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• Chapter 1-Introduction to solid waste management.- Chapter 2-Legislation for solid waste management.- Chapter 3-Waste transportation and transfer station.- Chapter 4-Characterization and measurement of solid waste.- Chapter 5-Mechanical Volume Reduction.- Chapter 6-Combustion and Incineration.-
• Chapter 7- Composting processes.- Chapter 8-Sanitary landfill operation and management.- Chapter 9-Solid Waste Systems Planning.- Chapter 10-Practices of solid waste disposal.- Chapter 11-Landfilling and the Environmental Impacts.
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Home > Books > Solid Waste Management - Recent Advances, New Trends and Applications

Health Impacts of Poor Solid Waste Management in the 21st Century

Submitted: 28 June 2023 Reviewed: 18 August 2023 Published: 29 September 2023

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.1002812

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Solid Waste Management - Recent Advances, New Trends and Applications

Pengzhong Li

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Industries and households globally accumulate solid waste at a heightened rate, due to increased global population, food and essentials to survive. Although steps have been taken in recent years to manage waste efficiently, through utilizing municipal waste collection centres and taken to landfills and dumps; solid waste is presenting impacts on human health. This is particularly prevalent within developing countries. This study aims to understand the health impacts of poor waste management in the 21st century. A systematic review of white and gray literature sources is carried out. Results have revealed that poor solid waste management comprising of waste generated by human beings and animal activity, result in the following: a spread of infections and diseases through attracting rodents and other creatures, pollution from chemicals released through landfills and greenhouse gasses, plastic waste and respiratory diseases. Global societies should be educated on implementing appropriate strategies towards good solid waste management.

• solid waste

Author Information

Parin somani *.

• London Organisation of Skills Development, UK

*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]

1. Introduction

Industries and households globally accumulate solid waste at a heightened rate, due to increased global population, food and essentials to survive. Attempts have been made within governmental policies to attain sustainable societal development. It has been identified that through ensuring the implementation of sustainable solid waste management strategies, the United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals (SDG’s) can be achieved. This includes SDG6 which is “Ensure access to water and sanitation for all” SDG 11 ensuring “Sustainable cities and communities” [ 1 ], SDG 13 “Take urgent action to combat climate change” [ 2 ], SDG 15 “Life on land protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation, and halt biodiversity loss” [ 3 ] and SDG 12 “Ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns, which is key to sustain the livelihoods of current and future generations” [ 4 ]. Solid waste management facilitates a decrease in the number of finite resources that are used, the number or reusable materials in addition to reduced recycling to irradicate waste, decrease the amount of pollution, helping to save costs and improve the green economy. When this occurs, not only will there be a growth in economy, but individuals will also enjoy a better and healthier lifestyle.

It is predicted that by 2025 the global population will increase to eight billion and by 2050 there will be a further increase to 9.3 billion out of which approximately seventy percent of the population will reside in urban locations [ 5 ]. In addition, it is predicted that each individual will increase the amount of municipal solid waste they produce, due to urbanization and increased industrialization [ 6 ]. Numerous developing countries have remained underdeveloped pertaining to their solid waste management systems. Approximately ninety percent of residual waste within urban areas is dumped opposed to it being landfilled in the appropriate manner. Within India in the millennium, the MoEF declared solid waste management and handling guidelines through which waste management could be completed appropriately [ 7 ]. The rules created a pathway through which governmental authorities were able to devise and implement a feasible infrastructure through which solid waste could be collected, stored, segregated, transported, processed, and disposed [ 8 ]. Research has identified that after spending between twenty to fifty percent of their budget, only fifty to eighty percent of general waste is collected using eighty to ninety five percent on transportation and waste collection within developing countries [ 9 ]. Figure 1 illustrates the most and least preferred steps of solid waste management.

Most and least preferred steps of solid waste management [ 10 ].

