started a rearmament program, and pursued Hitler’s dream since the 1920s.

Historian Ted Townley writes that Hitler’s wish to control space and race could only be achieved through war. This would allow him to expel Jews and conquer Europe until he established an economic system to support Nazis in the war. Consequently, he created an economy to support his military aims and politics. Townley also notes that some reasons for war-related to Hitler’s political actions included his revision of the Versailles treaty. His moves were politically calculated, as indicated by his signing of the ‘Non-Aggression Pact” with Poland. In his book The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, historian William Shirer opines that this was Hitler’s part of advancing his conquest by securing the eastern border to undermine the alliance of France in Eastern Europe known as the Little Entente. It succeeded by countering the 1925 Franco-Polish Alliance. Thus, Hitler led to the war by advancing dangerous political issues while portraying his intentions as ultimately peaceful.

However, although some of Hitler’s actions, such as unifying Germany with Austria, were the hallmark of contravening the Versailles treaty and served as an indication of his long-term plan, some historians view his first attempts as an indication of a lack of a long-term strategy. Though they accept that Hitler had some Nazi support in Austria that murdered Chancellor Engelbert, his retreat after being warned by Mussolini is evidence of what they term “improvisation”. Therefore, by their contention that Hitler was not ready to enforce his ambitions for expansion, they indicated that his immediate political activities were building a Nazi state, which ultimately fuelled the war.

Furthermore, historical evidence indicates that politics regarding the European response were also key causes of war, as indicated by Britain’s self-interest politics. Upon Britain, France and Italy’s knowledge of Germany’s huge army, they met and signed the Stresa Front agreement. However, Britain disregarded this and signed the Anglo-German Naval agreement, which not only condoned Germany’s rearmament. It was a betrayal to its partners and a silent victory for Hitler. Thus, Hitler manipulated international occurrences such as Italy’s withdrawal from the League of Nations following its invasion of Abyssinia. He proceeded to attack Austria, Rhineland, and Czechoslovakia. This occurred within a political period when dictators had arisen in Italy and Japan. Politically, allies came to exist between Hitler and other dictators, especially France’s Mussolini, through the Spanish civil war. This popular alliance, known as the Rome-Berlin Axis, was followed by the Comintern Pact with Japan in November 1936. Thus, political reasons for dictatorial alliances were the likely causes of the war.

In addition, the politics of the controversial Nazi-Soviet Pact as a retort to Britain’s threat to attack Germany, where they aimed to attack Poland, is termed by historians as an immediate cause. Since Germans never accepted Polish Corridor being free or the independence of Poland under the supervision of the League of Nations, its attack on Poland resonates with many as the ultimate cause of World War II in Europe. However, it is preserved by many historians about the role of Appeasement in the war. The British policy of compromise is viewed as having encouraged Hitler’s acts. Such views are held by historian A. J. Taylor, who emphasizes the role of European nations in the war. He postulates that Hitler’s actions were not planned but were responses to European actions. These views conclude political reasons for war encompassing Hitler’s actions, reactions, outside political policies, allies, and complacency.

Controversial Perspectives: Was World War II a Jewish Creation?

Controversy over the causes of the war continues to rage, but some historians have added their voices, with some stating that it was Jewish creation. They opine that the Jewish community’s vast influence on business and other areas, followed by a call by Jewish leadership to boycott German goods, led to the war. Jews are quoted by many Generals and Ambassadors as having had an effective system of propaganda that succeeded in dividing the world into two camps of war. Moreover, they opine that anti-Semitism in Germany is understandable by the then-American Ambassador in Berlin, Hugh Wilson. This is because, before the Nazi regime, Jews filled top positions and were closely allied to Russian Bolshevists. They opine that their hatred for Hitler emanated from his push to destroy communism and that Jews represented over 50% of revolutionaries despite their percentage in the Russian population. Thus, post-World War I, European revolutions had strong Jewish elements, whether in central Europe, Hungary, Russia, Bavaria, or Berlin. In addition, the Bolshevist party leadership had Jews in it.

Historian A. J. P. Taylor has demonstrated that Hitler’s only aim was to rectify the effects of the Versailles and end the Communist threat to Germany, but not a primarily larger conquest. They opine that Britain and France went to war with Germany to Hitler’s push, and signs of his quest for peace are evident. For instance, historian of the British army Liddell Hart states that Hitler did not capture British soldiers when he had a chance but instead expressed his admiration, only requesting Britain’s recognition of Germany’s place in the world. David Irvin corroborates this by stating that at no time did Hitler intend to threaten the British Empire. Thus, the role of Jews is brought out, and a history of official and unofficial censorship of some truths appears apparent.

