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  • Published: 03 February 2020

Effectiveness of wastewater treatment systems in removing microbial agents: a systematic review

  • Zahra Aghalari 1 ,
  • Hans-Uwe Dahms 2 , 3 , 4 ,
  • Mika Sillanpää 5 ,
  • Juan Eduardo Sosa-Hernandez 6 &
  • Roberto Parra-Saldívar 6  

Globalization and Health volume  16 , Article number:  13 ( 2020 ) Cite this article

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Due to unrestricted entry of wastewater into the environment and the transportation of microbial contaminants to humans and organisms, environmental protection requires the use of appropriate purification systems with high removal efficiency for microbial agents are needed. The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of current wastewater treatment systems in removing microbes and their contaminants.

A systematic review was conducted for all articles published in 5 Iranian environmental health journals in 11 years. The data were collected according to the inclusion and exclusion criteria and by searching the relevant keywords in the articles published during the years (2008–2018), with emphasis on the efficacy of wastewater treatment systems in removing microbial agents. Qualitative data were collected using a preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyzes (PRISMA) standard checklist. After confirming the quality of the articles, information such as the name of the first author and the year of publication of the research, the type of study, the number of samples, the type of purification, the type of microbial agents and the rate of removal of microbial agents were entered into the checklist. Also the removal rates of the microbial agents mentioned in the studies were compared with united states environmental protection agency (US-EPA) standards.

In this study, 1468 articles retrieved from 118 issues of 5 environmental health journals were reviewed. After reviewing the quality of the articles in accordance with the research objectives, 14 articles were included in the study that were published between 2010 and 2018. In most studies, two main indicators Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms in wastewater were investigated. Removing fungi and viral contamination from wastewater was not found in any of the 14 studies. Different systems (activated sludge, stabilization ponds, wetlands, and low and medium pressure UV disinfection systems were used to remove microbial agents in these studies. Most articles used active sludge systems to remove Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms , which in some cases were not within the US-EPA standard. The removal of Cysts and Parasitic eggs was only reporte from stabilization pond systems (SPS) where removal efficiency was found in accordance with US-EPA standards.

Conclusions

Different types of activated sludge systems have higher efficacy to remove microbial agents and are more effective than other mentioned systems in removing the main indicators of sewage contamination including Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms . However, inappropriate operation, maintenance and inadequate handling of activated sludge can also reduce its efficiency and reduce the removal of microbial agents, which was reported in some studies. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct research on how to improve the operation, maintenance, and proper management of activated sludge systems to transfer knowledge to users of sludge systems and prevent further health issues related to microbial agents.

Introduction

Due to hazardous impacts of municipal, industrial and hospital wastewater on water, soil, air and agricultural products, wastewater treatment and the proper disposal of the sludge produced are indispensable from an environmental safety point of view [ 1 , 2 ]. Economically, effective wastewater treatment has important effects on saving water, and preventing unnecessary water losses [ 3 ]. In arid and semiarid countries such as Iran, the water demand has increased and annual rainfall is low also in regions of North Africa, Southern Europe, and in large countries such as Australia and the United States. Consequently, reuse of sewage is the most sustainable and long-term solution to the problem of water scarcity [ 4 , 5 ]. In the next 30 years, the world’s population will increase by more than double. Due to population growth, the amount of water available in 1960 was reduced to 3300 cubic meters and in 1995 it was reduced to 1250 cubic meters. This trend is projected to decrease to 650 cubic meters worldwide by 2025 [ 6 ]. Due to this water shortage crisis, water from wastewater treatment need to be reused increasingly in the near future [ 6 ]. Wastewater reuse requires treatment and application of appropriate wastewater treatment systems [ 7 ]. In recent years, increased research has been done on wastewater treatment using simple, low-cost, easy-to-use methods in developing countries [ 8 , 9 ]. Systems and processes such as activated sludge, aerated lagoons, stabilization ponds, natural and synthetic wetlands, trickling filters, rotating biological contactors (RBCs) have been used for wastewater treatment and removal of physical, chemical and biological contaminants [ 10 , 11 ]. Among different contaminants of wastewater, microbial agents becoming increasingly important and their removal efficiency should be reported in different wastewater treatment systems [ 12 , 13 ]. Biological contaminants in wastewater are different types of bacteria ( Fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli , Salmonella , Shigella , Vibrio cholerae ), diverse Parasite cysts and eggs , viruses and fungi. All of them can be hazardous to environmental and human health depending on the type and amount [ 14 , 15 ]. For example, bacteria in wastewater cause cholera, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis, viruses can cause hepatitis, and protozoa can cause dysentery [ 16 , 17 ]. Many microbial agents attached to suspended solids in wastewater if inadequately treated and wastewater discharge into the environment, such as river water, green space, and crops, put humans and aquatic organisms at risk [ 18 , 19 ]. Therefore, utilization of appropriate wastewater treatment systems tailored to a variety of microbial agents is essential to achieve as complete as possible elimination of biological agents. For example, in the study of Sharafi et al., (2015) with the aim of determining the removal efficiency of parasites from wastewater using a wetland system, the removal rates of protozoan cysts and Parasite eggs were 99.7 and 100%, respectively [ 20 ]. Okoh, et.al. (2010) reported that activated sludge processes, oxidation pools, activated carbon filtration, lime and chlorination coagulation eliminated removed 50–90% of wastewater viruses [ 21 ]. Wastewater from wastewater treatment plants, is used in Iran without restrictions and controls like in many other countries. Therefore, it is necessary to employ proper sewage treatment systems, before water can be publicly used such as for irrigation. This study is focusing on the efficacy of different wastewater treatment systems in removing microbial agents.

Study protocol

This systematic review study was carried out to determine the efficacy of wastewater treatment systems in the removal of microbial agents (bacteria, parasites, viruses, and fungi) by searching all articles published in 5 Iranian Journals of Environmental Health. The data were collected by referring to the specialized site of each journal, from the beginning of 2008 to the latest issue of 2018. Reviewed journals included; Iranian Journal of Health and Environment (IJHE), Journal of Environmental Health Engineering (JEHE), Journal of Research in Environmental Health (JREH), and two English-language journals, Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal (EHEMJ), Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering (JEHSE).

Search strategy

Inquired information was collected by searching for keywords on the sites of Iranian specialty health journal. Key words included; ‘waste water’ OR ‘waste-water’ OR ‘wastewater treatment’ OR ‘effluent’ OR ‘sewage’ OR ‘sewage treatment’ OR ‘sewage disposal’ OR ‘wastewater disposal’ AND ‘treat’ OR ‘remove’ AND ‘microb’ AND ‘pathogen’ AND ‘bacteria’ AND ‘virus’ AND ‘parasite’ AND ‘FCs’ OR ‘Fecal coliforms ’ AND ‘Iran’.

A manual search was performed by checking all published articles. This way, the abstracts of all published articles were reviewed over the period of 11 years between 2008 and 2018.

Inclusion criteria

Inclusion criteria for this study included the year of publication, type of wastewater samples (municipal wastewater, domestic wastewater, hospital wastewater), number of samples (more than 5 wastewater samples), treatment procedures (different types), state the required and mention the type of purification (type of treatment, type of microbial agents, amount or percentage of microbial agents removed).

Exclusion criteria

Exclusion criteria for this study were: lack of access to the full article, inappropriate subject matter, inadequacy of the method of treatment and purification, lack of expression of the type of microbial agents removed, review studies, and letters to the editor.