The most preferred step in the solid waste management hierarchy is prevention. This is because the least number of materials and resources are utilized to manufacture and design, ensuring minimal generation of waste towards a clean and friendly environment. The next step is reduction and refers to the refurbishment, cleaning, checking and repairing spare or whole items that are found. This step does not allow inappropriate waste products to enter the disposal system without being checked. Waste is collected during the interim process production, then returned to the source to facilitate the complete production processes, resulting in a reduction in waste generation. Recycling is the next step, during which materials can be extracted and reused into a new product or substance. Alternatively, organic waste can be composited, and soil fertility can be improved. The recovery process is not as desired, because it results in the anaerobic digestion and incineration with recovering energy. It also includes other useful materials like gasification and pyrolysis used to produce energy like power, heat and fuel. Thus, although it is not the most preferred step it ensures waste is converted into very useful sources of energy. The final step is disposal, and it is placed within the solid waste management hierarchy as the least preferred step. This is because it involves incineration without recovering any energy and also includes landfilling.

Although steps have been taken in recent years to manage waste efficiently, through utilizing municipal waste collection centers and taken to landfills and dumps; solid waste is presenting impacts on human health. This is particularly prevalent within developing countries. This study aims to understand the health impacts of poor waste management in the 21st century.

1.1 Objectives

This study aims to understand the health impacts of poor waste management in the 21st century.

2. Methodology

A systematic review through a well-planned literature search is implemented using manual and electronic databases. Literature sources are extracted from, analyzed, evaluated, and interpreted.

3. Results and discussion

Results have revealed that poor solid waste management comprising of waste generated by human beings and animal activity, result in the following: a spread of infections and diseases through attracting rodents and other creatures, pollution from chemicals released through landfills and greenhouse gasses, plastic waste and respiratory diseases.

3.1 A spread of infections and diseases

With more than two billion tons of municipal solid waste generated per year, it is vital to ensure that it is disposed of properly, minimizing harmful outcomes on public health. This is due to high contamination levels within the air, water and soil consequently affecting the lives of both adults and children. Waste deemed as hazardous, or the implementation of waste treatment that is unsafe like open burning, can create a harmful impact of employees and other individuals involved within the burning processes. In addition, local communities are subject to increased health risks with children and vulnerable adults are more at risk. When inadequate collection of waste is carried out, impacts upon the environment and marine pollution including blockage of water drains have been highlighted. Subsequently, floods and can occur and initiate vector-borne diseases like malaria, dengue and promote cholera [ 11 ]. According to the World Health Organization in a survey carried out in 2019, approximately fifty-four million tons of e-waste was produced per annum. They included televisions, phones, and computers. There is an expectation that by 2030 this will rise to seventy-five million tons.

A process of fermentation can occur due to improper disposal of organic waste, which promotes the ideal environment for microbial pathogens to “survive and thrive” [ 12 ]. This led to serious human health hazards because, when humans have direct contact with such solid waste, they can contract chronic ailments and infections. When solid waste is left unattended on roadsides and waste accumulates, the effects can be most harmful as they gradually become a breeding ground for the infestation of rats, mosquitoes and cockroaches. It is well known that rodents can contribute to food poisoning, Dengue and Malaria. Hence it is vital that solid waste is properly disposed of, to limit the number of pests carrying diseases and a reduction of the impact on the health of the larger public population.

When solid waste is not properly disposed of using scientific methods, the individuals most at risk are municipal workers and rag pickers. This includes when individuals have been exposed to pollutants and toxic substances, as this can result in potential blood infections and skin irritation. Figure 2 provides a strategy to facilitate sustainable management of organic waste. It includes the generation of waste, which should then be handled, sorted, stored, and processed appropriately. The waste should then be collected, processed, and recovered or transferred and transported, after which it should be correctly disposed of.

Sustainable strategy of organic waste management facilitation [ 13 ].

3.2 Pollution from chemicals

The local area economy has an impact upon the amount of waste composition, according to research. The use of packaged goods are likely to be utilized by high earners, for example plastic, glass, metals and paper. Hence, waste management practices are impacted and reflected through waste composition discrepancies [ 14 ]. Some waste is deemed as hazardous including medicines, pesticides and batteries which are mixed in with the municipal waste. In addition, fruit and vegetables are organic waste, while biomedical waste should not be mixed with municipal solid waste like blood-stained clothes, sanitary products, and disposable syringes, due to the risk of contamination and increased infection rates [ 15 ]. However, the most amount of organic waste is accumulated through domestic use, in contrast demolition produce and road sweeping constitutes to inert waste. Nevertheless, the composition of municipal solid waste can differ between cities [ 16 ].