Battlefront Chronicles: The Famed D-Day

Blueprint for victory: strategic preparations and operations.

Certain events during the war remain etched in the minds of various participants. It is worth noting that military history and World War II have many D-days. However, none compares to the popular D-Day campaign synonymous with the Allied forces’ invasion of Normandy. This was not only the battle that changed the direction of World War II; it was a battle to gain a footing in a continent and remains the largest invasion over the sea in all military history. As discussed earlier, the war was not without politics and divided attention, with Britain focusing on Africa, the battle stalemate in Rome persisting, but not without the pressure from the US and the Soviets to end Hitler’s move, who had now advanced to France from Poland. Further, it is imperative to appreciate the massive planning that preceded operations, such as the choice of Normandy, data gathering, and synergy in alliances, among other strategic aspects. Pre-planning took a decisive turn upon the appointment of General Eisenhower to implement the operation that was termed OVERLORD.

Among the prominent plans preceding D-Day was the destruction of the transport system to paralyze the movement of Germans. However, many historians opine that Hitler prepared against an attack in September 1942 by building the popular Atlantic Wall. However, his attack on the Soviet Union weakened his forces through diverted supplies and men. Field Marshal Rommel was in charge of preventing the invasion of Germany. He hoped to succeed as he had defeated the British earlier in Africa. However, disagreement between Rommel and Marshal Rundstedt made Hitler retain control personally. Nonetheless, Germany reinforced its defense levels to lethal levels for attackers.

It is well documented that the activities of D-Day started on 6th June 1944 with allied forces from the US, UK, Canada, and a few from France, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Belgium, Netherlands, and Greece. The attack began in the early morning when paratroopers from American airborne divisions began landing. Due to bad weather that led Hitler to downplay the possibility of an attack that soon, and the lack of pattern in the manner of paratroopers’ landing, his soldiers were through into confusion. They could not stop the landing. Moreover, the operation employed decoys to confuse Germans about the real landing areas of interest.

Consequently, landing troops had gained control over strategic areas in the 80-kilometer stretch by 6:30 AM. These areas were Utah, Omaha, Sword, and Juno. The plan was in progress, having been expeditiously planned. It involved over 160,00 troops, 5000 ships, air support, naval fire support and a transport system for materials and soldiers. The plan involved overlapping operations, such as Operation Neptune, representing the assault phase.

Allied Forces: The Order of Battle and Their Distinct Roles

The battle was implemented by strategically dividing roles and target areas for different troops in an East-to-West approach. British Second Army was deployed in several areas: the 6th airborne division took charge of the left flank and landed to the east of Orne River, the leftmost part was taken care of by the 1st Service Brigade landing at in Queen Red Quistreham sector, a 3rd Infantry at Lion-sur-Mer, and no.41 commando landing to the West of Sword Beach. At Juno Beach, three Canadian forces pushed from Saint-Aubin-sur-Mer to Courseulles-sur-Mer with an offshore reserve division. Gold Beach witnessed over 25,000 troops with special services for recovery, assault, and mine-clearing. The last part of the 2nd Army comprised over 83,000 troops, with a majority of over 61,000 being British.

On the other hand, American forces landed at Omaha and Utah beaches. The first contingent to Omaha was the 1st Infantry Division moving from Honorine-des-Pertes to Vierville-sur-Mer, while the second was the 5th Ranger Battalion stationed at Point du Hoc. At Utah Beach, over 23,000 men landed around La Madeleine and Pouppeville. In addition, an airborne division at Vierville supported the landings, while a parachute division at Sainte-Mere-Englise protected the right flank. Thus, the US Army had 73,000 troops, of which 15,600 were airborne.

On the part of the German defense, their four-year refined plan involved an interlocking-firing method of protecting areas under heavy fire. They utilized large bankers with concrete hideouts fitted with large caliber weapons and machine guns. They had an extensive integration of hills and cliffs overlooking the beaches in their fighting style. It was evident that Germany had placed its first line of defense in the English Channel, compounded by the extensive Atlantic Wall. However, allied forces attacked the 7th and 15th German army boundary, where their landing sectors faced four German divisions. These divisions included the 716th Infantry Division consisting of mostly unfit soldiers for the Eastern Front war. This was due to their medical issues or being Soviet captives. Their weakness and dubious loyalty were an enhancement to allied attacks. The other division was the 352nd Infantry Division of well-trained soldiers defending Omaha Beach. Due to their fighting experience on the Eastern front and their well-equipped force, the clash had the highest number of casualties. The third division consisted of the 1057th and 1058th regiments of transportable artillery located in the Cotentin peninsula, where American parachutes were dropped. Lastly, four battalions were coastal defenses for the Utah beach, eastern, and northern coasts of the Cotentin peninsula.

