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#13: Writing journal papers: Pros and cons

June 4, 2019 by Tress Academic

In the age of information technology, should you still be writing papers with the aim of publishing them in journals? Isn’t it a long, complicated and daunting process to write a paper and get it accepted in a journal? Wouldn’t it be far more relevant to publish on the internet, on social media or other modern channels that work much faster? We’ll tell you why we think it’s still worth it to write articles for peer-reviewed journals and give you the real run-down on the pros and cons on the issue below. 

With social media at everyone’s fingertips, writing journal papers seems a little old-fashioned. It can feel like something that researchers had to do before they had proper internet channels to self-publish their ideas. It appear to be outdated in this fast-moving world. Shouldn’t we publish our research instead on blogs, preprint-servers, or on websites where readers can easily and quickly access what we have to offer?

Yes, you could easily get the impression that there is no need to write and publish journal papers anymore. We have far more alternatives to communicate with our peers than ever before. Therefore, looking critically at the journal publishing process is absolutely required. There are many cons to be considered, but also many aspects that speak to the benefits of writing and publishing in journals. To fully comprehend this view, let’s first sketch the historical development of publishing journal papers before we dive into the pros and cons. 

I. The historical perspective of writing for journals

1. early stages.

Writing research articles that get published in international peer-reviewed journals is not a new phenomenon, but a process that developed over several hundred years. The first journals were founded in the 17th century in France and Britain, to facilitate knowledge exchange among academics. The first peer-reviewed journal followed in the early 18th century, and by the end of this century, almost 500 peer-reviewed journals had been founded. 

Prominent journals such as Nature and Science followed in the second half of the 19th century. For a more detailed overview, have a look at the Scholarly Publishing Timeline provided by AJE and the STM report on Scientific and Scholarly Journal Publishing .

2. Mid-20th century 

Yet, the journal paper boom first started in the mid-20th century, and in many disciplines and subjects, journals became the standard for publishing research. Since then, the writing and publishing activity has gained at lot of traction. It went from some academic associations that publish the research finding’s of their members and associates in two or three issues per year, to an industry with many professional publishers competing for academics to publish with them. 

3. Transition to 21st century journal publishing

Previously, academic journals had been run and subsidised by universities and research institutes, but also now increasingly, they are operated by professional publishers which charge readers subscription fees. The first online-only journals started in the 1990s and the first Mega-Journals (like PLoS One ) in the first decade of the 2000s. 

The Open Access movement also took off in the beginning of the 2000s, under which journals operate using online-only papers that are freely available for the readers, but force submission fees on the authors (see the Open Access 101 blog at Harvard University and Suber 2009 .

4. The current situation

Today, the exact number of journals is hard to determine, as definitions vary as to what constitutes a journal, but there is an estimated number of about 30,000 scholarly peer-reviewed journals in the English language today. 

Interestingly, this has led to a situation that feels as though the number of papers being published far exceeds researcher’s and society’s capacity to consume them. In 2010, estimates were that more than 50 million papers had been published since the mid-17th century, with about 2.5 million papers published annually as of  2013 (see Jinha 2010 , Plume & van Weijen 2014 , Ware & Mabe 2015 ). 

II. The cons: 10 common critical points on the paper publishing process

The development of publishing as described above raises a lot of criticism from within- and outside of academia. Common points of criticism are:

Writing and publishing papers in journals seems to be an elite activity. Only the best really make it in. Not everybody can access it. It seems to contradict the idea of research being free and open to everybody.  

2. Expensive

Publishing papers in journals is expensive, due to the high author fees and the amount of time that goes into preparing papers.

The process from writing the paper until reading it in the journal can take a very long time. 

4. Lower quality

It seems that (young) researchers are forced to publish with quantity in mind rather than quality. We see more papers of lower quality due to the high pressures to publish from institutions. 

5. Too many papers

With the publishing of so many papers per year, nobody can read them all. Getting papers into journals has become a goal of its own. 

The paper selection process can be biased and journals may prefer some people and subjects to others. 

7. Lack of transparency

The paper selection process for journal publication does not seem objective or transparent as to which papers getting accepted and which ones are rejected. 

8. Old-fashioned

Writing and publishing papers represents an old-fashioned mode of science communication. 

9. Non-interactive

Publishing in journals gives poor possibilities for interaction and comments. 

10. Commercial

Publishing journal articles has become a business where academics seem to work for free with others gaining the benefits. 

No question, these are critical points that need to be discussed and considered by academia. A lot of people play a role in the business of science communication. A good overview on the controversies s on the business and directional side of publishing academic results is available in the Editorial “Publish or Perish?” by Rawat & Meena (2014) or in the report “Untangling Academic Publishing” by Fyfe and colleagues (2017). 

However, we don’t want to dive into this discussion here, but instead focus on reasons it is still worth investing time to write papers and get them published in journals for individual researchers who work in the current academic system. If you are a young researcher searching for a job, a prolongation of a contract, or to build a reputation, the situation looks quite different. You might need to deal with the system as it is, otherwise you won’t be able to pursue an academic career. 

III. The pros: 10 reasons why you should write and publish journal papers

Let us give you 10 reasons here why writing papers for journals is still worth doing. 

1. Quality control

Submitting your paper to a peer-reviewed journal means that your manuscript will be scrutinised by experts in your field who can help you to eliminate the paper’s weak points. They will look through your paper and check its quality. Once approved by the reviewers and editor, your paper has passed a relevant threshold and is considered of a certain academic quality. You know now, your work is good enough to be published. 

2. Quality label

Once revised and accepted, your work gets an invisible quality stamp. Your paper, your research, and you will benefit from this label saying “good work!” You can take this quality label with you wherever you go and it will testify to your qualifications and excellence. A paper can help you to get your name out in a field of research and the increasing number of papers that you publish will help to build your reputation.

3. Trusted source 

Getting your work published in an academic journal tells your peers that your work was good enough to pass the expert’s quality check and therefore it is considered a trustworthy source. It adds a lot to the credibility of your research when it gets published in a journal. Researchers prefer trusted sources. 

4. Academic career development 

If your personal plan is to aim for a career in academia, as a researcher, lecturer, or any other scientific position at a university, research/higher education institute, then journal papers will be your currency to gain and keep such a job. These institutions face the battle of rankings. Their long-term existence and their reputation is built on performing well in the competition with other academic institutions. If you are a researcher who has published a lot, then you will help them to reach and keep a good ranking. You are an employee that is an asset for the university. 

5. Non-academic career development 

Even if you are heading towards a career outside academia, a good publication record can be helpful. Every employer is keen on having an employee who is productive. Any paper you have is more than a line on your CV, but signals that you can complete work, get it through a quality control process and out to its users. You show you produce a measurable outcome and can stand out in competition. 

 6. Funding body requirement 

Having a paper put in a journal is not an add-on at the end of your research project, but very often an essential requirement by the agency providing the funds for your research. Research projects are asked to feed back their findings to the academic community and journal papers are considered to be the appropriate medium to do so. If you publish in journals, you tick this box. 

7. Attracting grants 

As a researcher, you will face the need to write applications and proposals to research councils in order to get the funding for your research. The chances of your bid getting accepted will substantially rise if you can refer to a portfolio of published papers in the subject area of the grant you apply for. 

8. Get acknowledged 

Getting a paper accepted, having the printed version in hand or seeing your name on the PDF version is a great feeling. It is a – very quiet – shout of ‘’bravo” from your peers. It feels like a clap on your shoulder, when your colleagues tell you that you have done well. It is very satisfying and it boosts your confidence. If you made it once, your way of working is commended and you will likely publish again. A paper is also something that you can show around. 

9. Established infrastructure  

A large bonus of published journal papers is that you don’t have to worry about the medium of getting your message out. You don’t need to think about finding the right platform to place your research findings, or about the technical reliability of its system. You don’t need to worry about announcing, advertising or marketing your paper yourself; journals and publishers take this part over for you and do a pretty good job to get your research out to your peers. 

10. Established way of communication  

Last but not least, a journal publication has the large advantage for you as being the established way of academic communication and exchange of research findings. We all are used to looking for and consuming journal papers. We all know how it works to find papers and which journals are most relevant for us. The dissemination and accessibility of papers published in journals seems to work generally fine, despite all the paywall systems and barriers that are erected by publishers to stop free distribution of papers. Most academics still seem to find a way to get a hold of your paper once it is published if they really want to. Writing and publishing papers is also a main avenue for academics to find and establish communication with their peers. 

Conclusion: 

The pros and cons of writing and publishing papers might be contentious. There is nothing perfect about the system, and for you, there may be not black and white answer of the right or wrong thing to do. We hope our overview of the 10 pros and cons to publishing in journals gives you a better understanding of the discussion.  

Our view is that you should start and keep on writing for journals because the pros definitely outweigh the cons. The reward for your professional life can be tremendous. Clearly, academia needs to critically observe the ongoing development of the publishing circus, and it would be good if clear directions would be developed. Yet, we do not see journal publications as being in competition to other forms of making research results available to the public. 

We advise you to also make use of other modern communication channels parallel to publishing in journals such as social media, blogs and others to communicate your research. But, particularly if you are striving for an academic career, journal publications are inevitable and will help you to progress quickly towards the career track of your choice.