Junkyards have vastly contributed to detrimental impacts on public health and the environment [ 17 ]. Anaerobic conditions are generated within open dumps leading to the production of methane which is a decomposition of biodegradable waste. However, the methane gas is a major contributing element in global warming and facilitating explosions and fires [ 18 ]. Other challenges contributing to poor health implications is the production of bad odor and generation of leaches that accumulate within the water reservoirs [ 19 ]. This is most notable within developing countries like India, when encountering hot weather conditions reaching 45°C [ 20 ]. In addition, respiratory diseases have been heightened due to waste being burnt uncontrollably, without the implementation of adequate controls. This has resulted in fine particles forming, consequently leading to smog and respiratory diseases [ 17 ]. Poor waste management has resulted in tremendous effects on public health including an increase in infections. This can involve bacterial infections, throat and nose inflammation, asthma, allergies, difficulties in breathing, and a reduced immunity [ 21 ].

Even within developed counties like the United Kingdom, research has revealed that large amounts of waste are being dumped illegally. This posses as a threat to human health and impacts environmental factors. This is because when chemicals that are hazardous, they can contaminate the air, soil and water, affecting human health, and endangering marine life and wildlife. Within a study carried out by The British Medical Bulletin, including individuals residing near a dumpsite, results revealed that the improper management of waste affected residents that lived close and far from the dumpsite. They reported symptoms like cholera, chest pains and diarrhea [ 22 ]. Although attempts are being made to achieve countries that are cleaner and greener, there is a need to ensure better solid waste management processes are in place. There are still individuals and companies that utilize unorthodox waste disposal companies and fly-tipping which is deemed to have numerous environmental and public consequences [ 23 ]. It has been revealed through a local government association analysis in the United Kingdom, that there has been a thirteen percent increase in cost in comparison to the previous year. This has affected the tax payer and land owner in order for fly-tipping to take place. In addition, due to a lack of awareness of the detrimental effects of waste materials, individuals continue to dispose of hazardous waste in fly-tipping. It was revealed that approximately more that forty tons of electric waste was produced every year and dumped illegally. Due to the mixture of chemicals, exposure to these resulted in harmful impacts to both humans and wildlife.

3.3 Plastic waste and respiratory diseases

It has been revealed that only approximately ten percent of waste generated is collected and disposed of adequately within suburban areas. Thereby contributing to environmental and public health risks. This has been linked to acute respiratory infections, more prevalent in children who reside near garbage dumps. Other symptoms reported included increased diarrhea within individuals [ 24 ].

Solid waste management requires a well-organized method of resource abstraction so that valuable resources can be found from the waste through a systematic process. In addition, low-income individuals can benefit from the position. Through this method, new material, energy, and nutrients can be found and recycled [ 25 ]. To achieve this, investment in solid waste management is required, which will facilitate novel research and development initiatives that can be devised and implemented, in addition to aid finding materials that can be recycled [ 14 ]. Within many developing countries like India there is a lack of organization and methodological process that can be followed to segregate waste in a community or within domestic use. It is left to the producers of the waste, or unorganized sectors to dispose of and manage the solid waste. Their lack of processes results in inefficient segregation and sorting, leading to insecurity and low-quality resource abstraction processes. This is because only valuable waste products are extracted due to higher financial gain [ 26 ].

4. Conclusion

Global societies should be educated on implementing appropriate strategies towards good solid waste management. The least preferred method for solid waste management in accordance with the 2016 MoUHA is landfills, due to the production of excess air pollution. Residents within communities living near to landfills may inhale toxic pollutants like methane and hydrogen sulphide that can result in major health challenges. In addition, the use of incinerators within solid waste management, have revealed “high toxic emission levels that can put human health at risk” [ 12 ]. In contrast the best method to ensure solid waste management is completed effectively is composting which individuals, and industries can practice in their own vicinities. This is deemed to reduce the burden of governing bodies, their communities, and local governments. Individuals should adhere to guidelines of segregating waste in the proper manner. This will allow composting to occur with the organic waste that is separated, treated then utilized as a fertilizer. This can be created from food that has been left over, waste accumulated from fruit, vegetables, and paper, all of which are used for domestic purposes. A variety of treatment options can be used to decompose organic waste. One of which can be found in a spray form that enables bacteria to decompose waste at a rapid rate resulting in a compost that is rich. It is up to everyone in society to protect each other and the planet from the harmful negative impacts of solid waste management.