The D-Day Operation: A Close Encounter

Sword beach: the dawn of the longest day.

The attack on the beach began around 03:00 with aerial bombardment of Hitler’s artillery sites and coastal defenses. Supported by a later naval bombardment, three groups of Allied forces reached the beach, where they only had light casualties. Despite this achievement, the land troop’s commander Gen. Montgomery had ambitious plans to take Caen. However, this was not achieved despite over 8-kilometer advances since by the end of D-Day, Caen was still under Hitler, and this was only to change on 20th July with Operation Atlantic. Nevertheless, soldiers were undeterred by the far-off likelihood of securing Caen. They moved inland, with the 1st Special Service Brigade going first and then French troops. The two troops had different targets: the French were to secure the Casino and a Block House, while British troops focused on two batteries overlooking the beach. The blockhouse was a challenge, unlike the Casino. However, upon succeeding, both teams moved inland to join the others.

Juno Beach: Canada’s Crucial Confrontation

This clash suffered the second-highest casualties as Canadian troops came under heavy fire, huge fortifications, seawalls, and pillboxes. The casualties were at 50%, but they succeeded in using armor. Within hours they had started advancing inland. The Canadian unit had even reached the final objective line, only to retreat due to a lack of infantry support. However, they only secured the Douvres radar station from Germans, a later arrival of British commandoes. Shortcomings notwithstanding, Canadian troops reported the highest penetration in France and landed over 30,000 troops by the end of D-Day. It is, however, notable that in their advance, they had come under heavy resistance from the 12th SS Hitlerjugend, German 21st, and Panzer divisions.

Gold Beach: The Brits’ Golden Hour

The casualties were significant at over 400 due to village fortification at the beach, bad weather, and delayed Sherman DD tanks. Over 25,000 British soldiers fought against the odds to advance into Bayeux’s outskirts by the close of D-Day. Their objective was high and could only be matched by Canadians at Juno Beach. Another British unit, no.47, landed later and had to proceed inland, then turn west towards Port en Bessin, where they would attack the high chalk cliff-sheltered territory.

Omaha Beach: The American Struggle for Survival

US forces were to face the most fortified beach guarded by German forces with Russian volunteers and teenagers that had just been formed. The allied intelligence needed to know that the 100 km beach stretch was now divided into two and was defended by a double complement of defenders. The beach was fortified and defended with machine guns, mortals, and artillery. Therefore, aerial bombardment and pre-landing had little effect. Additionally, due to navigation difficulties, there was a huge eastward drift. This led to missing the target sectors, followed by heavy casualties to initial assaults such that out of 16 tanks landing on the beach’s shores, only two survived. Many historians recount it as a battle for survival in a leaderless company. At Omaha Beach, the challenge extended to the subsequent landing since few beach obstacles had been cleared in the initial hours. There was a thought to abandon the beachhead until some small infantry units supporting the naval artillery managed to infiltrate coastal defenses. Further landing exploited the progress; however, the casualties for Americans were high at 5000, with 1200 deaths for Germany. Nevertheless, a footing was secured, which helped expand the beachhead on day three.

Utah Beach: A Fortunate Mislanding

Lastly, the events of D-Day could only have achieved a little if the East and the West had worked on the plan: the West, for the most part, was the clash at Utah Beach. The 4th Infantry Division was charged with the action at Utah, but they, fortunately, landed southeast of their intended point of Tare Green and Red sector. Their landing at Victor sector, which faced little resistance, had minimal casualties of the day, and they could press through beach exits. Thus, by afternoon, the troops had marched far into the inland.

Residual Shadows of War: Lingering Social Problems

In addition to the heroic and breathtaking story of D-Day, World War II also had other aspects that continue to attract the attention of humanity. It does not only stand out as an event that changed the course of history; it also resulted in the highest number of deaths in human history and the 21st century in particular. Indeed, World War II stands out as having brought numerous social problems that the world is still grappling with its vast effects across various countries. For instance, an article titled The Unspoken Secretes on Sexual Violence in the War postulates that sexual problems accompany combat because 90% of war victims are usually civilians. World War II was not an exception: the events preceding and following D-Day had a significant social effect on vulnerable children and women. For instance, the medical evidence indicates vast traces of a traumatized society 6-7 decades after the war. This is a social problem written in a people’s history that they had to live with every day.