Quality assessment articles

This study is based on standard checklist PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyzes). The US-based National Institute of Health Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies [ 22 ] for qualitative studies was used. This checklist is made based on the following criteria: Yes, No, cannot determine, Not applicable, and Not reported. It has eliminated the scoring problems. The checklist included 14 questions that were used for research purposes, samples, inclusion and exclusion criteria, findings, results and publication period of each of the 14 articles (Table  1 ).

Extract information from articles

In order to extract information, all articles were evaluated independently by two reviewers based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. Both reviewers eventually summarized the information and in cases where the information was inconsistent a third reviewer’s comments was used. The information extracted from the articles was included in the researcher’s checklist for qualitative approval and used in other prior author studies of this paper [ 23 , 24 , 25 ]. The checklist included the name of the first author, the year of publication of the research, the type of study, the number of samples, the type of purification, the type of microbial agents and the rate of microbial removal. Additionally, the removal rates of the microbial agents mentioned in the studies were compared with US-EPA standards [ 26 , 27 ] (Table  2 ).

Search results

In this study, 1468 articles related to 118 issues of 5 environmental health journals were reviewed. In the first phase of the search process, 216 articles on wastewater treatment were identified. Then, 196 inappropriate and irrelevant articles were excluded for the purpose of the study. Finally, after reviewing the information and quality of the articles, 14 articles were eligible for systematic review (Fig.  1 ).

figure 1

Flowchart describing the study design

Descriptive results of articles

Of the 14 articles reviewed, the largest number of articles (9 articles; 64.2%) were published between 2014 and 2018. Most of the experiments were carried out on wastewater samples in Tehran (28.58%). In total, studies were conducted in 10 cities of Iran (Fig.  2 ).

figure 2

Cities selected for wastewater sampling in 14 articles

Concerning the type of microbial agents, it was found that a total of 14 articles have eliminated types of bacteria and parasites from municipal, hospital and industrial wastewater (Fig.  3 ). In 11 articles, two main microbial indices ( Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms ) were used as bioindicators to evaluate the efficacy of the wastewater treatment systems (Fig. 3 ).

figure 3

Types of microbial agents removed in wastewater based on the articles

Quality assessment of articles

The qualitative results of the articles showed that most of the studies were of good quality but in many articles the method of determination of sample size (Q5) was not specified. In the articles, participation rate of eligible persons, inclusion and exclusion criteria, exposure (s) were evaluated more than once, and blinding of participant exposure status was not relevant and not applicable (Q10, Q4, Q3 and Q12) (Table  3 ).

Article features

Articles on the efficacy of a variety of purification systems for the removal of microbial agents were published between 2010 and 2018. All studies don in the laboratory. The largest sample size was related to Derayat et al., 2011 [ 30 ] in Kermanshah with 120 wastewater samples. Wastewater studies were carried out in different cities of North, East, West and Central Iran. Most studies have investigated bacterial factors in wastewater and the efficacy of removing fungi and viral contamination in wastewater was not found in any study (Table  4 ). In most articles, the type of sewage treatment system was activated sludge. For example were the removal rates of microbial agents in wastewater investigated in the study by Derayat et al., 2011 [ 30 ], Baghapour et al., 2013 [ 31 ] and Nahavandi et al., 2015 [ 37 ] on Conventional Activated Sludge, Ghoreishi et al., 2016 [ 38 ] on extended aeration activated sludge (Table 4 ).

Evaluation of the removal of microbial agents in accordance with US-EPA standards showed that in some articles the removal of Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms was not within acceptable ranges. For example, in the study of Ghoreishi et al., 2016 [ 38 ], although several different systems were used to remove Total coliforms, eimination efficiency never reached US-EPA standards. Moreover, the activated sludge process did not have the efficiency to remove Parasitic eggs as reported in the study by Nahavandi et al., 2015 [ 37 ] (Table 4 ).

Examination of microbial removal rates in the study of Ghoreishi et al., 2016 [ 38 ] that none of the Total Coliforms removal was US-EPA standard although both extended aeration activated sludge and conventional activated sludge systems were used to remove Total coliforms . The US-EPA standard for Total coliforms removal is 1000 MPN/100 mL, and wastewater showing this amount of Total coliforms is capable of being discharged into the receiving waters [ 26 , 27 ]. A study by Paiva et al., 2015 on domestic wastewater in tropical Brazil also showed that removal of Total coliforms through the use of activated sludge was not a desirable remediation method [ 42 ]. The reason for the poor performance of activated sludge to remove Total coliforms can be attributed to factors such as management problems and operation of the activated sludge system, which results in the production of bulk waste and sludge. This problem is one of the most important disadvantages of activated sludge systems and should be addressed once a month by experienced staff and monitoring experts to correct it. Overall, different activated sludge systems are the best choice for this type of wastewater due to the amount of municipal wastewater pollutants because of high purification efficiency to reduce biochemical oxygen demand (BOD 5 ) [ 43 , 44 ].

Removal of Cysts and Parasitic eggs in the study of Derayat et al., (2011), which used stabilization pond systems, was reported as being in accordance with US-EPA standards [ 30 ]. A study by Amahmid et al. (2002) aimed at the treatment of municipal wastewater with a stabilized pond system in Morocco showing that Cyst and Parasitic egg removal efficiency was 100% and that the pond system showed a proper performance [ 45 ]. A large number of stabilized pond systems were been constructed and used in countries such as the United States, New Zealand, India, Pakistan, Jordan and Thailand [ 3 ]. In Iran, a number of these systems were constructed for the treatment of wastewater in Arak, Gilan West and Isfahan [ 46 ]. Stabilization ponds have a high acceptability due to their simplicity of operation, and lack of mechanical and electrical equipment compared to other sewage treatment systems, their high efficiency in removing pathogenic organisms [ 47 ]. A major drawback for stabilization ponds is the need for extensive land, the low quality of effluents due to the presence of algae, and odor production that limits the use of this type of treatment system near habitated areas. To improve the quality of resulting effluents, chemical compounds need to be consolidated, such as by coagulation and the application of microstrainers, stabilization ponds and rock filters [ 47 , 48 ].

As for wetlands by Karimi et al. (2014) on Fecal coliforms , Escherichia coli and Fecal streptococci show that wetlands did not perform well to remove microbial agents (removal rate for Fecal coliforms 1.13 × 1014 MPN/100 mL and Escherichia coli 5.03 × 1012 MPN/100 mL) [ 34 ]. In a study by Decamp et al. (2000), the mean removal of Escherichia coli through the wetland was 41 to 72% at the in situ scale and 96.6 to 98.9% at the experimental scale [ 49 ]. In the study of Evanson et al. (2006), Fecal coliforms removal rate was 82.7 to 95.99% [ 50 ]. Removal of Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms in the wetlands is done by various biological factors such as nematodes, protozoa, bacterial activity, bacteriophage production, chemical factors, oxidation reactions, bacterial uptake and toxicity [ 51 ] and the interference in each of these (microbial communities) will affect the rate of removal of Total coliforms and other microbial agents. Removal of pathogens such as Escherichia coli and Cryptosporidium was also performed in wetlands but is often not in compliance with environmental standards [ 52 ]. In addition, although wetlands are economical and widely used in wastewater treatment systems because of easy to operate, maintain, and operate at a low price [ 53 , 54 , 55 ], but they don’t seem to be a good option for removing all of the microbial agents.