It is important to remember that solid waste that is not disposed of in the correct manner can heighten mortality rates, cancer and can exacerbate reproductive health challenges. Thus, the management of solid waste is vital within both rural and urban areas. There is a need for policymakers, head of organizations and the public to devise innovative and environmentally friendly methods through which solid waste can be managed appropriately and efficiently. Depending on where the waste is generated, it can be segregated into categories like municipal solid waste, e-waste, or health waste. In effect any discarded materials, or rubbish can be referred to as solid waste. Approximately seventeen percent of e-waste was properly documented in 2019. This vast rise in e-waste and improper disposal of e-waste can result in several negative health implications relating to development and health particularly in young children. Hence, the importance of disposing all solid waste in an appropriate and safe manner and segregating them into different categories for easier management has become imperative.

It is essential to create awareness within global societies on challenges pertaining to solid waste management and the consequential detrimental health implications. Through this, individuals will have a better understanding of lasting damaging effects of solid waste management and solutions towards creating a sustainable progressive and safer future in the twenty first century and beyond.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Disclaimer: This Code of Ordinances and/or any other documents that appear on this site may not reflect the most current legislation adopted by the Municipality. American Legal Publishing provides these documents for informational purposes only. These documents should not be relied upon as the definitive authority for local legislation. Additionally, the formatting and pagination of the posted documents varies from the formatting and pagination of the official copy. The official printed copy of a Code of Ordinances should be consulted prior to any action being taken. For further information regarding the official version of any of this Code of Ordinances or other documents posted on this site, please contact the Municipality directly or contact American Legal Publishing toll-free at 800-445-5588.

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Solid Waste Engineering and Management pp 85–141 Cite as

Legislation for Solid Waste Management

• Siti Hafizan Hassan 6 ,
• Azhar Abdul Halim 7 ,
• Mohd Suffian Yusoff 8 ,
• Lawrence K. Wang 9 &
• Mu-Hao Sung Wang 9  
• First Online: 01 January 2022

825 Accesses

Part of the book series: Handbook of Environmental Engineering ((HEE,volume 23))

The law and institutional structure provide the basis for formulating a policy framework aimed at improving the future practice for solid waste management (SWM). SWM has recently become a worldwide concern for metropolitan environments, which could have a negative impact on the economy. The authors have reviewed many regulations, which applied in many countries like the US, Europe, Korea, and Japan. Related international standards and principles have also been reviewed at the federal, state, and local levels. This chapter covers the legislations based on the countries mentioned and also includes Malaysian legislations such as the Federal Constitution of 1957, the Act for Local government (Act 171) 1976, the Town and Country Planning Act (Act 127) 1976, the Act for the Environmental Quality (Act 127) 1974, the Act for Street, Drainage and Building Act (Act 133) 1974, and the Act for Solid Waste and Public Cleansing 2007. An overview of SWM implementation in Malaysia and the rest of the world will be given through this subject. The most recent (updated to 2020) US Federal Acts affecting solid and hazardous waste management are also covered in detail: the Solid Waste Disposal Act (1965), Resource Recovery Act (1970), the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976), the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (1980), the Solid Waste Disposal Act Amendments (1980), the Used Oil Recycling Act (1980), and the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (1984); and some acts’ recent amendments up to 2020.

• Solid waste management
• Legislation
• Environmental standards

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Abbreviations

Clean Air Act

Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act

Clean Water Act

Department of Environment

European Free Trade Association

Environment Impact Assessment

Environmental Protection Society of Malaysia

Integrated Solid Waste Management

Local Authorities

Malaysian Environment Non-Governmental Organizations

Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry

Ministry of Housing and Local Government

Ministry of Environment

Municipal Solid Waste

National Council for Local Government

Non-Governmental Organizations

National Strategic Plan

National Solid Waste Management Department

Resource Conservative and Recovery Act

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act

Resource Recovery Act

Streets, Drainage and Building Act

Safe Drinking Water Act

Solid Waste Disposal Act

Solid Waste Management

Solid Waste Management and Public Cleansing

Solid Waste and Public Cleansing Management Corporation

Town and Country Planning Act

Treat Every Environment Special

Toxic Substances Control Act

Used Oil Recycling Act

US Environmental Protection Agency

Underground Storage Tank

Water Quality Act

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School of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Permatang Pauh, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