To further compound social issues, there is widespread evidence of sexual violence in World War II that had a vast social impact. An estimated 1.4 million German women were raped during the war, mostly by the soldiers of the Red Army. This has led to widespread social problems of over 200,000 children borne out of rape, fatherless children, and mixed-race children conceived during brutal acts of violence, among other issues that permeate the core of society. Some facts, such as that over 10% of women committed suicide due to rape by US and French soldiers, have effects that do not fade with war. Furthermore, the abovementioned problems created a more complex issue when coupled with inexcusable atrocities against Jewish women and the Jewish community. Moreover, it is still evident that German society has not outlived traumatizing effects of persecution of its citizens. This has created a massive state of sequential trauma that impacted society’s overall well-being.

In addition to apparent social problems hurting the individual well-being of children and women, the war resulted in many refugees displacing over 40 million people in Europe from their countries. Major European countries, such as Austria, are still grappling with over 700,000 refugees, with most having escaped Poland. A social effect related to the movement of refugees has also created vast constraints in Canada to the extent that it is still struggling to maintain its fabric and accept immigrants. Moreover, historians such as Antony Beever have produced many works on D-Day. Part of these works touches on atrocities that resulted in social problems. He has expressively stated that D-Day was the epicenter of World War II. However, he says that over 3000 civilians died that day due to a lack of evacuation. He connects the acts to war crimes with vast social consequences.

Final Reflections: Unpacking the Profound Impacts of World War II

It is not in contention that World War II sets itself apart as a historical military confrontation with outcomes and lessons that permeate modern systems to the core. It is unique for bringing a shift in world power, shaping foreign policy, and even contributing to economic booms in countries like the US and Canada. However, it also stands out as a historical event that claimed the most lives: civilians and combatants. It is worth noting that it is not only this profile that makes it a subject of interest. Rather it is also numerous social problems that it brought to humanity, which have outlived it’s coming to an end. The study indicates that it brought vast and widespread social challenges to the European community regarding refugees, trauma to children, and orphans, sexual violence, and horrors to children and women survivors.

The challenges notwithstanding, this paper appreciated the history written in a single day and thus took time to explore the events of D-Day. It asserted that the event provided an immense source of diverse historical perspectives on this historical event. Moreover, the accounts are central to understanding the twists of war and have been touted by historians as the epicenter of the century event. Indeed, Hitler, the man at the center of the global conflict, had stated way back in 1942 that the landing of forces in France would spell doom for him. Therefore, by exploring the war and the effect of this man’s actions on its course, the study described various factors that were primary reasons for the conflict. It concluded that the D-Day event did not only mark an event but was also an indication of human sacrifice for the sake of humanity’s future. It denoted resilience on the part of the forces, especially due to bad weather. Moreover, this day stands out as one of the few when world powers stood up for the sake of the weak: British and American fighter bombers flew miles that day, destroying the enemy’s defenses. Canadian forces pushed forward in determination not seen before and gained independence, and Americans fought on the beaches with young soldiers who amazed their superiors with their determination. This study concludes that D-Day is the climax of the war of generations. It is not just an event narrated to appease a nation for its heroic act. It represents man’s defiance even to nature in fighting for the right course.

📎 References:

1. Emmert, James Clinton. Operation Overlord. Baton Rouge, La: Louisiana State University. (2002). 2. Kuwert, Philipp and Harald Jurgen Freteberger. “The Unspoken Secret: Sexual Violence in World War II”. International Psychogeriatrics, no.19 (2007): 782-784. 3. Newman, Edward and Joanne van Selm. Refugees and Forced Displacement International Security, Human Vulnerability, and the State. Tokyo: United Nations University Press. (2003). 4. Rogers, Keely and Jo Thomas. History: Causes, Practices and Effects of Wars for the IB Diploma (Oxford: Pearson Education, 2010). 5. Waddington, Lorna Louise. Hitler’s Crusade Bolshevism and the Myth of the International Jewish Conspiracy. London: Tauris Academic Studies. (2007). 6. Weber, Mark, “The Jewish Role in the Bolshevik Revolution and Russia’s Soviet Regime: Assessing the Grime Legacy of Soviet Communism”, The Journal for Historical Review, no.14 (1994). 7. Keely Rogers, and Jo Thomas. History: Causes, Practices and Effects Wars for the IB Diploma (Oxford: Pearson Education, 2010), 112. 8. Lorna Louise Waddington. 2007. Hitler’s Crusade Bolshevism and the Myth of the International Jewish Conspiracy. London: Tauris Academic Studies. 9. Mark Weber, “The Jewish Role in the Bolshevik Revolution and Russia’s Soviet Regime: Assessing the Grime Legacy of Soviet Communism,” The Journal for Historical Review 14, no. 4 (1994), 4-6. 10. James Clinton Emmert. 2002. Operation Overlord. Baton Rouge, La: Louisiana State University. 11. Emmert, James Clinton. 2002. Operation Overlord. Baton Rouge, La: Louisiana State University. 12. PhilippKuwert and Harald Jurgen Freyeberger. 2007. “The Unspoken Secret: Sexual Violence in World War II”. International Psychogeriatrics, no.19, 783. 13. Edward Newman and Joanne van Selm. 2003. Refugees and Forced Displacement International Security, Human Vulnerability, and the State. Tokyo: United Nations University Press.