In a study by Hashemi, et.al. (2010) on UV disinfection system included low pressure (LP) and UV disinfection system including medium pressure (MP) to remove Total coliforms , Fecal coliforms and Fecal streptococci. All investigated microbial agents were completely eliminated [ 28 ]. However, it was reported that the direct disinfection of secondary effluents with LP and MP systems and even their integration due to high concentrations of suspended solids was not possible. Therefore, disinfection of wastewater with UV irradiation requires higher effluent quality through improved system utilization or application of an advanced treatment plant prior to disinfection [ 28 ]. In 1988, about 300 and in 2004 about 4300 sewage treatment plants in the United States, (that are more than 20% of filtration plants) used a UV system for wastewater disinfection. The number of wastewater treatment plants having UV systems has increased in the US, Europe and East Asia. This trend is expected to expand further in the coming decades. Although the use of UV radiation for wastewater disinfection has many potential advantages, it also has disadvantages in terms of cost, lamp deposition, and the possible reactivation of targeted pathogenic microorganisms after treatment [ 56 ]. Wastewater treatment professionals should therefore be aware of new replacement processes and perform pilot scale assessments prior to changing treatment processes.

One of the strengths of this study is addressing the efficacy of wastewater treatment systems by comparing the removal efficiency of various microbial agents that have received little attention as yet. In most studies, only one type of system for removing different physical, chemical and microbial contaminants in a single type of wastewater was investigated and it was not possible to compare the removal efficiency of microbial agents. One of the limitations of this study was the lack of reviewing published articles on wastewater treatment systems in other than the 5 Iranian journals. This limitation, however, might be negligible because the research on wastewater treatment was done by environmental health professionals. Therefore, most studies in this area are published in specialized environmental health journals.

Different types of activated sludge systems have better efficacy to remove microbial agents and are more effective than other systems in removing the main indicators of sewage contamination including Total coliforms and Fecal coliforms . However, inappropriate operation, maintenance and inadequate handling of activated sludge can also reduce the efficiency of microbial agent removal, which has been reported in some studies. Therefore, it is recommended to conduct research on how to increase the operation, maintenance and proper management of activated sludge systems and provide the results to utility personnel responsible to work with this system in order to correct the system quality output in a timely manner. In future research, it is recommended that employed treatment methods integrate two or more purification systems, which then could more effectively remove microbial agents. Additionally, the reports of removal efficiency should include each of the indicated microbes so that health and environmental professionals can make better decisions about using the systems or prevent future eventualities.

Availability of data and materials

Not applicable.

Abbreviations

Anaerobic baffled reactor

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Environmental Health Engineering and Management Journal

Fluidized Bed Reactor

Iranian Journal of Health and Environment

Journal of Environmental Health Engineering

Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering

Journal of Research in Environmental Health

Low pressure

Medium pressure

Most Probable Number

Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyzes

Rotating Biological Contactors

Stabilization Pond Systems

United States Environmental Protection Agency

Ultraviolet

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Acknowledgements

Since this research is part of a research project approved at Gonabad University of Medical Sciences, it is hereby sponsored by Gonabad University of Medical Sciences Research and Technology, which supported the research (Project No. T/4/95) and the Code of Ethics. (IR.GMU.REC.1396.110), is appreciated.

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This research was funded by the Deputy of Research and Technology of Gonabad University of Medical Sciences. The funders did not have any role in the design of the study and collection, analysis, and interpretation of data and in writing the manuscript.

A grant from MOST to Tan Han Shih (Hans-Uwe Dahms) is gratefully acknowledged (MOST 107–2621-M-037-001 and MOST 108–2621-M-037-001 to T.H. Shih). A NSYSU/KMU collaboration is acknowledged (108-PO25).

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ZA conceived the study, made final decisions on the inclusion of journal articles and extracted data from them, and wrote and revised the manuscript. HUD, MS, JESH and RPS wrote and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

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Aghalari, Z., Dahms, HU., Sillanpää, M. et al. Effectiveness of wastewater treatment systems in removing microbial agents: a systematic review. Global Health 16 , 13 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-020-0546-y

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Abstract This thesis aimed at assessment of current municipal solid waste management practices and problems with particular emphasis to storage practices and container location in Nefas-silk lafto sub-city. Besides, the study had also specific objectives such as the existing status and spatial coverage of municipal solid waste management, the solid waste storage practices at household level and the locations of solid waste storage containers (skip points) in terms of accessibility and health threat to the community of Nifas-silk lafto sub-city in line with Ethiopian National Solid Waste Management Standards and other relevant international standards. The researcher used mixing quantitative and qualitative methods, and to select the target population systematic random sampling was employed. A total of 201 respondents were used in the study. Consequently, to accomplish the objectives, both primary and secondary data sources were used. The primary data were collected via questionnaires, interviews, and field observations. Whereas the secondary data were extracted from different published and unpublished materials. The findings of the study revealed that the current municipal solid waste management service in the sub-city is provided below the required quality or has a poor status in terms of usage of containers and its spatial coverage. According to the survey results, lack of institutional coordination among urban planners, the place of skip points were highly exposed to health threat, lack of standard household waste storage bins for the purpose of segregation of waste for each type at household level, lack of awareness raising and community participation priority for locating a skip point, and very weak enforcement of rules and regulation, standards and proclamation are some of the problems that account for poor municipal solid waste management service delivery in the sub-city. Finally, the study mainly suggest that, such measures alleviate the problems of municipal solid waste management: by creating driving motives into the community to use integrated sustainable solid waste management strategies by promoting public-private partnership, and creating effective institutional coordination with urban planner consultants in the area of municipal solid waste management in general and skip point location in particular.

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wastewater management dissertation

Yohannis Birhanu

ABSTRACT Solid waste, which is a consequence of day-to-day activity of human kind, needs to be managed properly. Jigjiga City, like other cities in developing countries, faces problems associated with poorly managed solid waste operation. This study concerns about analysis of the city’s current municipal solid waste management problems, pportunities and existing solid waste management practices and role of community participation. The survey was conducted in 03 and 05 kebeles. Different sampling methods were employed to select the study units including: stratified sampling, systematic random sampling, and purposive sampling. Though the bulk of the data collected were qualitative in nature, it was also supported by quantitative information collected through survey and secondary sources. The study discovered that there is low erformance of SWM in the city mainly due to: lack of properly designed collection system and time schedule, inadequate and malfunctioning operation equipment, open burning of refuse, poor condition of the final dumpsite and less awareness creation among community which encouraged illegal dumping are the technical problem identified. Insufficient funds as well as lack of promotion on-waste reduction, recycling, absence of waste recovery, practice of energy option, waste separation and composting are among the management challenges facing the city. Social problems encountered include: lack of public awareness, unwillingness to pay, ill dumping manner (often around residence and any open spaces) and improper outlook for waste workers. Incompetence of organizations in terms of equipment required for operation and man power /staff qualifications, training and human resource developments and/or unreliable service are the institutional challenge that the city encountered in the sector. Finally, the study forwarded some important recommendations towards improving the waste management practices.

Gemechu Shale Ogato

Mulugeta Abay

Ketsela A L E M I Gelan

ABSTRACT The study was conducted to assess the management of Municipal solid waste management practices using a case study of Fitche town, Ethiopia. Three specific objectives guided this study and these include establishing the status of the existing solid waste collection, transportation and disposal practices in Fitche town and capital town of Salale zone; to examine magnitude solid waste management problems and to design strategies to overcome waste management challenges in Fitche Town. Fitche is one of the town by which proper provision of Municipal solid waste management practice is still unsatisfactory and in complete. In Fitche, illegal dumping of waste on open areas, street, ditches and river courses is considered as routine task of residents. The efforts made by the municipality to change the situation in the town are also insufficient as it compared to the extent of the problem A case study of research design was used for this study in which a total of 60 respondents informed this study. These were reached through Cochran techniques of sampling for minimize the population. Observation, questionnaires and interviews were used during the collection of primary data. Data was analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. According to the findings of the study, people in Fitche town use different methods in collection of solid waste, transport it and later dispose at recognized site. It was found that solid waste management is the work of small group under the authority of the municipality. It established that materials such as sacks are used in the due course to collect solid waste. The study concludes that the management and collection of solid waste is never a duty of neither one man’s person nor one organization: rather all groups and individuals at hand. Therefore, there is a need for all people to work for the clean environment and a better life at hand. The study also calls different groups and organizations to apply modern techniques for the collection, transportation and disposing of solid waste in Fitche Town, Salale. Key words: households’ solid waste collection, transportation of solid waste, solid waste management.