Relevant resources:  

• Smart Academics Blog #62: Twenty things you should know when writing a journal paper
• Smart Academics Blog #38: Why you need a publishing strategy
• Smart Academics Blog #36: 5 tips to get a paper accepted this year
• Smart Academics Blog #5: How to get started with writing papers. 
• Fyfe, A., Coate, K., Curry, S., Lawson, S., Moxham, N., Røstvik, C.M. 2017. Untangling Academic Publishing: A history of the relationship between commercial interests, academic prestige and the circulation of research. Zenodo.
• Harvard University 2006. Open Access 101.
• Jinha, A. E. 2010. Article 50 million: An estimate of the number of scholarly articles in existence. Learned Publishing. 23 (3): 258–263. doi :10.1087/20100308.  
• Plume, A., & van Weijen, D. 2014. Publish or perish? The rise of the fractional author …. Research Trends, (38). 
• Rawat, S., Meena, S., 2014. Publish or perish: Where are we heading? Journal of Research in Medical Sciences 19(2): 87–89.
• Suber, P. 2009. Timeline of the Open Access Movement.
• Ware, M., Mabe, M. 2015. The STM Report: An overview of scientific and scholarly journal publishing (PDF) (4th ed.). International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers.

More information:  

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© 2019 Tress Academic

Photographs by Tress Academic.

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11.1 The Purpose of Research Writing

Learning objectives.

• Identify reasons to research writing projects.
• Outline the steps of the research writing process.

Why was the Great Wall of China built? What have scientists learned about the possibility of life on Mars? What roles did women play in the American Revolution? How does the human brain create, store, and retrieve memories? Who invented the game of football, and how has it changed over the years?

You may know the answers to these questions off the top of your head. If you are like most people, however, you find answers to tough questions like these by searching the Internet, visiting the library, or asking others for information. To put it simply, you perform research.

Whether you are a scientist, an artist, a paralegal, or a parent, you probably perform research in your everyday life. When your boss, your instructor, or a family member asks you a question that you do not know the answer to, you locate relevant information, analyze your findings, and share your results. Locating, analyzing, and sharing information are key steps in the research process, and in this chapter, you will learn more about each step. By developing your research writing skills, you will prepare yourself to answer any question no matter how challenging.

Reasons for Research

When you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research.

But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper . A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources.

If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need a way to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world.

Write a paragraph about a time when you used research in your everyday life. Did you look for the cheapest way to travel from Houston to Denver? Did you search for a way to remove gum from the bottom of your shoe? In your paragraph, explain what you wanted to research, how you performed the research, and what you learned as a result.

Research Writing and the Academic Paper

No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. For example, a student in an art history course might write a research paper about an artist’s work. Similarly, a student in a psychology course might write a research paper about current findings in childhood development.

Having to write a research paper may feel intimidating at first. After all, researching and writing a long paper requires a lot of time, effort, and organization. However, writing a research paper can also be a great opportunity to explore a topic that is particularly interesting to you. The research process allows you to gain expertise on a topic of your choice, and the writing process helps you remember what you have learned and understand it on a deeper level.

Research Writing at Work

Knowing how to write a good research paper is a valuable skill that will serve you well throughout your career. Whether you are developing a new product, studying the best way to perform a procedure, or learning about challenges and opportunities in your field of employment, you will use research techniques to guide your exploration. You may even need to create a written report of your findings. And because effective communication is essential to any company, employers seek to hire people who can write clearly and professionally.

Writing at Work

Take a few minutes to think about each of the following careers. How might each of these professionals use researching and research writing skills on the job?

• Medical laboratory technician
• Small business owner
• Information technology professional
• Freelance magazine writer

A medical laboratory technician or information technology professional might do research to learn about the latest technological developments in either of these fields. A small business owner might conduct research to learn about the latest trends in his or her industry. A freelance magazine writer may need to research a given topic to write an informed, up-to-date article.

Think about the job of your dreams. How might you use research writing skills to perform that job? Create a list of ways in which strong researching, organizing, writing, and critical thinking skills could help you succeed at your dream job. How might these skills help you obtain that job?

Steps of the Research Writing Process

How does a research paper grow from a folder of brainstormed notes to a polished final draft? No two projects are identical, but most projects follow a series of six basic steps.

These are the steps in the research writing process:

• Choose a topic.
• Plan and schedule time to research and write.
• Conduct research.
• Organize research and ideas.
• Draft your paper.
• Revise and edit your paper.

Each of these steps will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter. For now, though, we will take a brief look at what each step involves.

Step 1: Choosing a Topic

As you may recall from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , to narrow the focus of your topic, you may try freewriting exercises, such as brainstorming. You may also need to ask a specific research question —a broad, open-ended question that will guide your research—as well as propose a possible answer, or a working thesis . You may use your research question and your working thesis to create a research proposal . In a research proposal, you present your main research question, any related subquestions you plan to explore, and your working thesis.

Step 2: Planning and Scheduling

Before you start researching your topic, take time to plan your researching and writing schedule. Research projects can take days, weeks, or even months to complete. Creating a schedule is a good way to ensure that you do not end up being overwhelmed by all the work you have to do as the deadline approaches.

During this step of the process, it is also a good idea to plan the resources and organizational tools you will use to keep yourself on track throughout the project. Flowcharts, calendars, and checklists can all help you stick to your schedule. See Chapter 11 “Writing from Research: What Will I Learn?” , Section 11.2 “Steps in Developing a Research Proposal” for an example of a research schedule.

Step 3: Conducting Research

When going about your research, you will likely use a variety of sources—anything from books and periodicals to video presentations and in-person interviews.

Your sources will include both primary sources and secondary sources . Primary sources provide firsthand information or raw data. For example, surveys, in-person interviews, and historical documents are primary sources. Secondary sources, such as biographies, literary reviews, or magazine articles, include some analysis or interpretation of the information presented. As you conduct research, you will take detailed, careful notes about your discoveries. You will also evaluate the reliability of each source you find.

Step 4: Organizing Research and the Writer’s Ideas

When your research is complete, you will organize your findings and decide which sources to cite in your paper. You will also have an opportunity to evaluate the evidence you have collected and determine whether it supports your thesis, or the focus of your paper. You may decide to adjust your thesis or conduct additional research to ensure that your thesis is well supported.

Remember, your working thesis is not set in stone. You can and should change your working thesis throughout the research writing process if the evidence you find does not support your original thesis. Never try to force evidence to fit your argument. For example, your working thesis is “Mars cannot support life-forms.” Yet, a week into researching your topic, you find an article in the New York Times detailing new findings of bacteria under the Martian surface. Instead of trying to argue that bacteria are not life forms, you might instead alter your thesis to “Mars cannot support complex life-forms.”

Step 5: Drafting Your Paper

Now you are ready to combine your research findings with your critical analysis of the results in a rough draft. You will incorporate source materials into your paper and discuss each source thoughtfully in relation to your thesis or purpose statement.

When you cite your reference sources, it is important to pay close attention to standard conventions for citing sources in order to avoid plagiarism , or the practice of using someone else’s words without acknowledging the source. Later in this chapter, you will learn how to incorporate sources in your paper and avoid some of the most common pitfalls of attributing information.

Step 6: Revising and Editing Your Paper

In the final step of the research writing process, you will revise and polish your paper. You might reorganize your paper’s structure or revise for unity and cohesion, ensuring that each element in your paper flows into the next logically and naturally. You will also make sure that your paper uses an appropriate and consistent tone.

Once you feel confident in the strength of your writing, you will edit your paper for proper spelling, grammar, punctuation, mechanics, and formatting. When you complete this final step, you will have transformed a simple idea or question into a thoroughly researched and well-written paper you can be proud of!

Review the steps of the research writing process. Then answer the questions on your own sheet of paper.

• In which steps of the research writing process are you allowed to change your thesis?
• In step 2, which types of information should you include in your project schedule?
• What might happen if you eliminated step 4 from the research writing process?

Key Takeaways

• People undertake research projects throughout their academic and professional careers in order to answer specific questions, share their findings with others, increase their understanding of challenging topics, and strengthen their researching, writing, and analytical skills.
• The research writing process generally comprises six steps: choosing a topic, scheduling and planning time for research and writing, conducting research, organizing research and ideas, drafting a paper, and revising and editing the paper.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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How to Write a Pros and Cons Research Paper

Pros and cons mean the positive and negative aspect of any idea respectively. When talking specifically in the context of a research paper, pros and cons research papers fall under the argumentative research papers category.

There are mainly two types of research papers: argumentative research paper and an analytical research paper. The first one discusses the positive and negative sides of a subject; the latter is concerned with finding something new or adding to the existing sea of knowledge in a particular field.

A complete understanding of how to write a pros and cons research paper is critically important to ensure writing a compelling piece of work. Writing an argumentative research paper needs a shrewd sense of impartiality which is vital to its success.

When you are choosing a topic for your pros and cons research paper , it is advised that you select a subject that has enough material to write on. You will be putting a lot of work and effort in your paper so it should be something worth writing about. A personal interest in the subject would further ensure its success.

After selecting the topic, start brainstorming about its positive and negative sides. If you don’t know how to write a pros and cons research paper, just keep two words in mind: be impartial. Any preconceived notion will destroy the soul of a pros and cons paper.  Don’t impose your personal opinion and ideas. Let your reader be the judge.

Introduction is the first part of a research paper and should contain a brief overview of the subject. It should tell the reader that you will be discussing the pros and cons of the subject under scrutiny. If you are taking any sides in the paper, tell your reader about it and also let them know that you will back your thoughts with factual findings.