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• What Were The Main Causes Of World War II?

World War II  began on September 1, 1939, when  Germany invaded Poland . However, while this invasion was the sparkplug for the conflict, its underlying roots went back decades. Indeed, the legacy of the  First World War , economic turmoil in  Germany ,  Adolf Hitler 's worldview, Allied incompetence, and Japanese territorial expansion all contributed to the beginning of the war. 

World War I And The Conspiracies It Fostered 

World War I ended in November 1918. Having failed to win any sort of decisive victory on the Western Front, Germany signed the November 11 armistice as the loser in the conflict. However, this outcome angered many Germans, causing widespread domestic unrest that included mutinies, attempted coups, and assassinations. Amidst this turmoil, conspiracy theories emerged about what "actually" happened at the war's end. The most popular of these theories was the "stab-in-the-back" myth, the notion that Jewish and communist politicians had betrayed the army by accepting the armistice. Drawing on these beliefs, the National Socialist German Workers Party (NSDAP, or Nazi Party) eventually rose to power.

The Consequences Of The Treaty Of Versailles

One must also consider the  Treaty of Versailles , the peace treaty signed after World War I when assessing the causes of World War II. The terms of this agreement were as follows: Germany needed to give up all of its colonies and a significant portion of its European territory. There was also a stipulation that the German Army would be reduced to 100,000 men and that the Rhineland would be demilitarized. Germany was also forced to pay the equivalent of 33 billion American dollars in reparations to the Allied countries and take sole responsibility for the war. Much like the November Armistice, anger towards the Treaty of Versailles helped the Nazis rise to power. Furthermore, as will now be demonstrated, the agreement led to economic catastrophe in Germany. 

German Economic Turmoil In The 1920s And 1930s

To pay off the aforementioned reparations payments, the German government began printing money, resulting in  hyperinflation . Thus, by November 1923, one American dollar was worth 4.2 trillion Reichsmark (RMS). But, following the introduction of a new currency, the Retenmark, and the Dawes Plan, a more manageable series of reparations payments, the economy began to stabilize in 1924. This was all undone, however, with the onset  Great Depression  in 1929, and 33% of the working population was unemployed by February 1932. When combined with lingering anger toward the Treaty of Versailles and memories of the early 1920s, this paved the way for the rise of the Nazis. Indeed, after several elections in which they gained more and more support, Adolf Hitler was finally named chancellor on  January 30, 1933 . With the Nazis in power, Europe was now significantly closer to war. 

Hitler's Worldview

The major reason this was the case can be attributed to Hitler's worldview. To Hitler, "struggle," specifically struggle between races, characterized the nature of the world. Furthermore, he believed that gaining access to living space ( Lebensraum ) in the East, in particular the  Soviet Union  (USSR), was critical for the victory of the "Aryan race." This belief needs to be understood in conjunction with his understanding of Slavs and Jews. To Hitler, Slavs were inferior to Aryans, whereas Jews stood outside his racial hierarchy. Thus, "the Jews" were able to subvert the struggle-based nature of the world by introducing ideas, democracy, human rights, capitalism, and communism. Hitler thought that this was what happened in the First World War and was obsessed with preventing another such subversion of nature. This obsession, paired with the belief that the USSR was a Slavic state run by Jews, informed most of the Nazis' foreign policy decisions.

The Failure Of Appeasement

Another major reason for the Second World War was the Allies' failure to stop Hitler's aggressive foreign policy. For instance, in 1935, he reintroduced conscription. Then, on March 7, 1936, Hitler remilitarized the Rhineland. Despite these actions clearly violating the Treaty of Versailles, the Allies did nothing, hoping that giving Hitler what he wanted would prevent another war. However, this inaction only made him more aggressive. In March 1938,  Germany annexed Austria.  The Sudetenland, a region of  Czechoslovakia  that contained mostly German speakers, was  annexed in the autumn of 1938 , followed by an invasion of the rest of the country in early 1939. Ultimately, the invasion of  Poland  on September 1, 1939 was the final straw for the Allies, with  France  and the  United Kingdom  (UK) declaring war on Germany days later. By all accounts, appeasement had failed.