Asmera Amde

Aggrey Thuo

dadi dejene

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Mohamed Jama

Solid waste management is the collection, transfer and disposal of all non –liquid and nongaseous solid materials from residential, commercial, institutional, construction and demolishing and street sweeping. It is a consequence of day-today activity of human kinds that needs to be managed properly. Burao city faces a lot of problems associated with a poorly managed solid waste systems. However, this study examined challenges facing the SWM in Burao city and factors influencing its effectiveness. The case study of Burao Municipality. Moreover, challenges were conceptualized as financial, institutional, technical, social and political aspects guided by contingency theory. Solid waste management effectiveness was described in collection, transportation and disposal. The purpose of this study was to examine the challenges of solid waste management and factors influencing its effectiveness: A case study in Burao Municipality Somaliland. By using census survey research study, the total participant of the research were 152 respondents. The data was collected in May-July 2019 and was analyzed using SPSS Version 21 and SmartPLS3. Using correlations The study established that financial constraint has a significant effect on collection and transportation where p=.000 but does not have any significant effect on disposal where p=.433. Technical aspect have a significant effect on collection, transportation and disposal where p value p=.000. Institutional aspect have a significant effect on collection, transportation and disposal where p-value p=.000. The social aspect has a significant effect on collection, transportation and disposal where p-value p=0.01. Political aspect has a significant effect on collection, transportation where p=0.000 but does not have any significant effect on disposal where p=.107. based on the findings of this study, its recommended strict enforcement of by law and policy, more budget allocation, technical support by the government, development of solid waste management through waste reduction, reuse, and recycling, retain staff with a good salary, benefit and training, and implement awareness-raising programs. Discussions, recommendations, limitations and suggestions for a future research study are further elaborated.

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Dissertations / Theses on the topic 'Sustainable waste management; Environment; Local'

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Entwistle, Thomas Walter. "The politics of waste : policy and practice in regulation and recycling." Thesis, University of the West of England, Bristol, 1997. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.361364.

Read, Adam David. "National strategy, local practice and the solid waste management gap? : a local authority management perspective on sustainable solid waste management in the UK." Thesis, Kingston University, 2001. http://eprints.kingston.ac.uk/20688/.

Jacques, Elizeu de Albuquerque. "ANÁLISE DO GERENCIAMENTO DE RESÍDUOS: ESTUDO EM EMPRESAS DO ARRANJO PRODUTIVO LOCAL METAL CENTRO." Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, 2015. http://repositorio.ufsm.br/handle/1/8350.

Cole, Christine. "Developing sustainable household waste management : a Local Authority approach to zero waste." Thesis, Loughborough University, 2014. https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/17625.

Barr, Stewart Wilson. "Factors influencing household attitudes and behaviours towards waste management in Exeter, Devon." Thesis, University of Exeter, 2001. http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.341186.

Seweling, Linnea. "Hållbar avfallshantering : Ur ett ekonomiskt- och miljöperspektiv." Thesis, Södertörns högskola, Institutionen för naturvetenskap, miljö och teknik, 2014. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:sh:diva-23006.

Ludidi, Nompazamo Alma. "Public participation as a mechanism for promoting sustainable waste management service delivery in Sedibeng District Municipality / Nompazamo Alma Ludidi." Thesis, North-West University, 2013. http://hdl.handle.net/10394/10168.

DHINDAW, JAYA. "DEVELOPING A FRAMEWORK OF BEST PRACTICES FOR SUSTAINABLE SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT IN SMALL TOURIST ISLANDS." University of Cincinnati / OhioLINK, 2004. http://rave.ohiolink.edu/etdc/view?acc_num=ucin1091035093.

Olivier, Elsabeth. "An approach to sustainable development in Ekurhuleni : the role of sustainable management tools / Elsabeth Olivier." Thesis, North-West University, 2004. http://hdl.handle.net/10394/55.

Sandgren, Lundmark Fia. "Nacka golfklubbs avfallshantering." Thesis, KTH, Industriell ekologi, 2011. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-107767.

Vicard, Fanny. "L'implication des ménages dans un service public local d'environnement : le cas de la gestion des déchets ménagers par les collectivités territoriales françaises." Thesis, Clermont-Ferrand 1, 2012. http://www.theses.fr/2012CLF10385/document.

Strand, Anders. "Urban Rain Water Harvesting and Water Management in Sri Lanka." Thesis, Malmö högskola, Fakulteten för teknik och samhälle (TS), 2013. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:mau:diva-20589.

Kadfak, Alin. "An analysis of the social relations inwaste management : Two case studies on Somanya and Agormanya in Ghana." Thesis, Uppsala universitet, Institutionen för geovetenskaper, 2011. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:uu:diva-160841.

CARVALHO, Vanderlei Souza. "Gestão dos resíduos sólidos e inclusão sócio-produtiva dos catadores de materiais recicláveis no Vale do São Francisco – Juazeiro-BA e Petrolina-PE." Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, 2016. https://repositorio.ufpe.br/handle/123456789/17959.

Ndamase, Zola. "The implication of fuel-wood use and governance to the local environment: a case study of Ward Seven of Port St Johns Municipality in the Eastern Cape." Thesis, University of Fort Hare, 2012. http://hdl.handle.net/10353/448.

Bell, Angela Maureen. "Councils' use of the RMA and LGA in coastal development decisions : towards sustainability : a thesis presented in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Resource and Environment Planning at Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand." Massey University, 2009. http://hdl.handle.net/10179/1346.

Silva, Cléber Soares da. "Meio Ambiente sob a ótica da sustentabilidade dos Jogos Olímpicos de 2016 no Rio de Janeiro: aspectos da gestão de resíduos." Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, 2012. http://www.bdtd.uerj.br/tde_busca/arquivo.php?codArquivo=4110.

Mng'ong'o, Othmar Simtali. "A Browning process : The case of Dar es Salaam city." Doctoral thesis, Stockholm, 2005. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-149.

Lannestedt, Edén Sofia, and Alexander Nilsson. "Överblivna installationsprodukter och byggmaterial : Finns det affärs- och miljömässig bärighet att samla in överbliver material från byggarbetsplatser." Thesis, KTH, Byggteknik och design, 2018. http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:kth:diva-231985.

Abba, Souleymane Aïssata. "La protection juridique de l’environnement urbain au Niger : le cas de Niamey." Thesis, Lyon 3, 2015. http://www.theses.fr/2015LYO30001.

Santos, Esmeraldo Mac?do dos. "Gest?o de res?duos s?lidos: um estudo da conscientiza??o ambiental em uma cidade do Brasil." Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, 2002. http://repositorio.ufrn.br:8080/jspui/handle/123456789/15101.

Mlejnek, Tomáš. "Reporting udržitelného rozvoje." Master's thesis, Vysoké učení technické v Brně. Fakulta podnikatelská, 2014. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-224580.

El-Gomla, Randa A. M. "A plan-do-check-act framework for WEEE and RoHS : a model for implementing WEEE and RoHS by integrating eco-design factors and activities into business operation and strategy." Thesis, University of Bradford, 2011. http://hdl.handle.net/10454/5432.