Body of the paper discusses the actual pros and cons. The credibility of the paper hangs in this part. There are different approaches to discuss the pros and cons. You can write the pros first, discussing them one by one and do the same to the cons later. Or you can discuss a pro and then counter that by a con. This approach might confuse the reader so choose smartly. Just make sure to keep the flow logical and natural and your arguments short and gripping.

Your paper should be impartial but if you are taking any sides, do that in the conclusion backed by the findings made in the results and discussion part. If you are staying unbiased, then the conclusion should be just a summary of what you have discussed in the paper and your own view on the subject supported by some logic.

If you follow all these instructions on how to write a pros and cons research paper, you are sure to argue your point well. Just keep it simple and concise. As they say, less is the new more.

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Thesis or No Thesis: Research Papers Explained

Writing research papers is a common task for university students, but the requirements and expectations of such tasks can vary greatly depending on whether or not the student is expected to produce a thesis. This article will provide an overview of these two types of assignments, their key differences, and advice for successfully writing either type. We will cover topics including what constitutes each assignment’s primary purpose; content requirements; time commitments; and ultimately which type might be best suited for your individual needs in terms of academic success.

I. Introduction to Thesis or No Thesis: Research Papers Explained

Ii. advantages and disadvantages of writing a thesis for a research paper, iii. what is required when choosing the option of not writing a thesis, iv. benefits of not writing a thesis in an academic setting, v. factors that may influence the decision on whether to write a thesis or not, vi. key considerations regarding crafting a non-thetical project, vii. conclusion – weighing out pros and cons before making your choice.

Research papers can either require a thesis or not. It all depends on the type of paper and what subject it is focusing on. When considering whether a research paper requires a thesis, there are several key points to consider.

• The scope of the topic: If you’re writing about an overview of something broad such as cultural differences between two countries, then your research paper may be better suited without one specific argument laid out in a thesis statement.
• The complexity level: Complex topics usually do need some form of guiding thread which will often take shape with the help of well-crafted arguments from within your thesis statement.
• Your audience: Your readers will determine how formal or informal your final product needs to be. An academic project might need more rigor than if you were presenting at an industry conference for example.

In conclusion, it’s important to note that no matter what direction you take when deciding does research paper need a thesis—it should ultimately remain focused enough so that any conclusions drawn through researching this particular topic stay firmly grounded.

The choice to write a thesis for a research paper can be both advantageous and disadvantageous, depending on the context. It is important to consider each option carefully before making a final decision.

One of the primary advantages of writing a thesis is that it demonstrates an in-depth knowledge about the topic being studied. Writing an effective thesis requires extensive research into related topics and trends in order to arrive at informed conclusions. Additionally, developing one’s own hypotheses allows for more creative expression when compared with simply summarizing existing data or literature reviews. Finally, having written out these ideas provides readers with tangible evidence regarding your understanding of the subject matter, potentially leading to greater recognition within academia as well as among peers working within similar fields.

• Disadvantages

Writing a thesis also has certain drawbacks; namely, it may require substantial additional time commitments which could delay other obligations such as work responsibilities or family commitments. Furthermore, does every research paper need its own unique thesis? In some cases no – providing thorough analysis without an explicit statement would suffice – while others may require originality from start-to-finish due to supervisor requirements or academic protocols applicable within specific disciplines/universities etc.. Lastly – another challenge associated with composing powerful statements are potential language barriers encountered by non native speakers who might not be able understand subtle nuances required during proofreading processes prior submission deadlines .

What You Need to Know When the option of not writing a thesis is chosen, certain requirements must still be met. It’s important to understand what those are in order to get an adequate grade and obtain your degree:

• Courses taken during the program should reflect expertise in one specific field.

Taking courses that offer practical experience or focused study into a particular topic can demonstrate a student’s ability to delve deeply into an area within their major concentration. Furthermore, faculty advisors may require students taking this route submit evidence demonstrating they have attained mastery of subject matter through coursework as well as comprehensive examinations or research papers.

• Does research paper need a thesis?

Generally speaking, no – though it varies by school and department guidelines. For example, some schools may require all master’s programs involving advanced work include either a project-based capstone such as laboratory experiment write up or written essay outlining the results found over the duration of their studies; whereas other institutions might waive such stipulations if there has been sufficient scholarly engagement with the material throughout prior semesters. Ultimately any decision on whether or not one must produce original research for graduation will depend on how much previous academic rigor has gone towards developing knowledge related to one’s career pursuits outside academia.

For many students, foregoing the thesis requirement can be beneficial in multiple ways. It gives them more time to focus on their studies or pursue other interests without worrying about a looming deadline.

• No Pressured Deadline: Not having to write and submit a research paper allows for less stress and pressure throughout the academic year. Students who don’t have to worry about such an important piece of work are free from any expectations regarding timely completion.

The freedom that comes with not writing a thesis also enables one to explore new topics they may find interesting as opposed to ones related only what is being taught in class. Developing New Skills: This provides opportunities for growth outside of traditional courses, allowing students experience subjects at length which could potentially result in gaining valuable skills relevant even after leaving academia.

• More Focus On Coursework: Having no requirements outside of course-related tasks permits greater attention towards classes than if there was another project taking up precious time. This means higher grades across the board as well as possible internships or job offers due better performance overall.

In considering whether to write a thesis, there are several factors that may influence the decision. Firstly, it is important to assess how much interest and enthusiasm you have for your topic of study. Writing a thesis takes considerable effort and dedication over an extended period of time – if your level of passion does not match this then the project could quickly become difficult or unpleasant.

A second factor relates to any career goals or ambitions you may have: in certain fields, such as academia, research-based qualifications can be extremely beneficial when seeking employment opportunities. Depending on these aspirations it might be worth undertaking a dissertation even where less enthusiasm exists initially – though remember not all courses require completion of one in order to graduate! On the other hand does research paper need a thesis? , typically no; often more suitable for shorter assignments due their manageable nature.

Structuring the Content: When crafting a non-thesis project, it is important to structure your content thoughtfully. Begin by outlining key topics and ideas you will cover in the paper. This provides guidance for writing each section and allows you to review potential points of inquiry before diving into research. It also helps ensure that all elements are addressed in an organized fashion.

In contrast to traditional thesis papers, there is no required format or length for a non-thesis paper; however, be sure to consider any guidelines provided by your professor when determining how many pages should be included in yours. Additionally, although there does not need to be one overarching thesis statement at the end of such projects – given their goal of informing readers about multiple viewpoints – individual evidence must still support factual claims made within the text.

• Does Research Paper Need A Thesis?

The process of making a decision is often one that requires careful consideration. As such, it is necessary to weigh out the pros and cons before committing to any course of action. This paper has presented two viable options for navigating an uncertain future: continuing traditional energy sources or transitioning towards renewable alternatives. The research conducted indicates that while both have their merits, neither option can be seen as wholly preferable over the other in all circumstances.

On one hand, renewable energies offer many benefits including environmental protection and economic development potential with long-term sustainability gains. However, these solutions are limited by cost barriers which must first be surmounted before they become realistic prospects for wider adoption on a global scale.

Conversely, conventional fossil fuels remain entrenched due to proven reliability and scalability in meeting current demand levels worldwide without needing significant investments from governments or private sector stakeholders. Ultimately this research paper does not answer whether there is a definitive winner between these two paths but rather provides insight into how each side could potentially contribute towards solving our climate crisis going forward. In order to make the best choice possible when confronted with this conundrum there should ideally be concerted efforts from multiple sectors working together for mutually beneficial goals regardless of whichever path ultimately gets chosen – no matter if its renewables or non-renewables at play here.

English: In conclusion, it is clear that the decision of whether to pursue a thesis or no thesis research paper depends on individual factors such as the nature and scope of the project at hand. Both methods offer valuable advantages in terms of time management and focus; however, they also present unique challenges which should be considered before embarking upon any undertaking. With an understanding of these key distinctions, students are better equipped to make informed decisions about their own projects and produce work that meets their goals with success.

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Disadvantages in preparing and publishing scientific papers caused by the dominance of the English language in science: The case of Colombian researchers in biological sciences

Roles Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing

* E-mail: [email protected]

Affiliations Department of Catalan Philology, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain, Department of Integrative Biology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America

• Valeria Ramírez-Castañeda

• Published: September 16, 2020
• https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372
• Peer Review
• Reader Comments

The success of a scientist depends on their production of scientific papers and the impact factor of the journal in which they publish. Because most major scientific journals are published in English, success is related to publishing in this language. Currently, 98% of publications in science are written in English, including researchers from English as a Foreign Language (EFL) countries. Colombia is among the countries with the lowest English proficiency in the world. Thus, understanding the disadvantages that Colombians face in publishing is crucial to reducing global inequality in science. This paper quantifies the disadvantages that result from the language hegemony in scientific publishing by examining the additional costs that communicating in English creates in the production of articles. It was identified that more than 90% of the scientific articles published by Colombian researchers are in English, and that publishing in a second language creates additional financial costs to Colombian doctoral students and results in problems with reading comprehension, writing ease and time, and anxiety. Rejection or revision of their articles because of the English grammar was reported by 43.5% of the doctoral students, and 33% elected not to attend international conferences and meetings due to the mandatory use of English in oral presentations. Finally, among the translation/editing services reviewed, the cost per article is between one-quarter and one-half of a doctoral monthly salary in Colombia. Of particular note, we identified a positive correlation between English proficiency and higher socioeconomic origin of the researcher. Overall, this study exhibits the negative consequences of hegemony of English that preserves the global gap in science. Although having a common language is important for science communication, generating multilinguistic alternatives would promote diversity while conserving a communication channel. Such an effort should come from different actors and should not fall solely on EFL researchers.