Japan's Desire For Territorial Expansion

Germany was not the only world power making aggressive foreign policy maneuvers during this period. Indeed, in the second half of the 1800s,  Japan  experienced massive population and economic growth. However, a lack of good farmland and few natural resources necessitated imperialism to sustain this prosperity. Thus, in the late 1920s, after years of military and diplomatic pressures, China gave Japan control of Manchuria's railways. Japanese forces then invaded Manchuria in September 1931 following a  self-inflicted railway bombing  and set up a puppet regime. Finally, following an exchange of fire between Chinese and Japanese soldiers near Peking in July 1937, Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China. With that, the  war in Asia  began.

In conclusion, the legacy of World War I needs to be understood as a cause of World War II. Furthermore, Hitler's worldview should be considered when assessing the motivations of key actors. Moreover, the Allies' desperation to avoid another conflict ultimately contributed to increasing tensions. Finally, Japan's desire for territorial expansion was the sparkplug for war in Asia. 

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World War 2 Consequences Cause and Effect Essay

Causes of world war 2, the reason why the u.s. was involved in the war, why the allies in europe and the pacific won, consequences of the war.

The World War 2 began in 1939. This is when France and Britain declared war on Germany. This occurred when Germany invaded Poland and therefore, this is what triggered the outbreak of war. However, the causes of the war are more complex.

The major causes of this Great War were the unresolved issues that resulted from the World War 1. Another reason was due to the effects of the Great Depression. This occurred in the 1930s. Another reason is the interwar period in Europe. Several events accumulated and led to the outbreak of the war.

One of the events that contributed to the series of events includes the invasion that occurred in Poland in 1939. Soviet Russia and Germany were responsible for this invasion. Another event that had a great effect was the invasion into Republic of China. The Empire of Japan was responsible for this and this occurred in 1937.

Several European powers such as the United Kingdom, Russia and France expanded their territories using force and aggression. This is a process that was referred to as expansionism or imperialism. Germany and Italy were not as successful as the other nations when it came to gaining territory under colonial rule.

When Germany lost land to the other nations, it led to their relocation. This cause the Germans to get bitter and this interfered with their relations with their neighbors. This contributed to the feeling of revanchism. Under Nazism, Germany started a program that would lead to the restoration of the country’s rightful boundaries.

These were the boundaries that were in place before World War 1. This lead Rhineland to reoccupied. When Hitler saw the success of this action, he believed that he could further invade Russia and Poland without causing any major war.

Another leading cause is the failure of appeasement. The actions by Germany were thought to be reasonable since they thought that Germany had the right to re-arm herself in order to be ready to defend itself.

Therefore, the Munich Agreement was signed. This was between Germany, Italy, Britain and France. Czech was not invited and this made them feel betrayed.

However, Hitler went ahead to break the terms and conditions of the Munich Agreement. He invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia. It was evident that the policy of appeasement had failed. Another thing that led to the World War 2 was the failure of the League of Nations.

The United States had remained neutral in the war but they were provoked into it. This was when the Japanese bombed the U.S. Naval Base at Pearl Harbor. This made the Japanese official enemies of the United States.

The Japanese later bombed the U.S. fleet in the Philippines. This then agitated U.S., which decided to declare war on the Japanese. A few days later, Hitler decided to declare war against the United States. This led the U.S. to respond with fire. This then led to the full involvement of the United States in World War 2.

FDR also wanted the United States to be involved in the war. He made public statements about Germany’s attacks. The Germans had made three separate attacks on U.S. vessels that had carried civilians. The U.S. pressured the Japanese with embargoes and caused their economic fall.

It was after that when Hitler did what has been referred to as the ‘greatest military blunder in history’. This was when he declared war against the United States. He also wanted the Japanese to attack Russia on the eastern side. However, this did not happen.

Since the Japanese were not involved, Germany had to fight on both sides and this is the main reason why Germany did not succeed. Hitler tried to help the Japanese because he was not aware how badly off they were. He believed that Japan had an army that had not seen defeat for more than a century.

Since the Japanese were misguided, they made a mistake of attacking Pearl Harbor. This gave the Americans an incentive.

The reason why Japan attacked Pearl Harbor dates back to the time when the U.S. banned any form of trade with the Japanese. This was because the Japanese had been aggressive towards the Chinese. As the U.S. embarked fully in the war, it ended up spending 42 billion dollars towards the war.