Maphaha, Matodzi Hellen. "Environmental education through sustainable school food waste management in the Vhembe District, Limpopo." Diss., 2020. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/27264.

Human, Etienne Hugo. "Solid waste reduction management with special reference to developing countries." Thesis, 2005. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/1458.

Power, Nicole Gerarda. "Women, processing industries and the environment : a sociological analysis of women fish and crab processing workers' local ecological knowledge /." 1997.

BARGER, Vít. "Hospodaření s tuhým komunálním odpadem v Jihočeském regionu na příkladu dvou měst." Master's thesis, 2016. http://www.nusl.cz/ntk/nusl-261019.

Paulo, Martinho. "Investigating environmental degradation theologically : a challenge for the Igreja Uniao Baptista de Mocambique, (Union Baptist Church of Mozambique) with particular focus on the city of Nampula." Diss., 2015. http://hdl.handle.net/10500/19648.

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Victor Mukhin, Speaker at Chemical Engineering Conferences

Title : Active carbons as nanoporous materials for solving of environmental problems

However, up to now, the main carriers of catalytic additives have been mineral sorbents: silica gels, alumogels. This is obviously due to the fact that they consist of pure homogeneous components SiO2 and Al2O3, respectively. It is generally known that impurities, especially the ash elements, are catalytic poisons that reduce the effectiveness of the catalyst. Therefore, carbon sorbents with 5-15% by weight of ash elements in their composition are not used in the above mentioned technologies. However, in such an important field as a gas-mask technique, carbon sorbents (active carbons) are carriers of catalytic additives, providing effective protection of a person against any types of potent poisonous substances (PPS). In ESPE “JSC "Neorganika" there has been developed the technology of unique ashless spherical carbon carrier-catalysts by the method of liquid forming of furfural copolymers with subsequent gas-vapor activation, brand PAC. Active carbons PAC have 100% qualitative characteristics of the three main properties of carbon sorbents: strength - 100%, the proportion of sorbing pores in the pore space – 100%, purity - 100% (ash content is close to zero). A particularly outstanding feature of active PAC carbons is their uniquely high mechanical compressive strength of 740 ± 40 MPa, which is 3-7 times larger than that of  such materials as granite, quartzite, electric coal, and is comparable to the value for cast iron - 400-1000 MPa. This allows the PAC to operate under severe conditions in moving and fluidized beds.  Obviously, it is time to actively develop catalysts based on PAC sorbents for oil refining, petrochemicals, gas processing and various technologies of organic synthesis.

Victor M. Mukhin was born in 1946 in the town of Orsk, Russia. In 1970 he graduated the Technological Institute in Leningrad. Victor M. Mukhin was directed to work to the scientific-industrial organization "Neorganika" (Elektrostal, Moscow region) where he is working during 47 years, at present as the head of the laboratory of carbon sorbents.     Victor M. Mukhin defended a Ph. D. thesis and a doctoral thesis at the Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia (in 1979 and 1997 accordingly). Professor of Mendeleev University of Chemical Technology of Russia. Scientific interests: production, investigation and application of active carbons, technological and ecological carbon-adsorptive processes, environmental protection, production of ecologically clean food.   

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  • Trends in Waste Management

Waste streams generated during normal industrial operations may be recycled, combusted for energy recovery, treated, or released. For example, facilities report the recovery of solvents as a recycling method, or the destruction of a chemical waste through incineration as treatment. This figure shows the 10-year trend in on-site and off-site waste managed.

From 2013 to 2022:

  • Recycling increased by 3.5 billion pounds (32%), largely driven by several chemical manufacturing facilities that each reported recycling more than one billion pounds annually in recent years.
  • Disposal or other releases decreased by 703 million pounds (-18%).
  • Treatment decreased by 1.0 billion pounds (-12%).
  • Energy recovery increased by 191 million pounds (7%).
  • The number of facilities that report to TRI has declined by 2% since 2013. Reasons for this decrease include facility closures, outsourcing of operations to other countries, and facilities reducing their manufacture, processing, or other use of TRI-listed chemicals to below the reporting thresholds.

Facilities report both on- and off-site waste management. The following chart shows the relative quantities of on-site and off-site waste management methods for 2022.

Note: Percentages do not sum to 100% due to rounding.

For 2022, 87% of waste was managed on site.

  • Most waste managed off site is recycled. Most of this recycling is reported by the primary and fabricated metals sectors. Facilities in these sectors often send scrap metal containing TRI chemicals such as zinc and copper off site for recycling.
  • The 2022 distribution of waste managed on site and off site is similar to previous years.

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Understanding the impacts of mining on local environments and communities

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Hydrosocial displacement refers to the idea that resolving water conflict in one area can shift the conflict to a different area. The concept was coined by Scott Odell, a visiting researcher in MIT’s Environmental Solutions Initiative (ESI). As part of ESI’s Program on Mining and the Circular Economy, Odell researches the impacts of extractive industries on local environments and communities, especially in Latin America. He discovered that hydrosocial displacements are often in regions where the mining industry is vying for use of precious water sources that are already stressed due to climate change.

Odell is working with John Fernández, ESI director and professor in the Department of Architecture, on a project that is examining the converging impacts of climate change, mining, and agriculture in Chile. The work is funded by a seed grant from MIT’s Abdul Latif Jameel Water and Food Systems Lab (J-WAFS). Specifically, the project seeks to answer how the expansion of seawater desalination by the mining industry is affecting local populations, and how climate change and mining affect Andean glaciers and the agricultural communities dependent upon them. By working with communities in mining areas, Odell and Fernández are gaining a sense of the burden that mining minerals needed for the clean energy transition is placing on local populations, and the types of conflicts that arise when water sources become polluted or scarce. This work is of particular importance considering over 100 countries pledged a commitment to the clean energy transition at the recent United Nations climate change conference, known as COP28.

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Water, humanity’s lifeblood At the March 2023 United Nations (U.N.) Water Conference in New York, U.N. Secretary-General António Guterres warned “water is in deep trouble. We are draining humanity’s lifeblood through vampiric overconsumption and unsustainable use and evaporating it through global heating.” A quarter of the world’s population already faces “extremely high water stress,” according to the World Resources Institute. In an effort to raise awareness of major water-related issues and inspire action for innovative solutions, the U.N. created World Water Day, observed every year on March 22. This year’s theme is “Water for Peace,” underscoring the fact that even though water is a basic human right and intrinsic to every aspect of life, it is increasingly fought over as supplies dwindle due to problems including drought, overuse, or mismanagement.  

The “Water for Peace” theme is exemplified in Fernández and Odell’s J-WAFS project, where findings are intended to inform policies to reduce social and environmental harms inflicted on mining communities and their limited water sources. “Despite broad academic engagement with mining and climate change separately, there has been a lack of analysis of the societal implications of the interactions between mining and climate change,” says Odell. “This project is helping to fill the knowledge gap. Results will be summarized in Spanish and English and distributed to interested and relevant parties in Chile, ensuring that the results can be of benefit to those most impacted by these challenges,” he adds.

The effects of mining for the clean energy transition

Global climate change is understood to be the most pressing environmental issue facing humanity today. Mitigating climate change requires reducing carbon emissions by transitioning away from conventional energy derived from burning fossil fuels, to more sustainable energy sources like solar and wind power. Because copper is an excellent conductor of electricity, it will be a crucial element in the clean energy transition, in which more solar panels, wind turbines, and electric vehicles will be manufactured. “We are going to see a major increase in demand for copper due to the clean energy transition,” says Odell.