Citation: Ramírez-Castañeda V (2020) Disadvantages in preparing and publishing scientific papers caused by the dominance of the English language in science: The case of Colombian researchers in biological sciences. PLoS ONE 15(9): e0238372. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372

Editor: Emmanuel Manalo, Kyoto University, JAPAN

Received: March 11, 2020; Accepted: August 5, 2020; Published: September 16, 2020

Copyright: © 2020 Valeria Ramírez-Castañeda. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Data Availability: All relevant data are within the manuscript and its Supporting Information files. Including complete survey questions and results.

Funding: The author(s) received no specific funding for this work.

Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Introduction

At the same time that scientific articles became the measure of scientific productivity, English was imposed as the language of science, culture, and the global economy [ 1 ]. As a consequence, today 98% of publications in science are written in English, especially in the areas of natural and basic sciences, establishing English as the lingua franca of science [ 1 ]. This creates a disadvantage for scientists with English as a Foreign Language (EFL) because they must publish complex texts in a foreign language to advance their careers [ 2 ]. This disadvantage gives rise to global inequalities, especially in countries where the majority of the population receives minimal English training and bilingualism with English is very low [ 3 ]. Thus, English proficiency and socioeconomic level influence scientific success, access to knowledge and expatriation, among others.

One of the most important goals for modern society is to increase scientific production from Africa, Latin America, Middle East, and developing Asia. There is a strong correlation among English proficiency, economic development, and technological innovation in terms of number of articles, number of researchers and research and development expenditure [ 4 ]. Therefore, the prevalence of the English language in the sciences deepens the inequality in knowledge production between countries with high and low English proficiency [ 5 ], maintaining the gap in scientific production between the countries of the global south or peripheral and the countries of the global north (include the G8 countries and Australia), reducing the individual scientific contributions of EFL scientists [ 6 ]. Together these factors limit the advancement of the broad scientific communities within those countries [ 7 ].

Numerous studies have identified the use of English in academia as a source of inequality and segregation in science [ 8 – 12 ]. These inequities affect the scientific community at multiple levels. In local communities of EFL countries, scientific thinking is harmed, particularly in higher education, as learning depends on cultural attitudes derived from the native language spoken by the students, and science becomes alien to their own experiences [ 13 – 15 ]. Diversity in language promotes diversity in thinking, affecting creative process and imagination; thus, the maintenance of multilingualism in science could have an impact on scientific knowledge in itself [ 14 ].

Local journals are a refuge for communication of scientific research in languages other than English, nevertheless they are often perceived as low-quality, since the most important research work is often reserved for international journals. Therefore, readers with language barriers only have access to limited studies that the researchers consider not complete, important or broad enough to be published in an international journal. Local readers often are unaware of the most significant research being conducted in their region, which has resulted in a void in information important for political decision making, environmental policies, and conservation strategies [ 16 – 18 ]. In addition, despite the importance of local knowledge, the professional success of a scientist correlates to a greater extent with their "internationalization". This constant pressure could be influencing academic migration, known as "brain drain". English learning is one of the pressure factors of migration, as it is more difficult to achieve upper English proficiency for scientists who remain in EFL countries [ 15 , 19 , 20 ].

In periphery countries there is a strong relationship between English proficiency and socioeconomic origin, thus it is important to understand the publishing costs associated with the socioeconomic origin of researchers. Among Latin America, Colombia is the second most unequal territory: in 2018 it invested only 0.24% of its GDP (Sweden investment was 2.74% of its GDP) in science, technology and innovation [ 21 ], and it has one of the lowest levels of English proficiency among the world rankings [ 4 ]. In addition, for 2019, Colombia had only 58 researchers per million inhabitants [ 22 , 23 ]. This study aims to determine if Colombian doctoral students of natural sciences face disadvantages when publishing scientific articles in English, compared to publications in their first language, and to quantify the extra work that these scientists put into writing, reading, and presenting their work in English. In addition, this study examines the impact of socioeconomic background on English proficiency and the costs it generates when publishing.

Materials and methods

In order to determine the costs of publishing in English experienced by Colombian researchers in biological sciences, 49 to academics were surveyed. These researchers completed their PhDs or are enrolled in doctoral studies and are attempting to publish. They participated in the “Implications of language in scientific publications” survey containing 44 questions in Spanish language ( S3 and S4 Files). This survey was available for two months and shared directly to researchers and on Twitter under the hashtag “#CienciaCriolla” (used between Colombian researchers). Responses were anonymous. It must be mention that the researcher’s demography in Colombia is gender, ethnic, and socioeconomic biased. Only 30.21% of natural science researchers are women [ 24 ], researchers come primarily from big cities [ 25 ], and undergrad students come mainly from middle and high socioeconomic classes [ 26 ]. Therefore, it would not have been possible to completely control for bias in who took the survey. It must be also recognized that without specific numbers for total Colombian researchers in biological sciences, 49 may not be a representative sample size from which to draw accurate statistical inferences.

Additionally, the prices offered by prestigious scientific publishers for translation (Spanish to English) and editing of scientific texts were searched to measure the economic impact in relation to a Ph.D. student salary in Colombia [ 27 – 31 ].

Survey construction

The main survey of this work, entitled “Implications of language in scientific publications,” has 44 questions divided into three sections: basic data, writing articles in English, and learning English ( S3 and S4 Files). This survey sought for the most quantitative approach as possible, however, each question is inevitably under some degree subjectivity due to human interpretation. The responses obtained were grouped for statistical analysis ( Table 1 ).

• PPT PowerPoint slide
• PNG larger image
• TIFF original image

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.t001

Statistical analysis

Statistical analyses were performed in R v.3.6.1 [ 35 ] and data were plotted with the ggplot package [ 36 ]. To compare reading and writing between English and Spanish, time investment and the level of anxiety in conferences participation, an ANOVA was performed ( aov in package ‘stats’ v3.5.3). The margin of error was calculated with 95% confidence. An Analysis of Principal Components (PCA) was performed using the variables contained in the “English proficiency” and “Socioeconomic data” groups for reducing redundancy in the variables ( PCA in package FactorMiner v2.2). The proportion of variance explained by each principal component was reviewed, and only the first principal component was retained for each dataset, as it described 51% and 62% correspondingly of the total variation. Subsequently, a linear regression was executed with the intention of comparing these two variables, English proficiency PC1 vs socioeconomic status PC1 (using lm in package ‘stats’ v3.5.3).

Editing and translation service costs

In order to visualize the prices of English editing and translation services for scientific texts, information was sought in five of the most relevant scientific publishers [ 27 – 31 ]. The information and costs of these services are public and can be obtained through the web pages of publishers. All data were taken with respect to prices for a text of 3000 words, as that is the average length of a scientific article; searches were performed in October 2018.

These publishers offer two types of editing services, a three-day service (premium) and a one-week service (standard); both prices were used for the analysis. Only the prices for Spanish—English translations were used. Finally, these prices were compared with an average doctoral salary in Colombia [ 25 ], 947 US dollars or 3 million Colombian pesos (1 US dollar = 3.166 Colombian pesos, exchange price on January 31, 2019).

A total of 49 responses were obtained from Colombian doctoral students or doctorates in biological sciences whose first language is Spanish. From Colombians’ surveyed 92% (sd = 0.272) of their published scientific articles are in English and only 4% (sd = 0.2) of their publications were in Spanish or Portuguese. In addition, 43.5% of the doctoral students stated at least one rejection or revision of their articles because of the English grammar.

With regards to time investment, there was a significant increase in the time invested writing a scientific article in English in comparison to Spanish for survey participants ( Fig 1 ). The process of writing in Spanish takes on average 114.57 (sd = 87.77) labor hours, while in English, 211.4 (sd = 182.6) labor hours. On average, these scientists spend 96.86 labor hours more writing in English. However, 81.2% of the doctoral students stated that they prefer to write directly in English in comparison to writing in Spanish and then translating into English.

An ANOVA analysis was performed to compare the variables obtaining an F-value = 7.095 and p-value = 0.00951 **. The dotted line represents labor hours per month.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g001

The need for editing or translation of scientific texts is widespread among Colombian doctoral students. Among the respondents, 93.9% have asked for favors to edit their English and 32.7% have asked for translation favors. Regarding the use of paid services, 59.2% have paid for editing their articles and 28.6% have paid for a translation.

The Premium editing total cost and the standard translation cost represent almost a half of an average doctoral monthly salary in Colombia ( Fig 2 ).

The Y axis is the price of the service in US dollars, the X axis represents the type of service, the standard or premium service corresponds to the delivery days. The dotted line represents an average Ph.D salary in Colombia ($ 947).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g002

Reading comprehension is also affected by the language of the text ( Fig 3 ). However, only 18% of respondents prefer to read scientific articles in Spanish than in English. On the other hand, neither the interpretation of figures nor the understanding of scientific terminology is affected by the reading language.

A Poisson regression was used to analyze these discrete ordinal variants (Qualification from 1 to 5). A Chi-squared test was performed between languages for each category: interpretation of figures (Z-value = 0.756, Pr (Chi) = 0.09754), understanding of scientific terminology (z-value = 0.143, Pr (Chi) = 0.4619) and reading comprehension (z-value = 1.427, Pr (Chi) = 0.01209 *).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g003

To analyze the difficulty of writing scientific articles in two languages, survey participants were also asked how they found it difficult to write different sections of articles: introduction, methods, results, discussion, and conclusions. In all cases, survey participants found the discussion was the most difficult section to write, while the methods were perceived as "easier" ( Fig 4 ). Overall, all sections except methods are perceived as significantly "more difficult" to write in English than in the participant’s first language.