The allies included the U.K., U.S., France, Soviet Union, Republic of China and Poland. The emperor of Japan had underestimated the abilities of the U.S. to make war in the Pacific. However, the Japanese army did not have sufficient resources to go ahead with the war.

The British, on the other hand, pushed the Japanese killing all those who appeared on their path. As a result, almost a half a million of them were killed. The U.S. also continued to capture the islands and drew closer to the Japanese territory. China, Russia and Britain then liberated the portions of China that had been occupied by the Japanese.

The attempts of the Italians and Germans to greedily capture and expand their empires were not successful. This was because they had bad strategy and morale. The Russians came in from the east and killed more than half of all the German soldiers. This led the allies to land in Normandy and they liberated France.

World War 2 had diverse effects throughout the world. The consequences included both positive and negative effects. Firstly, millions of lives were lost as a result of the war. Millions more were left homeless. Another consequence was the division of Germany.

It was divided into four and each was governed by the allied powers. These included the United Kingdom, United Nations, Soviet Union and France. These were the direct effects.

However, there were indirect effects and consequences of the war. One of the direct effects was that the war acted as a catalyst for various local, regional and global phenomena. This included the redrawing of the borders of Europe. U.K.’s welfare state was also born as a result of the war.

Another result of the war was the creation of Israel. Various organizations also rooted as a result of the world war. Such organizations include the World Bank, the United Nations, World Trade Organization and the International Monetary Fund.

The war also led to the emergence of new technologies. One of such technologies was nuclear fission. This was necessary for the nations to produce nuclear weapons in order to protect themselves from future attacks. Another technology was the invention of the jet engine and electronic computer.

• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, October 31). World War 2 Consequences. https://ivypanda.com/essays/world-war-2-3/

"World War 2 Consequences." IvyPanda , 31 Oct. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/world-war-2-3/.

IvyPanda . (2023) 'World War 2 Consequences'. 31 October.

IvyPanda . 2023. "World War 2 Consequences." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/world-war-2-3/.

1. IvyPanda . "World War 2 Consequences." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/world-war-2-3/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "World War 2 Consequences." October 31, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/world-war-2-3/.

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• International

March 27, 2024 - Baltimore Key Bridge collapse

By Kathleen Magramo , Antoinette Radford, Alisha Ebrahimji , Maureen Chowdhury , Elise Hammond , Tori B. Powell and Aditi Sangal , CNN

Our live coverage of the Baltimore bridge collapse has moved here .

Here's what you should know about the Key Bridge collapse

From CNN staff

Officials recovered the bodies of two construction workers who were on Baltimore's Francis Scott Key Bridge when it collapsed early Tuesday morning after a 984-foot-long cargo ship collided into a pillar.

Maryland Gov. Wes Moore called the collapse Wednesday " a global crisis ."

"The national economy and the world's economy depends on the Port of Baltimore. The port handles more cars and more farm equipment than any other port in the country," Moore said.

Here's what you should know:

• The victims: The six people who are presumed dead were from Mexico Guatemala, El Salvador and Honduras, according to Col. Roland L. Butler Jr, the superintendent of Maryland State Police. Two bodies were recovered and have been identified as Alejandro Hernandez Fuentes from Mexico and Dorlian Ronial Castillo Cabrera from Guatemala. The two workers were filling potholes on the bridge and were later found trapped in a red pickup truck in about 25 feet of water, Butler said. The FBI is handling notifying the victims' families, Butler said.
• Recovery efforts: Authorities are pausing search efforts for the four other workers who are presumed dead, because additional vehicles are encased in concrete and other debris, making it unsafe for divers, Butler said. Once salvage operations clear the debris, divers will search for more remains, he said.
• The investigation: The National Transportation Safety Board is leading the investigation into the fatal incident, according to the agency's chair Jennifer Homendy. During a Wednesday news conference, Homendy said there were 21 crew members and two pilots on board the Dali cargo ship when it crashed into the bridge. She also said a senior NTSB hazmat investigator identified 56 containers of hazardous material, and that some containers are in the water. The agency received six hours of voyage data from the ship and the investigation could take 12 to 24 months to complete, Homendy said. She emphasized that NTSB will not analyze information collected or provide conclusions while on scene of the collapse.
• Looking forward: Department of Transportation Secretary Pete Buttigieg said rebuilding the bridge will not be "quick or easy" but that it will get done. He said there are four main focus points ahead: reopening the port, dealing with supply chain issues until its reopening, rebuilding the bridge and dealing with traffic issues until the bridge is rebuilt. Biden  pledged the full support  of the federal government in the response and recovery efforts. His administration has already conveyed a sense of urgency to open up federal funding to remove debris and ultimately rebuild the bridge. Maryland has submitted a request to the Biden administration for emergency relief funds "to assist in our work going forward," Moore said Wednesday.