Siti Hafizan Hassan

School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

Azhar Abdul Halim

School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Nibong Tebal, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

Mohd Suffian Yusoff

Lenox Institute of Water Technology, Latham, NY, USA

Lawrence K. Wang & Mu-Hao Sung Wang

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Cleveland State University, Cleveland, Ohio, USA

Yung-Tse Hung

An organization tasked with implementing, conserving, and maintaining sound environmental management as part of the nation-building process, as well as ensuring that the environment is still clean, stable, and safe for the people’s well-being.

An intergovernmental organization formed to promote free trade and economic integration for the benefit of its four member countries – Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, and Switzerland – as well as their global trading partners.

A method of assessing the possible environmental consequences of a proposed project or production, taking into account interconnected socio-economic, cultural, and human-health effects, both positive and negative.

A federal government agency whose mission is to protect human and environmental health. The EPA is in charge of developing standards and laws that promote individual and environmental health.

A membership-based national association administered solely on a volunteer, non-profit basis by an elected Executive Committee. Its goals are to avoid environmental degradation as a result of human activities, monitor human activities that lead to environmental degradation, implement environmental improvement initiatives, and raise public awareness about the state of our environment.

A comprehensive waste prevention which includes waste reduction, recycling, composting, and disposal. It considers how to avoid, recycle, and handle solid waste in ways that protect human health and the environment as effectively as possible.

An association that is legally in charge of all public services and facilities in a specific region.

A grouping of Malaysian Environmental NGOs (MENGO) was formed under the DANIDA-supported programme for environmental assistance to Malaysia.

A ministry of the Japanese government. It has jurisdiction over a broad policy area, including Japan’s economic and industrial policy, trade policy, energy security policy, intellectual property policy, industrial technology and innovation policy, control of arms exports, etc.

A Malaysian government ministry in charge of housing, local government, town planning, country planning, fire and rescue, landscape, solid waste management, strata management, moneylenders, and pawnbrokers.

The Ministry of the Environment plays a central role in government environmental policy. The ministry exclusively handles the planning and formulation of all government environmental policy and planning and all waste and recycling measures.

Commonly known as trash or garbage in the United States and rubbish in Britain, it is a waste type consisting of everyday items that are discarded by the public.

The commission was established under the federal constitution to coordinate policies and laws between the federal, state, and local levels of government.

Non-governmental organizations or non-profit organizations are establishments that are not governed by the government.

A strategy for resource planning and allocation focused on national priorities and consensus.

Formed to integrate the solid waste management system at the national level.

The primary legislation of the nation controlling the disposal of solid and hazardous waste, according to the United States Environmental Protection Agency.

Act focuses primarily on the cleanliness of public places, as opposed to solid waste management in general.

The method of collecting and handling solid wastes is referred to as solid waste management. It also provides recycling options for things that do not belong in the garbage or trash.

A Malaysian law enacted to provide for and govern the management of managed solid waste and public cleaning for the purpose of maintaining proper sanitation, as well as other matters.

A organization that implements policy, plans, strategies with the standards, specifications, and codes of practice and enforce the laws and regulation.

An Act for the proper control and regulation of town and country planning in Peninsular Malaysia and for purposes connected therewith or ancillary thereto.

Programmes are primarily based in urban areas as the lifestyles of the urban community have a tremendous impact on Malaysia’s natural resources, yet this community is the most disconnected from the natural environment.

A tank and any underground piping connected to the tank that has at least 10% of its combined volume underground.

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Hassan, S.H., Halim, A.A., Yusoff, M.S., Wang, L.K., Wang, MH.S. (2021). Legislation for Solid Waste Management. In: Wang, L.K., Wang, MH.S., Hung, YT. (eds) Solid Waste Engineering and Management. Handbook of Environmental Engineering, vol 23. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84180-5_2

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