A Poisson regression and Chi-square test was carried out: Introduction (z-value = 9.325, Pr (Chi) = 0.0158 *), methods (z-value = 3.046, Pr (Chi) = 0.07057), results (z-value = 4.899, Pr (Chi) = 0.04397 *), discussion (z-value = 11.732, Pr (Chi) = 0.02384 *), and conclusion (z-value = 7.688, Pr (Chi) = 0.03956 *).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g004

With regard to the use of English in oral presentations at international events and conferences, 33% of respondents stated that they have stopped attending due to the mandatory use of English in oral presentations. Additionally, greater anxiety was perceived when presenting papers orally in English than in Spanish ( Fig 5 ).

A Poisson regression was used to analyze discrete ordinal variants (Anxiety level from 1 to 5). A Chi-square test was carried out (z-value = 8,882, Pr (Chi) = 0.005419 **).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g005

In order to determine whether or not the socioeconomic origin of doctoral students affects their proficiency in English and in turn increases the costs of publishing in English, an analysis of principal components was used reduce survey data related to socioeconomic background or English proficiency into single variables because both represent more than the 50% of the whole variance. For the following analyzes: 1) English proficiency is represented by PC1_English_proficiency, which explains 51% of the variance of the survey variables that are related to this subject (see methods ), 2) the socioeconomic status is represented by PC1_Socioeconomic_status, which represents 62% of the variance of the variables of the survey that were related to this denomination (see methods ). The socioeconomic status explains 15% of the English proficiency of researchers ( Fig 6 ), which means that family and economic resources are partly translated into more proficient English.

Principle components representing socioeconomic status and English proficiency are significantly correlated (R2 = 0.1548, adjusted R2 = 0.1368, F = 8.605, p-value = 0.005168 **).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.g006

Many of the factors relating to publishing in English assessed in our study represent substantial costs in time, finances, productivity, and anxiety to Colombian researchers. Interestingly, the researchers appear to prefer to read and write articles in English and the scientific terminology do not represent an additional cost for Colombian researchers. In addition, a correlation between the socioeconomic status and English proficiency was found, suggesting an intersectional effect of language in science. These results can be extrapolated to understand costs of the English hegemony to all South American researchers, that in part contributes to a global gap between native English-speaking scientists (NES) and EFL scientists. This gap makes apparent the necessity of recognizing and protecting multilingualism in science. Although having common language is important for science communication, this effort should involve different actors in the research community and not only EFL researchers’ effort.

Our results show that several factors could lead to disadvantages of EFL researchers. The time investment in writing an article in English, for example, increases on average by 96.86 labor hours. This variable was not directly measured; it is based on the subjective perception of time of each person. However, as Guardiano and collaborators [ 37 ] suggest, this extra cost affects the time spent on scientific tasks, decreasing the scientific productivity of researchers. Regarding the economic costs, between 50% and 30% of respondents have hired services to correct or translate scientific texts. To contextualize the cost of these services, a doctoral student should invest one-quarter to one-half doctoral monthly salary per article. It should be taken into account that scholarships and financing opportunities for doctoral students in the country are scarce [ 38 ], and not all of them have access to the forgivable loans provided by governmental institutions. More than 90% of researchers have asked for English-editing favors, but favors are unpaid labor that may have subsequent costs. The cost of this favor particularly leans on the weakest in the relationship, in this case, the EFL researchers because their career depends on publishing in a second language. Therefore, ensuring a permanent source of “favors” is essential for an EFL researcher that is willing to negotiate for “help” by reinforcing dependence with research groups or scientists in NES countries [ 8 ]. Romero-Olivares [ 39 ] exemplified this point by showing a reviewer comment “The authors need a native English-speaking co-author to thoroughly revise the grammar of this manuscript.”, or as Ordoñez-Matamoros et al [ 40 ] mention for Colombian researchers “co-authoring with partners located in foreign countries tend to publish their work in journals of higher impact factor and receive more citations per article than those not co-authoring with partners located overseas”.

Around 80% of the respondents prefer to read and write scientific content directly in English. However, this result could be interpretable as “obligation” rather than as "preference" because of the monolingualism of scientific readings and the pressure to publish in international journals, and therefore in English [ 37 ]. A scientist’s preference for reading and writing in English could also be due to the prevalence of English as the source for scientific words and phrases, as well as the scientist’s need to improve their own English in order to overcome these other barriers [ 41 ]. The preference of writing directly in English and not translating may be related to the higher cost of translation in comparison with the revision service ( Fig 2 ). Additionally, scientists are more likely to request a favor for English editing than for a translation [ 37 ]. Strong feelings of insecurity or an "inferiority complex" generated by scientific writing in English is one of the most important segregation factors mentioned by EFL speaking researchers and increase the need of constant editing or correction [ 8 , 10 , 42 ]. This difficulty or insecurity is augmented in the introduction and discussion sections of an article [ 12 , 43 – 46 ]. However, the “materials and methods” section in an article and understanding scientific terminology are equally understood and used in both languages by the respondents, possibly because most words and expressions in modern science are coined in English [ 47 ].

In this study, 43.5% of surveyed researchers reported suffering from rejection or revisions because of aspects related to grammar or style in English writing. Coates [ 48 ] shows that there is a greater probability of manuscript rejection by a journal if there are grammatical errors, but Lindsey and Crusan [ 49 ] found that seems to be the ethnicity of the EFL researchers but not the grammar that is influencing the text evaluation. Some critical voices disagree with the reviewers’ bias hypothesis [ 50 ]. This subject is still under controversy, and in this paper, without comparing this trend with native speakers, it is not possible to conclude that rejection because of English writing is worse for EFL researchers. To start to unravel this bias hypothesis, it will be necessary to gather primary data about correlations between the quality of the article and impressions from reviewers on the writing of EFL researchers (with and without ethnicity information). Nevertheless, understanding reviewer comments is more difficult for a EFL speaking author, since these frequently contain expressions, euphemisms, or colloquialisms that are not easily interpreted by EFL speakers [ 51 , 52 ]. For this reason, several authors call on reviewers to write comments that contribute and guide the use of English, and that does not discourage or criticize EFL authors for the lack of mastery of the language [ 39 , 42 , 53 ]. On the other hand, “not every native English speaker is competent to solve peculiarities in the grammar and style of the “good” use of academic English”, therefore, all scientists have been pressured to use editing services [ 54 ]. In other words, it is questionable to judge or reject innovations or scientific research by linguistic factors or with the excuse of linguistic factors. If a particular research is important for the scientific community, the journal or other resources must assume the cost and effort of translation or editing services, shifting the costs from individual scientists to the publishers or the community.

It was expected that additional costs for Colombian researchers would be found, since similar findings have been reported from other EFL speaking countries in the world [ 11 , 12 , 37 , 43 , 55 , 56 ]. Despite the lack of specific studies on this subject across Latin America, a few exceptions showed similar results: “Regression analysis established that variables of science writing burden contribute to a sense that English is a barrier to scientific writing” [ 11 , 12 ]. Additionally, opinion pieces from Latin-American researchers also agree about the linguistic barrier in science [ 39 , 57 ]. It is possible to assume that these results can be extrapolated to other countries bordering Colombia, given the similarity in proficiency and access to English, shared first language, low state investment in science and technology, and parallel political history with the US and Europe [ 11 , 58 , 59 ]. The results could even be extrapolated to other peripheral countries of the world, as Hanauer et al. [ 12 ] found similar disadvantages over doctoral students from two countries on different continents, Mexico, and Taiwan.

In this study we not only explore the impact that English proficiency has on doctoral students or post-doctoral researchers, but how those impacts are influenced by the researcher's socioeconomic origin. A positive relationship (R 2 = 0.14) was found between English proficiency and socioeconomic status, which is supported by previous studies [ 60 ], hence maintaining in science the patterns of social segregation at national and global levels. This low correlation could be explained by a pre-existing socioeconomic bias in Colombia where most undergrad students come from middle and high socioeconomic classes [ 25 , 26 ]. Another fact that could affect this percentage is the PCA analysis because English proficiency was calculated taking into account years living in English-speaking countries and the percentage of English spoken every day. Therefore, if the researcher lives outside Colombia and speaks English every day the score is higher.

This low correlation, could be explained by the pre-existing socioeconomically biased in Colombia where most undergrad students come from middle and high socioeconomic classes [ 25 , 26 ]. Another fact that could affect this percentage is the PCA analysis because the English proficiency was calculated taking into account years living in English-speaking countries and the percentage of English spoke every day. Therefore, if the researcher lives outside Colombia and speaks English every day the score is higher.

This study finds that the system within science that denotes English as the lingua franca reinforces inequities between scientists from NES and EFL speaking countries, as well as socioeconomic inequities within countries that primarily speak a language other than English. Globalizing science, so far, has meant offering greater advantages to English speakers at the expense of another scientists’ prosperity in the world. Science at present, due to different pressures, opts for English as the only language acceptable for scientific communication, however, some researchers still value the protection of multilingualism in science [ 44 , 61 ]. Defending multilingualism as an alternative in science would promote the reduction of international and social inequities, which would ultimately boost what Segatto [ 62 ] has called "a radically plural world". The homogenization of language in science with the excuse of “integration” is an expression of the elimination of diversity, and this can have consequences not only on the human diversity that makes science but on the diversity of scientific questions that arise [ 17 ].