It's almost impossible to place people on the bow of ship due to the unstable structure, fire official says

 From CNN's Sarah Engel

Baltimore City Fire Chief James Wallace said Wednesday that the cargo ship's bridge structure and containers at the bow remain unstable.

"It's going to be very difficult, if not impossible, and very dangerous, to place people on the bow of that boat right now," Wallace told CNN's Kaitlan Collins.

"Naturally, we're still very cognizant of the fact that there are hazardous materials on board the vessel itself," Wallace said, alluding to the National Transportation Safety Board saying earlier that 56 containers were carrying hazardous materials.

Wallace said his team is relying heavily on aerial recognizance, including drones. "That's the only way we're able to see in," he said.  

He added that the aerial surveillance has "been able to really assure us right now we have no [chemical] reactions on board." 

"It's just utter devastation," NTSB chief says of the bridge collapse site

From CNN's Aditi Sangal

Jennifer Homendy, chair of the National Transportation Safety Board, called the site of the Key Bridge collapse "devastating."

"It's pretty devastating, certainly, seeing not just what's going on with the cargo containers, but just looking at what was a bridge span — three bridge spans that is pretty much gone. It's just utter devastation," she said at Wednesday evening's news briefing.

She added that she is thinking of families who lost loved ones and those who are waiting to reunite with their lived ones.

NTSB interviewed the Dali's captain and some other crew members today, agency chief says

The National Transportation Safety Board has interviewed the ship's captain, his mate, the chief engineer and one other engineer today, according to Chair Jennifer Homendy.

The two pilots on board the Dali at the time of collision will be interviewed tomorrow, she added.

Cargo ship's voyage data recorder is basic when compared to an airplane's, NTSB chair says

From CNN's Tori B. Powell

The voyage data recorder on the cargo ship Dali was a "newer model" but is considered basic when compared to that on an airplane, according to National Transportation Safety Board Chair Jennifer Homendy.

"But it is very basic compared to say, a flight data recorder, where we would have 1,000 parameters," she said at a news conference on Wednesday.

The NTSB chief investigator Marcel Muise added:

"It's not a ship-wide system recorder, so most of the sensors that are being recorded are from the bridge. So things like GPS, the audio, rudder feedback, rudder commands are recorded on there. But not engineering, the temperature of each cylinder, power distribution sensors."

There were no tug boats with Dali at the time of the collision. That's normal, NTSB chief says

There were no tugs with Dali when the cargo vessel collided with Baltimore's Key Bridge, which is normal protocol, according to National Transportation Safety Board Chair Jennifer Homendy.

Remember: At 01:26:39 on Tuesday, Dali's pilot made a general very high frequency (VHF) radio call for tugs in the vicinity to assist, the NTSB investigator Marcel Muise had said.

"The tugs help the vessel leave the dock, leave the port and get into the main ship channel. And then they leave. Once it's on its way, it's a straight shot through the channel. So there are no tugs with the vessel at the time. So they were calling for tugs," she said.

NTSB chair says she saw some containers that were carrying hazardous materials in the water

National Transportation Safety Board Chair Jennifer Homendy said she did see some of the 56 containers that were carrying hazardous materials in the water.

When asked how many

When asked how many containers of hazardous materials were in the water, Homendy said:

"I did see some containers in the water, and some breached significantly on the vessel itself," she said. "I don't have an exact number, but it's something that we can provide in an update."

Homendy said that a preliminary report should be out in two to four weeks.

This post has been updated with more quotes from Homendy.

Bridge did not have any redundancy, unlike the preferred method for building bridges today, NTSB chair says

Baltimore's Key Bridge did not have any redundancy, which is included in the preferred method of building bridges in the present day, according to National Transportation Safety Board Chair Jennifer Homendy.

"The bridge is a fracture critical," she explained. "What that means is if a member fails that would likely cause a portion of, or the entire bridge, to collapse, there's no redundancy. The preferred method for building bridges today is that there is redundancy built in, whether that's transmitting loads to another member or some sort of structural redundancy. This bridge did not have redundancy," Homendy said.

There are 17,468 fracture critical bridges in the United States out of 615,000 bridges total, she said, citing the Federal Highway Administration.

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Home — Essay Samples — War — Aftermath of World War II — The Effects of World War Ii in the World

The Effects of World War Ii on The World

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