In 2021, Chile produced 26 percent of the world's copper, more than twice as much as any other country, Odell explains. Much of Chile’s mining is concentrated in and around the Atacama Desert — the world’s driest desert. Unfortunately, mining requires large amounts of water for a variety of processes, including controlling dust at the extraction site, cooling machinery, and processing and transporting ore.

Chile is also one of the world’s largest exporters of agricultural products. Farmland is typically situated in the valleys downstream of several mines in the high Andes region, meaning mines get first access to water. This can lead to water conflict between mining operations and agricultural communities. Compounding the problem of mining for greener energy materials to combat climate change, are the very effects of climate change. According to the Chilean government, the country has suffered 13 years of the worst drought in history. While this is detrimental to the mining industry, it is also concerning for those working in agriculture, including the Indigenous Atacameño communities that live closest to the Escondida mine, the largest copper mine in the world. “There was never a lot of water to go around, even before the mine,” Odell says. The addition of Escondida stresses an already strained water system, leaving Atacameño farmers and individuals vulnerable to severe water insecurity.

What’s more, waste from mining, known as tailings, includes minerals and chemicals that can contaminate water in nearby communities if not properly handled and stored. Odell says the secure storage of tailings is a high priority in earthquake-prone Chile. “If an earthquake were to hit and damage a tailings dam, it could mean toxic materials flowing downstream and destroying farms and communities,” he says.

Chile’s treasured glaciers are another piece of the mining, climate change, and agricultural puzzle. Caroline White-Nockleby, a PhD candidate in MIT’s Program in Science, Technology, and Society, is working with Odell and Fernández on the J-WAFS project and leading the research specifically on glaciers. “These may not be the picturesque bright blue glaciers that you might think of, but they are, nonetheless, an important source of water downstream,” says White-Nockleby. She goes on to explain that there are a few different ways that mines can impact glaciers.

In some cases, mining companies have proposed to move or even destroy glaciers to get at the ore beneath. Other impacts include dust from mining that falls on glaciers. White-Nockleby says, “this makes the glaciers a darker color, so, instead of reflecting the sun's rays away, [the glacier] may absorb the heat and melt faster.” This shows that even when not directly intervening with glaciers, mining activities can cause glacial decline, adding to the threat glaciers already face due to climate change. She also notes that “glaciers are an important water storage facility,” describing how, on an annual cycle, glaciers freeze and melt, allowing runoff that downstream agricultural communities can utilize. If glaciers suddenly melt too quickly, flooding of downstream communities can occur.

Desalination offers a possible, but imperfect, solution

Chile’s extensive coastline makes it uniquely positioned to utilize desalination — the removal of salts from seawater — to address water insecurity. Odell says that “over the last decade or so, there's been billions of dollars of investments in desalination in Chile.”

As part of his dissertation work at Clark University, Odell found broad optimism in Chile for solving water issues in the mining industry through desalination. Not only was the mining industry committed to building desalination plants, there was also political support, and support from some community members in highland communities near the mines. Yet, despite the optimism and investment, desalinated water was not replacing the use of continental water. He concluded that “desalination can’t solve water conflict if it doesn't reduce demand for continental water supplies.”

However, after publishing those results , Odell learned that new estimates at the national level showed that desalination operations had begun to replace the use of continental water after 2018. In two case studies that he currently focuses on — the Escondida and Los Pelambres copper mines — the mining companies have expanded their desalination objectives in order to reduce extraction from key continental sources. This seems to be due to a variety of factors. For one thing, in 2022, Chile’s water code was reformed to prioritize human water consumption and environmental protection of water during scarcity and in the allocation of future rights. It also shortened the granting of water rights from “in perpetuity” to 30 years. Under this new code, it is possible that the mining industry may have expanded its desalination efforts because it viewed continental water resources as less secure, Odell surmises.

As part of the J-WAFS project, Odell has found that recent reactions have been mixed when it comes to the rapid increase in the use of desalination. He spent over two months doing fieldwork in Chile by conducting interviews with members of government, industry, and civil society at the Escondida, Los Pelambres, and Andina mining sites, as well as in Chile’s capital city, Santiago. He has spoken to local and national government officials, leaders of fishing unions, representatives of mining and desalination companies, and farmers. He observed that in the communities where the new desalination plants are being built, there have been concerns from community members as to whether they will get access to the desalinated water, or if it will belong solely to the mines.

Interviews at the Escondida and Los Pelambres sites, in which desalination operations are already in place or under construction, indicate acceptance of the presence of desalination plants combined with apprehension about unknown long-term environmental impacts. At a third mining site, Andina, there have been active protests against a desalination project that would supply water to a neighboring mine, Los Bronces. In that community, there has been a blockade of the desalination operation by the fishing federation. “They were blockading that operation for three months because of concerns over what the desalination plant would do to their fishing grounds,” Odell says. And this is where the idea of hydrosocial displacement comes into the picture, he explains. Even though desalination operations are easing tensions with highland agricultural communities, new issues are arising for the communities on the coast. “We can't just look to desalination to solve our problems if it's going to create problems somewhere else” Odell advises.

Within the process of hydrosocial displacement, interacting geographical, technical, economic, and political factors constrain the range of responses to address the water conflict. For example, communities that have more political and financial power tend to be better equipped to solve water conflict than less powerful communities. In addition, hydrosocial concerns usually follow the flow of water downstream, from the highlands to coastal regions. Odell says that this raises the need to look at water from a broader perspective.

“We tend to address water concerns one by one and that can, in practice, end up being kind of like whack-a-mole,” says Odell. “When we think of the broader hydrological system, water is very much linked, and we need to look across the watershed. We can't just be looking at the specific community affected now, but who else is affected downstream, and will be affected in the long term. If we do solve a water issue by moving it somewhere else, like moving a tailings dam somewhere else, or building a desalination plant, resources are needed in the receiving community to respond to that,” suggests Odell.

The company building the desalination plant and the fishing federation ultimately reached an agreement and the desalination operation will be moving forward. But Odell notes, “the protest highlights concern about the impacts of the operation on local livelihoods and environments within the much larger context of industrial pollution in the area.”

The power of communities

The protest by the fishing federation is one example of communities coming together to have their voices heard. Recent proposals by mining companies that would affect glaciers and other water sources used by agriculture communities have led to other protests that resulted in new agreements to protect local water supplies and the withdrawal of some of the mining proposals. Odell observes that communities have also gone to the courts to raise their concerns. The Atacameño communities, for example, have drawn attention to over-extraction of water resources by the Escondida mine. “Community members are also pursuing education in these topics so that there's not such a power imbalance between mining companies and local communities,” Odell remarks. This demonstrates the power local communities can have to protect continental water resources. The political and social landscape of Chile may also be changing in favor of local communities. Beginning with what is now referred to as the Estallido Social (social outburst) over inequality in 2019, Chile has undergone social upheaval that resulted in voters calling for a new constitution. Gabriel Boric, a progressive candidate, whose top priorities include social and environmental issues, was elected president during this period. These trends have brought major attention to issues of economic inequality, environmental harms of mining, and environmental justice, which is putting pressure on the mining industry to make a case for its operations in the country, and to justify the environmental costs of mining.

What happens after the mine dries up?

From his fieldwork interviews, Odell has learned that the development of mines within communities can offer benefits. Mining companies typically invest directly in communities through employment, road construction, and sometimes even by building or investing in schools, stadiums, or health clinics. Indirectly, mines can have spillover effects in the economy since miners might support local restaurants, hotels, or stores. But what happens when the mine closes? As one community member Odell interviewed stated: “When the mine is gone, what are we going to have left besides a big hole in the ground?”