The convenience of a common language in science must be recognized; however, it is essential that solutions to this problem involve scientists from a variety of backgrounds through a bilateral effort (EFL speaking scientists and NES speaking scientists) [ 10 , 16 ]. Although research is a collective process, the proposed solutions so far have leaned on individual investment, which creates barriers to performing science that more greatly affect researchers of lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Universities, publishers, translation technology, conferences, among others, must also commit to generate ideas for change [ 17 , 37 ]. One potential approach would be to increase the perceived value of publishing in regional or smaller journals regardless of impact factors (IFs), in order to reduce the pressure to publish in the most prestigious and monolingual journals [ 6 , 63 ]. Publishing in high IFs journals is a symbolic capital that delineates what should be “desired” as the maximum “goal” of any scientist. In terms of self-identification, not being able to publish in these journals increases the feeling of incompetence and insignificancy [ 64 ]. The value given to these IFs journals is supported by the idea that the most important and novel studies in academia are published there, however, an increasing number of voices have highlighted the relative value of scientific advances. For example, differential importance between countries or local communities [ 18 ], the influence of trends and use of novel technologies in determining research value (e.g. genetic or genomic data) [ 65 ], and devaluation of important but not modern topics in biology, such as natural history and taxonomy [ 66 – 68 ]. Implementing changes in this regard must be a collective effort as we need to rethink the value of scientific publishing. Elife journal is one example of reevaluating standards in a scientific journal [ 64 ]. Other ideas such as encouraging researchers either from the global south or global north who work in the global south to publish in local journals, could be also implemented.

Other alternatives include supporting journals that accept papers in several languages, promoting the inclusion of other languages in journals at the international level, incorporating revision or translation services in all fees paid to publish an article and providing these services to all scientists at no additional charge to them, establishing multilingual annual or periodic editions in renowned journals, among others [ 37 , 57 ]. Proposals for universities and conferences include aids such as English tutoring for academic purposes [ 69 ], retaining in international conferences a space for presenting in local languages [ 17 ], using methodologies such as simultaneous translation in conferences, and generating exchange spaces in other languages, among others. Finally, it would be helpful to strengthen public available technologies such as Google Translate that allow simultaneous written translation [ 17 ]. In the future, more alternatives will arise, and it will be essential to analyze and monitor them to investigate their reception at the editorial and scientific level.

Supporting information

S1 file. complete article in spanish..

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.s001

S2 File. Survey questions in Spanish.

Questions in Spanish (original language) of the survey “Implications of language in scientific publications”.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.s002

S3 File. Survey questions in English.

Questions in English of the survey “Implications of language in scientific publications”.

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.s003

S4 File. Raw data.

Raw data obtained from the Survey in Spanish (original language).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.s004

S5 File. Theorical framework.

Short explanation of English as lingua franca in Science, English as a foreign language in Colombia and Implication of English in Science (in English and Spanish).

https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0238372.s005

Acknowledgments

Thanks to the researchers who completed the surveys or helped to share the survey. To Maria Carme Junyent Figueras for being the master thesis director that leads to this paper. To Pere Francesch Rom, Henry Arenas, Prof. Francesc Bernat, Prof. David Bueno and Prof. Avel·lí for editing and making suggestions on the original manuscript in Spanish. To the developers of Google Translate for creating a free powerful tool to translate in the first place the manuscript. To Rebecca Tarvin, Danny Jackson and Tyler Douglas and for editing and commenting on the manuscript in English.

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Research Paper – Structure, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Paper

Definition:

Research Paper is a written document that presents the author’s original research, analysis, and interpretation of a specific topic or issue.

It is typically based on Empirical Evidence, and may involve qualitative or quantitative research methods, or a combination of both. The purpose of a research paper is to contribute new knowledge or insights to a particular field of study, and to demonstrate the author’s understanding of the existing literature and theories related to the topic.

Structure of Research Paper

The structure of a research paper typically follows a standard format, consisting of several sections that convey specific information about the research study. The following is a detailed explanation of the structure of a research paper:

The title page contains the title of the paper, the name(s) of the author(s), and the affiliation(s) of the author(s). It also includes the date of submission and possibly, the name of the journal or conference where the paper is to be published.

The abstract is a brief summary of the research paper, typically ranging from 100 to 250 words. It should include the research question, the methods used, the key findings, and the implications of the results. The abstract should be written in a concise and clear manner to allow readers to quickly grasp the essence of the research.

Introduction

The introduction section of a research paper provides background information about the research problem, the research question, and the research objectives. It also outlines the significance of the research, the research gap that it aims to fill, and the approach taken to address the research question. Finally, the introduction section ends with a clear statement of the research hypothesis or research question.

Literature Review

The literature review section of a research paper provides an overview of the existing literature on the topic of study. It includes a critical analysis and synthesis of the literature, highlighting the key concepts, themes, and debates. The literature review should also demonstrate the research gap and how the current study seeks to address it.

The methods section of a research paper describes the research design, the sample selection, the data collection and analysis procedures, and the statistical methods used to analyze the data. This section should provide sufficient detail for other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the research, using tables, graphs, and figures to illustrate the data. The findings should be presented in a clear and concise manner, with reference to the research question and hypothesis.

The discussion section of a research paper interprets the findings and discusses their implications for the research question, the literature review, and the field of study. It should also address the limitations of the study and suggest future research directions.

The conclusion section summarizes the main findings of the study, restates the research question and hypothesis, and provides a final reflection on the significance of the research.

The references section provides a list of all the sources cited in the paper, following a specific citation style such as APA, MLA or Chicago.

How to Write Research Paper

You can write Research Paper by the following guide:

• Choose a Topic: The first step is to select a topic that interests you and is relevant to your field of study. Brainstorm ideas and narrow down to a research question that is specific and researchable.
• Conduct a Literature Review: The literature review helps you identify the gap in the existing research and provides a basis for your research question. It also helps you to develop a theoretical framework and research hypothesis.
• Develop a Thesis Statement : The thesis statement is the main argument of your research paper. It should be clear, concise and specific to your research question.
• Plan your Research: Develop a research plan that outlines the methods, data sources, and data analysis procedures. This will help you to collect and analyze data effectively.
• Collect and Analyze Data: Collect data using various methods such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experiments. Analyze data using statistical tools or other qualitative methods.
• Organize your Paper : Organize your paper into sections such as Introduction, Literature Review, Methods, Results, Discussion, and Conclusion. Ensure that each section is coherent and follows a logical flow.
• Write your Paper : Start by writing the introduction, followed by the literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. Ensure that your writing is clear, concise, and follows the required formatting and citation styles.
• Edit and Proofread your Paper: Review your paper for grammar and spelling errors, and ensure that it is well-structured and easy to read. Ask someone else to review your paper to get feedback and suggestions for improvement.
• Cite your Sources: Ensure that you properly cite all sources used in your research paper. This is essential for giving credit to the original authors and avoiding plagiarism.

Research Paper Example

Note : The below example research paper is for illustrative purposes only and is not an actual research paper. Actual research papers may have different structures, contents, and formats depending on the field of study, research question, data collection and analysis methods, and other factors. Students should always consult with their professors or supervisors for specific guidelines and expectations for their research papers.

Research Paper Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health among Young Adults

Abstract: This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults. A literature review was conducted to examine the existing research on the topic. A survey was then administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO (Fear of Missing Out) are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Introduction: Social media has become an integral part of modern life, particularly among young adults. While social media has many benefits, including increased communication and social connectivity, it has also been associated with negative outcomes, such as addiction, cyberbullying, and mental health problems. This study aims to investigate the impact of social media use on the mental health of young adults.

Literature Review: The literature review highlights the existing research on the impact of social media use on mental health. The review shows that social media use is associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and other mental health problems. The review also identifies the factors that contribute to the negative impact of social media, including social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Methods : A survey was administered to 200 university students to collect data on their social media use, mental health status, and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. The survey included questions on social media use, mental health status (measured using the DASS-21), and perceived impact of social media on their mental health. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and regression analysis.

Results : The results showed that social media use is positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress. The study also found that social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO are significant predictors of mental health problems among young adults.

Discussion : The study’s findings suggest that social media use has a negative impact on the mental health of young adults. The study highlights the need for interventions that address the factors contributing to the negative impact of social media, such as social comparison, cyberbullying, and FOMO.

Conclusion : In conclusion, social media use has a significant impact on the mental health of young adults. The study’s findings underscore the need for interventions that promote healthy social media use and address the negative outcomes associated with social media use. Future research can explore the effectiveness of interventions aimed at reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health. Additionally, longitudinal studies can investigate the long-term effects of social media use on mental health.

Limitations : The study has some limitations, including the use of self-report measures and a cross-sectional design. The use of self-report measures may result in biased responses, and a cross-sectional design limits the ability to establish causality.

Implications: The study’s findings have implications for mental health professionals, educators, and policymakers. Mental health professionals can use the findings to develop interventions that address the negative impact of social media use on mental health. Educators can incorporate social media literacy into their curriculum to promote healthy social media use among young adults. Policymakers can use the findings to develop policies that protect young adults from the negative outcomes associated with social media use.

References :

• Twenge, J. M., & Campbell, W. K. (2019). Associations between screen time and lower psychological well-being among children and adolescents: Evidence from a population-based study. Preventive medicine reports, 15, 100918.
• Primack, B. A., Shensa, A., Escobar-Viera, C. G., Barrett, E. L., Sidani, J. E., Colditz, J. B., … & James, A. E. (2017). Use of multiple social media platforms and symptoms of depression and anxiety: A nationally-representative study among US young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 1-9.
• Van der Meer, T. G., & Verhoeven, J. W. (2017). Social media and its impact on academic performance of students. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 16, 383-398.

Appendix : The survey used in this study is provided below.

Social Media and Mental Health Survey

• How often do you use social media per day?
• Less than 30 minutes
• 30 minutes to 1 hour
• 1 to 2 hours
• 2 to 4 hours
• More than 4 hours
• Which social media platforms do you use?
• Others (Please specify)
• How often do you experience the following on social media?
• Social comparison (comparing yourself to others)
• Cyberbullying
• Fear of Missing Out (FOMO)
• Have you ever experienced any of the following mental health problems in the past month?
• Do you think social media use has a positive or negative impact on your mental health?
• Very positive
• Somewhat positive
• Somewhat negative
• Very negative
• In your opinion, which factors contribute to the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Social comparison
• In your opinion, what interventions could be effective in reducing the negative impact of social media on mental health?
• Education on healthy social media use
• Counseling for mental health problems caused by social media
• Social media detox programs
• Regulation of social media use

Thank you for your participation!

Applications of Research Paper

Research papers have several applications in various fields, including:

• Advancing knowledge: Research papers contribute to the advancement of knowledge by generating new insights, theories, and findings that can inform future research and practice. They help to answer important questions, clarify existing knowledge, and identify areas that require further investigation.
• Informing policy: Research papers can inform policy decisions by providing evidence-based recommendations for policymakers. They can help to identify gaps in current policies, evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and inform the development of new policies and regulations.
• Improving practice: Research papers can improve practice by providing evidence-based guidance for professionals in various fields, including medicine, education, business, and psychology. They can inform the development of best practices, guidelines, and standards of care that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• Educating students : Research papers are often used as teaching tools in universities and colleges to educate students about research methods, data analysis, and academic writing. They help students to develop critical thinking skills, research skills, and communication skills that are essential for success in many careers.
• Fostering collaboration: Research papers can foster collaboration among researchers, practitioners, and policymakers by providing a platform for sharing knowledge and ideas. They can facilitate interdisciplinary collaborations and partnerships that can lead to innovative solutions to complex problems.

When to Write Research Paper

Research papers are typically written when a person has completed a research project or when they have conducted a study and have obtained data or findings that they want to share with the academic or professional community. Research papers are usually written in academic settings, such as universities, but they can also be written in professional settings, such as research organizations, government agencies, or private companies.

Here are some common situations where a person might need to write a research paper:

• For academic purposes: Students in universities and colleges are often required to write research papers as part of their coursework, particularly in the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities. Writing research papers helps students to develop research skills, critical thinking skills, and academic writing skills.
• For publication: Researchers often write research papers to publish their findings in academic journals or to present their work at academic conferences. Publishing research papers is an important way to disseminate research findings to the academic community and to establish oneself as an expert in a particular field.
• To inform policy or practice : Researchers may write research papers to inform policy decisions or to improve practice in various fields. Research findings can be used to inform the development of policies, guidelines, and best practices that can improve outcomes for individuals and organizations.
• To share new insights or ideas: Researchers may write research papers to share new insights or ideas with the academic or professional community. They may present new theories, propose new research methods, or challenge existing paradigms in their field.

Purpose of Research Paper

The purpose of a research paper is to present the results of a study or investigation in a clear, concise, and structured manner. Research papers are written to communicate new knowledge, ideas, or findings to a specific audience, such as researchers, scholars, practitioners, or policymakers. The primary purposes of a research paper are:

• To contribute to the body of knowledge : Research papers aim to add new knowledge or insights to a particular field or discipline. They do this by reporting the results of empirical studies, reviewing and synthesizing existing literature, proposing new theories, or providing new perspectives on a topic.
• To inform or persuade: Research papers are written to inform or persuade the reader about a particular issue, topic, or phenomenon. They present evidence and arguments to support their claims and seek to persuade the reader of the validity of their findings or recommendations.
• To advance the field: Research papers seek to advance the field or discipline by identifying gaps in knowledge, proposing new research questions or approaches, or challenging existing assumptions or paradigms. They aim to contribute to ongoing debates and discussions within a field and to stimulate further research and inquiry.
• To demonstrate research skills: Research papers demonstrate the author’s research skills, including their ability to design and conduct a study, collect and analyze data, and interpret and communicate findings. They also demonstrate the author’s ability to critically evaluate existing literature, synthesize information from multiple sources, and write in a clear and structured manner.

Characteristics of Research Paper

Research papers have several characteristics that distinguish them from other forms of academic or professional writing. Here are some common characteristics of research papers:

• Evidence-based: Research papers are based on empirical evidence, which is collected through rigorous research methods such as experiments, surveys, observations, or interviews. They rely on objective data and facts to support their claims and conclusions.
• Structured and organized: Research papers have a clear and logical structure, with sections such as introduction, literature review, methods, results, discussion, and conclusion. They are organized in a way that helps the reader to follow the argument and understand the findings.
• Formal and objective: Research papers are written in a formal and objective tone, with an emphasis on clarity, precision, and accuracy. They avoid subjective language or personal opinions and instead rely on objective data and analysis to support their arguments.
• Citations and references: Research papers include citations and references to acknowledge the sources of information and ideas used in the paper. They use a specific citation style, such as APA, MLA, or Chicago, to ensure consistency and accuracy.
• Peer-reviewed: Research papers are often peer-reviewed, which means they are evaluated by other experts in the field before they are published. Peer-review ensures that the research is of high quality, meets ethical standards, and contributes to the advancement of knowledge in the field.
• Objective and unbiased: Research papers strive to be objective and unbiased in their presentation of the findings. They avoid personal biases or preconceptions and instead rely on the data and analysis to draw conclusions.

Advantages of Research Paper

Research papers have many advantages, both for the individual researcher and for the broader academic and professional community. Here are some advantages of research papers:

• Contribution to knowledge: Research papers contribute to the body of knowledge in a particular field or discipline. They add new information, insights, and perspectives to existing literature and help advance the understanding of a particular phenomenon or issue.
• Opportunity for intellectual growth: Research papers provide an opportunity for intellectual growth for the researcher. They require critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity, which can help develop the researcher’s skills and knowledge.
• Career advancement: Research papers can help advance the researcher’s career by demonstrating their expertise and contributions to the field. They can also lead to new research opportunities, collaborations, and funding.
• Academic recognition: Research papers can lead to academic recognition in the form of awards, grants, or invitations to speak at conferences or events. They can also contribute to the researcher’s reputation and standing in the field.
• Impact on policy and practice: Research papers can have a significant impact on policy and practice. They can inform policy decisions, guide practice, and lead to changes in laws, regulations, or procedures.
• Advancement of society: Research papers can contribute to the advancement of society by addressing important issues, identifying solutions to problems, and promoting social justice and equality.

Limitations of Research Paper

Research papers also have some limitations that should be considered when interpreting their findings or implications. Here are some common limitations of research papers:

• Limited generalizability: Research findings may not be generalizable to other populations, settings, or contexts. Studies often use specific samples or conditions that may not reflect the broader population or real-world situations.
• Potential for bias : Research papers may be biased due to factors such as sample selection, measurement errors, or researcher biases. It is important to evaluate the quality of the research design and methods used to ensure that the findings are valid and reliable.
• Ethical concerns: Research papers may raise ethical concerns, such as the use of vulnerable populations or invasive procedures. Researchers must adhere to ethical guidelines and obtain informed consent from participants to ensure that the research is conducted in a responsible and respectful manner.
• Limitations of methodology: Research papers may be limited by the methodology used to collect and analyze data. For example, certain research methods may not capture the complexity or nuance of a particular phenomenon, or may not be appropriate for certain research questions.
• Publication bias: Research papers may be subject to publication bias, where positive or significant findings are more likely to be published than negative or non-significant findings. This can skew the overall findings of a particular area of research.
• Time and resource constraints: Research papers may be limited by time and resource constraints, which can affect the quality and scope of the research. Researchers may not have access to certain data or resources, or may be unable to conduct long-term studies due to practical limitations.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Fake academic papers are on the rise: why they’re a danger and how to stop them

Professor of Methodology and Integrity, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam

Disclosure statement

Lex Bouter is the founding chair of the World Conferences on Research Integrity Foundation and co-chair of the 8th WCRI in Athens, 2-5 June 2024.

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In the 1800s, British colonists in India set about trying to reduce the cobra population, which was making life and trade very difficult in Delhi. They began to pay a bounty for dead cobras. The strategy very quickly resulted in the widespread breeding of cobras for cash .

This danger of unintended consequences is sometimes referred to as the “ cobra effect ”. It can also be well summed up by Goodhardt’s Law , named after British economist Charles Goodhart. He stated that, when a measure becomes a target, it ceases to be a good measure.

The cobra effect has taken root in the world of research. The “publish or perish” culture, which values publications and citations above all, has resulted in its own myriad of “cobra breeding programmes”. That includes the widespread practice of questionable research practices, like playing up the impact of research findings to make work more attractive to publishers.