Odell suggests that a multi-pronged approach should be taken to address the future state of water and mining. First, he says we need to have broader conversations about the nature of our consumption and production at domestic and global scales. “Mining is driven indirectly by our consumption of energy and directly by our consumption of everything from our buildings to devices to cars,” Odell states. “We should be looking for ways to moderate our consumption and consume smarter through both policy and practice so that we don’t solve climate change while creating new environmental harms through mining.” One of the main ways we can do this is by advancing the circular economy by recycling metals already in the system, or even in landfills, to help build our new clean energy infrastructure. Even so, the clean energy transition will still require mining, but according to Odell, that mining can be done better. “Mining companies and government need to do a better job of consulting with communities. We need solid plans and financing for mine closures in place from the beginning of mining operations, so that when the mine dries up, there's the money needed to secure tailings dams and protect the communities who will be there forever,” Odell concludes. Overall, it will take an engaged society — from the mining industry to government officials to individuals — to think critically about the role we each play in our quest for a more sustainable planet, and what that might mean for the most vulnerable populations among us.

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Variation of the Technical Parameters of Steam-Activated Carbons Based on Peat and Polyurethane-Polyamide Fiber Waste

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The wear resistance, porosity, and ion-exchange properties of steam-activated cokes in the form of cylindrical granules, obtained from Dorlastan polyurethane-polyamide fiber waste and cotton grass-sphagnum peat under conditions of purely kinetic control were studied at the combustion loss increased to 50%.

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Khomutov, A.N., Klushin, V.N. & Mukhin, V.M. Variation of the Technical Parameters of Steam-Activated Carbons Based on Peat and Polyurethane-Polyamide Fiber Waste. Russ J Appl Chem 78 , 1816–1820 (2005). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11167-005-0613-4

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Global e-Waste Monitor 2024: Electronic Waste Rising Five Times Faster than Documented E-waste Recycling

Global E-Waste Monitor 2024

  • A record 62 million tonnes (Mt) of e-waste was produced in 2022, Up 82% from 2010;
  • On track to rise another 32%, to 82 million tonnes, in 2030;
  • Billions of dollars worth of strategically-valuable resources squandered, dumped;
  • Just 1% of rare earth element demand is met by e-waste recycling .

Contacts: Ruediger Kuehr, SCYCLE, UNITAR, +49 228 815 0213/4, [email protected] David Hirsch, ITU, +41 22 730 5092; [email protected] Terry Collins, +1 416 878 8712; [email protected] The full Global E-waste Monitor report is available at: www.globalewaste.org

20 March 2024, Geneva / Bonn - The world’s generation of electronic waste is rising five times faster than documented e-waste recycling, the UN’s fourth Global E-waste Monitor (GEM) reveals today. The 62 million tonnes of e-waste generated in 2022 would fill 1.55 million 40-tonne trucks, roughly enough trucks to form a bumper-tobumper line encircling the equator, according to the report from ITU and UNITAR.

Meanwhile, less than one quarter (22.3%) of the year’s e-waste mass was documented as having been properly collected and recycled in 2022, leaving US $62 billion worth of recoverable natural resources unaccounted for and increasing pollution risks to communities worldwide. Worldwide, the annual generation of e-waste is rising by 2.6 million tonnes annually, on track to reach 82 million tonnes by 2030, a further 33% increase from the 2022 figure. E-waste, any discarded product with a plug or battery, is a health and environmental hazard, containing toxic additives or hazardous substances such as mercury, which can damage the human brain and coordination system.

The report foresees a drop in the documented collection and recycling rate from 22.3% in 2022 to 20% by 2030 due to the widening difference in recycling efforts relative to the staggering growth of e-waste generation worldwide. Challenges contributing to the widening gap include technological progress, higher consumption, limited repair options, shorter product life cycles, society’s growing electronification, design shortcomings, and inadequate e-waste management infrastructure.

The report underlines that if countries could bring the e-waste collection and recycling rates to 60% by 2030, the benefits - including through minimizing human health risks - would exceed costs by more than US $38 billion. It also notes that the world “remains stunningly dependent” on a few countries for rare earth elements, despite their unique properties crucial for future technologies, including renewable energy generation and e-mobility.

Selected report infographics

GEM headline figures (2010-2030)

Amidst the hopeful embrace of solar panels and electronic equipment to combat the climate crisis and drive digital progress, the surge in e-waste requires urgent attention.  Nikhil Seth , Executive Director, UNITAR
From discarded televisions to dumped telephones, an enormous amount of ewaste is generated around the world. The latest research shows that the global challenge posed by e-waste is only going to grow. With less than half of the world implementing and enforcing approaches to manage the problem, this raises the alarm for sound regulations to boost collection and recycling. The Global E-waste Monitor is the world’s foremost source for e-waste data allowing us to track progress overtime and to make critical decisions when it comes to transitioning to a circular economy for electronics. Cosmas Luckyson Zavazava , Director, ITU Telecommunication Development Bureau
No more than 1% of demand for essential rare earth elements is met by e-waste recycling. Simply put: Business as usual can’t continue. This new report represents an immediate call for greater investment in infrastructure development, more promotion of repair and reuse, capacity building, and measures to stop illegal e-waste shipments. And the investment would pay for itself in spades.  Kees Baldé , lead author, UNITAR
Many in today’s society use multiple computers and phones, an ever-growing number of new appliances, monitors and sensors, e-bikes, e-scooters, clothes, toys, and furniture with embedded electronics, electric tools, and energy-saving equipment such as LEDs, photovoltaics, and heat pumps. Urban and remote areas are increasingly connected to the Internet, and a growing number of data centers cater to the needs of the digital transformation. In the face of all this, concrete steps are urgently needed to address and reduce e-waste. Improved ewaste management could result in a global net positive of US $38 billion, representing a significant economic opportunity while addressing climate change and health impacts.  Ruediger Kuehr , Senior Manager, Sustainable Cycles (SCYCLE), Programme, UNITAR / Adjunct Professor, University of Limerick (Ireland)
The Global E-waste Monitor shows that we are currently wasting US $91 billion in valuable metals due to insufficient e-waste recycling. We must seize the economic and environmental benefits of proper e-waste  management; otherwise, the digital ambitions of our future generations will face significant risks.  Vanessa Gray, Head, Environment & Emergency Telecommunications Division, ITU Telecommunication Development Bureau

By the numbers

  • 62 million tonnes: e-waste generated in 2022, equal to the weight of 107,000 of world’s largest (853-seat), heaviest (575 tonne) passenger aircraft – enough to form an unbroken queue from New York to Athens, from Nairobi to Hanoi, or from Hong Kong to Anchorage
  • 14 million tonnes (22.3%): estimated mass of e-waste trashed, mostly landfilled, in 2022
  • 31 million tonnes: estimated weight of metals embedded in e-waste in 2022, along with 17 million tonnes of plastics and 14 million tonnes of other materials (minerals, glass, composite materials, etc.)
  • US $91 billion: The value of metals embedded in 2022 e-waste, including
  • US $19 billion in copper, US $15 billion in gold, and US $16 billion in iron.
  • US $28 billion: value of secondary raw materials (mostly iron) reclaimed by “urban mining” of e-waste in 2022
  • 900 million tonnes: Primary ore extraction avoided by reclaiming materials through documented e-waste recycling
  • 93 million tonnes: CO2-equivalent emissions avoided by formal e-waste management – recaptured refrigerants (41 million tonnes), avoided metals mining (52 million tonnes) 

Recycling rates

  • 42.8%: Formally documented collection and recycling rates in Europe 
  • <1%: Formally recycled e-waste in African countries
  • ~50% (30 million tonnes): E-waste generated by Asian countries (of which relatively few have enacted legislation or established clear e-waste collection targets)
  • 17.6 kg: Per capita e-waste generation in Europe, followed by Oceania (16.1 kg) and the Americas (14.1 kg). These regions also have the highest documented per capita collection and recycling rates (7.5 kg in Europe, 6.7 kg in Oceania and 4.2 kg in the Americas)
  • 16 million tonnes: e-waste collected and recycled outside of formal systems in high- and upper-middle income countries that have developed e-waste management infrastructure.
  • 18 million tonnes: e-waste managed mostly by the informal sector in low and lower-middle income countries with no e-waste management infrastructure. Any material values recovered by the informal sector are largely (perhaps more than) offset by extremely high health and environmental costs
  • 5.1 million tonnes (8.2% of the global total): e-waste shipped across borders in 2022, of which ~3.3 million tonnes (65%) was shipped from high-income to middle- and low-income countries through uncontrolled, undocumented

E-waste by category, selected examples

  • 33% (20.4 million tonnes): Proportion of e-waste made up of small devices (e.g. toys, microwave ovens, vacuum cleaners, e-cigarettes), of which 12% are recycled
  • 4.6 million tonnes: e-waste in the small IT and telecommunication equipment category (e.g. laptops, mobile phones, GPS devices, routers), with only 22% documented collection and recycling rate
  • 2.4 million tonnes: Expected mass of retired photovoltaic panels in 2030, four times as much as the 600,000 tonnes in 2022

Among the report’s many observations

  • Typically, collection and recycling rates are highest for heavier and bulkier equipment categories, such as large devices, temperature exchange equipment, screens and monitors
  • 81 countries had e-waste legislation in 2023, up from 78 in 2019. Of the 81 countries, 67 had a legal instrument governing e-waste management with provisions promoting extended producer responsibility (EPR)
  • The enforcement of e-waste policy, legislation, and regulation “remains a genuine challenge globally, and the stagnation of the global e-waste collection and recycling rate is likely exacerbated by the fact that only 46 countries have collection rate targets and only 36 have recycling rate targets.”

The Global E-waste Monitor

Since 2014, the Global E-waste Monitor ( www.globalewaste.org ) has been the world’s foremost source of up-to-date data and reporting on progress in policy, regulation, and offering projections. The 2024 edition is a collaborative product of the Global E-waste Statistics Partnership with support from the Fondation Carmignac.

Earlier global and regional reports: https://ewastemonitor.info

Join the conversation on social media using hashtag #eWaste

The United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR)

As a dedicated training arm of the United Nations System, the United Nations Institute for Training and Research (UNITAR) provides innovative learning solutions to individuals, organizations and institutions to enhance global decision-making and support country-level action for shaping a better future. UNITAR was created in 1963 to train and equip young diplomats from newly independent UN Member States with the knowledge and skills needed to navigate through the diplomatic environment. Over the years, UNITAR has acquired unique expertise and experience in designing and delivering a variety of training and learning activities, benefiting learners mainly from developing countries. With the strategy fully aligned with the 2030 Agenda, we support Governments and other stakeholders to achieve Sustainable Development Goals. 

The Bonn, Germany-based Sustainable Cycles (SCYCLE) Programme, hosted by UNITAR, provides world-class research and action on e-waste. SCYCLE aims to enable societies to reduce the environmental burden caused by the production, consumption and disposal of ubiquitous goods.

The International Telecommunication Union

The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) is the United Nations specialized agency for information and communication technologies (ICTs), driving innovation in ICTs together with 193 Member States and a membership of over 1,000 companies, universities, and international and regional organizations. Established in 1865, it is the intergovernmental body responsible for coordinating the shared global use of the radio spectrum, promoting international cooperation in assigning satellite orbits, improving communication infrastructure in the developing world, and establishing the worldwide standards that foster seamless interconnection of a vast range of communications systems. From broadband networks to cutting-edge wireless technologies, aeronautical and maritime navigation, radio astronomy, oceanographic and satellite-based earth monitoring as well as converging fixed-mobile phone, Internet and broadcasting technologies, ITU is committed to connecting the world.

Fondation Carmignac

fondationcarmignac.com

Fondation Carmignac was founded in 2000 by Edouard Carmignac, a French entrepreneur, CEO and Chairman of asset management company Carmignac. Today, it is structured around three main pillars: the Carmignac Photojournalism Award, which annually funds the production of investigative photo reportage on human rights violations and geo-strategic issues, the Carmignac Collection, which has over 300 works of contemporary art, and Villa Carmignac, an art venue offering annual exhibitions and a rich cultural programme in a 2000-square-meter gallery set in a 15-hectare estate at the heart of a protected site on Porquerolles island.

Fondation Carmignac contributes to the Global E-waste Monitor photographs by laureates of the 13th edition of the Carmignac Photojournalism Award. Investigative journalist Anas Aremeyaw Anas and photojournalists Muntaka Chasant and Bénédicte Kurzen explore the complexities of e-waste trafficking from European ports to Ghana scrapyards, revealing its complex, globalized cycle and highlighting the opportunities and environmental impact of the e-waste economy.

photo / video contributions from Fondation Carmignac

a free public exhibition of Carmignac Photojournalism Award images

In partnership with the City of Paris, a free public exhibition of Carmignac Photojournalism Award images will take place 16 May to 16 June, 2024: Port de Solférino, Quai Anatole, France (opposite the Musée d'Orsay)

According to the 2024 Global Environmental Monitor:

“As a result of improvements in enforcement and regional collaboration, progress has been reported in the control of illegal shipments of e-waste in West Africa. However, in January 2023, an organized crime group was caught smuggling over 5 million kg (331 containers) of e-waste from the Canary Islands to Ghana, Mauritania, Nigeria, and Senegal. Furthermore, in 2020, the Spanish authorities intercepted a network responsible for shipping 2.5 billion kg of material to several countries in Africa, including 750,000 kg of falsely certified e-waste. Even though the import of e-waste into Africa is being monitored, it is notoriously difficult to control." “Three of Africa’s most active ports—Durban (South Africa), Bizerte (Tunisia), and Lagos (Nigeria)—have all been identified as major ports of entry for used EEE, suggesting that e-waste shipments continue to circumvent the Basel and Bamako Conventions. A study in Ireland that used the StEP Initiative person-in-the-port methodology found that roll-on/roll-off vehicles, rather than containers, were the main carriers of used EEE from Ireland to West Africa. The study, which involved vehicle and enforcement document inspections at Ringaskiddy port in Ireland, scaled sampling data to annual shipment figures and estimated that 17,319 kg of used EEE were exported from Ireland annually, and around 1 in 5 vehicles exported contained used EEE. In response to findings like these, countries in West Africa are taking steps to introduce better monitoring of used EEE and e-waste imports by strictly enforcing existing guidelines and conducting thorough physical inspections of import shipments.”

Informal e-waste recycling, Ghana, 2023 © Muntaka Chasant / Fondation Carmignac.

Old Fadama in Accra, Ghana, April 25, 2023. © Muntaka Chasant for Fondation Carmignac.jpg

IMAGES

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    DEVELOPMENT OF A SUSTAINABLE WASTEWATER MANAGEMENT STRATEGY FOR PALESTINIAN RURAL AREAS By Malvena Al-Jamal ... Co-supervisor: Dr. Nidal Mahmoud A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Masters Degree in Water Engineering to the Faculty of Graduate Studies at Birzeit University-Palestine Birzeit, ‏2004

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  27. Global e-Waste Monitor 2024: Electronic Waste Rising Five Times Faster

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