It’s also led to the rise of paper mills, criminal organisations that sell academic authorship. A report on the subject describes paper mills as (the)

process by which manufactured manuscripts are submitted to a journal for a fee on behalf of researchers with the purpose of providing an easy publication for them, or to offer authorship for sale.

These fake papers have serious consequences for research and its impact on society. Not all fake papers are retracted. And even those that are often still make their way into systematic literature reviews which are, in turn, used to draw up policy guidelines, clinical guidelines, and funding agendas.

How paper mills work

Paper mills rely on the desperation of researchers — often young, often overworked, often on the peripheries of academia struggling to overcome the high obstacles to entry — to fuel their business model.

They are frighteningly successful. The website of one such company based in Latvia advertises the publication of more than 12,650 articles since its launch in 2012. In an analysis of just two journals jointly conducted by the Committee on Publications Ethics and the International Association of Scientific, Technical and Medical Publishers, more than half of the 3440 article submissions over a two-year period were found to be fake.

It is estimated that all journals, irrespective of discipline, experience a steeply rising number of fake paper submissions. Currently the rate is about 2%. That may sound small. But, given the large and growing amount of scholarly publications it means that a lot of fake papers are published. Each of these can seriously damage patients, society or nature when applied in practice.

The fight against fake papers

Many individuals and organisations are fighting back against paper mills.

The scientific community is lucky enough to have several “fake paper detectives” who volunteer their time to root out fake papers from the literature. Elizabeth Bik , for instance, is a Dutch microbiologist turned science integrity consultant. She dedicates much of her time to searching the biomedical literature for manipulated photographic images or plagiarised text. There are others doing this work , too.

Organisations such as PubPeer and Retraction Watch also play vital roles in flagging fake papers and pressuring publishers to retract them.

These and other initiatives, like the STM Integrity Hub and United2Act , in which publishers collaborate with other stakeholders, are trying to make a difference.

But this is a deeply ingrained problem. The use of generative artificial intelligence like ChatGPT will help the detectives – but will also likely result in more fake papers which are now more easy to produce and more difficult or even impossible to detect.

Stop paying for dead cobras

They key to changing this culture is a switch in researcher assessment.

Researchers must be acknowledged and rewarded for responsible research practices: a focus on transparency and accountability, high quality teaching, good supervision, and excellent peer review. This will extend the scope of activities that yield “career points” and shift the emphasis of assessment from quantity to quality.

Fortunately, several initiatives and strategies already exist to focus on a balanced set of performance indicators that matter. The San Francisco Declaration on Research Assessment , established in 2012, calls on the research community to recognise and reward various research outputs, beyond just publication. The Hong Kong Principles , formulated and endorsed at the 6th World Conference in Research Integrity in 2019, encourage research evaluations that incentivise responsible research practices while minimise perverse incentives that drive practices like purchasing authorship or falsifying data.

These issues, as well as others related to protecting the integrity of research and building trust in it, will also be discussed during the 8th World Conference on Research Integrity in Athens, Greece in June this year.

Practices under the umbrella of “ Open Science ” will be pivotal to making the research process more transparent and researchers more accountable. Open Science is the umbrella term for a movement consisting of initiatives to make scholarly research more transparent and equitable, ranging from open access publication to citizen science.

Open Methods, for example, involves the pre-registration of a study design’s essential features before its start. A registered report containing the introduction and methods section is submitted to a journal before data collection starts. It is subsequently accepted or rejected based on the relevance of the research, as well as the methodology’s strength.

The added benefit of a registered report is that reviewer feedback on the methodology can still change the study methods, as the data collection hasn’t started. Research can then begin without pressure to achieve positive results, removing the incentive to tweak or falsify data.

Peer review

Peer reviewers are an important line of defence against the publication of fatally flawed or fake papers. In this system, quality assurance of a paper is done on a completely voluntary and often anonymous basis by an expert in the relevant field or subject.

However, the person doing the review work receives no credit or reward. It’s crucial that this sort of “invisible” work in academia be recognised, celebrated and included among the criteria for promotion. This can contribute substantially to detecting questionable research practices (or worse) before publication.

It will incentivise good peer review, so fewer suspect articles pass through the process, and it will also open more paths to success in academia – thus breaking up the toxic publish-or-perish culture.

This article is based on a presentation given by the lead author at Stellenbosch University, South Africa on 12 February 2024. Natalie Simon, a communications consultant specialising in research who is part of the communications team for the 8th World Conference on Research Integrity and is also currently completing an MPhil in Science and Technology Studies at Stellenbosch University, co-authored this article.

• Academic journals
• Research integrity
• Academic research
• Publish or perish
• Fake journals
• Paper mills
• Open Science movement

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Benefits of Writing a Quality Research Paper

• April 2, 2021

Contributed by ACHS alumni Melissa Abbott, MS, CPT, NC

Why It’s Important?

You have just been informed that you’re going to write a research paper and you have no idea how you are going to start the writing process. You may even doubt that you can take on such a challenge. I’m here today to say YES you absolutely can do this! The following writing tips and support strategies offered below are important incentives and motivations involved in the writing process, for your career, and future goals. The writing process involves your body, mind, and spirit. It is all included because you put all your energy and immerse your whole being into it.

Here’s the exciting part, can you imagine having your paper being read by several hundred maybe even thousands of other academic professionals, researchers, and scientists from around the world? It is one of the most incredible feelings to achieve a status of recognition from your hard work in research and the passion(s) you have in holistic health from your peers. Scientists, doctors, holistic professionals in every domain, researchers, collaborators looking for you, your knowledge, and expertise. Sound too good to be true, nope, it happened to me and I hope that it can happen for you too!

The significant impact and support that I received in my first class at ACHS, RES501 : Assessment and Integration of Research Online, with Professor Dr. Nicole Betschman , was empowering. Dr. Betschman armed and mentored us with the best skills and writing techniques, coping strategies for our anxiety and doubts, and outlines to produce quality research and writing. However, she said one thing that stuck out in my mind throughout my studies at ACHS, register with an online platform where you can post your papers for others to read and get yourself noticed in your chosen field of interest. I did just that and since posting my very first paper to ResearchGate (researchgate.com), it has garnered over 1,000+ reads from others in my area of concentration who have emailed me to ask me questions, inquire about my future projects, and offers of potential future collaborations.

Listed below are just a few of the many benefits to writing a quality research paper:

• Recognition from peers in your field of work for all your hard work and showing pride for your academic institution.
• Collaboration with others in your field of expertise from around the world and the potential for research jobs or job recruitment offers.
• Opportunities for growing your business and career while contributing and supporting your field of interest.
• A showcase of your accomplishments and research papers on your resume or curriculum vitae that highlights your chosen area of expertise to potential employers, clinical trials, and research collaborations.

How to start the writing process?

You may be asking yourself … where do I begin, how do I pick a topic, what do I research? Let me help by offering a few strategies or “tools” for your writing “toolbox” to get you in the headspace to explore these brainstorming questions.

1. Sit comfortably with a notebook, make a cup of tea, turn on a diffuser with a blend that promotes increased focus and cognitive awareness, put on some background music, create a space for exploration with little to no distraction, and remember to take several deep breaths during your research sessions. We tend to hold our breath when we’re deep in the research and writing process. This always helps refocus the brainstorming process as well as reduce your stress and anxiety accumulating in your body, mind, and spirit. I do understand these feelings and they can distract you from your best intentions.

2. I highly recommend that you pick a topic and formulate your hypothesis on something you already know well, or an area of interest that supports your future career goals, or on a health condition a friend, family, or that you are challenged with; this is a great place to start. My first paper that received all the recognition came from years of personal experience which made the writing process so much easier. This takes so much of the anxiety away from picking a topic at random. If you are invested in the subject you will want to produce a quality paper with integrity that resulted from years of your experiences and knowledge. You are worth it!

3. Time management is key to staying on task and your module assignments in class. I recommend blocking out two-hour intervals on your research then take a break, walk away, go outside, stretch, go for a walk, get a snack. This also permits you to do other things without getting anxious that you haven’t finished other tasks or responsibilities. These intermissions create more space to return with fresh eyes, mindset, and less tension in your body from sitting. Or even better yet, use a standing desk!

4. Creating a few folders; one on your desktop and one in your bookmarks, where you will collect and manage the content for each component of your research paper helps with the organization of each of the sections involved in a scholarly research paper. Then you can add multiple subfolders for each part of the paper. For example, I had a folder entitled, RES501 Thesis, then subfolders entitled Introduction, Methods, Discussion, Results, and Conclusions. I had one folder titled Notes so that I could cut and paste notes from the highlights taken from research articles and journals that help me to formulate my findings, data interpretations, and key points. One last thing that helped was keeping a file titled Books/Citations so they are all in one place and you don’t have to go looking for them afterward. Another way to decrease your anxiety and stress!

5. I also recommend creating two bookmarks to collect all the supportive websites, journals, and resource materials so you don’t have to look for them each time you need them. For example, I had one bookmark entitled, Research Platforms, where I had links to PubMed, Elsevier, Google Scholar, LIRN, Oxford, and BMC. Then I had a second one entitled, Writing Tools, where I had American Psychological Association (APA) publication manual, Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL), and citation checkers such as Citation Machine and Cite This For Me.

Keep all your supportive tools at your fingertips. Use highlights of different colors to capture the key points within the articles and journals you collect so you are less likely to forget where you read specific data to support your hypothesis. More importantly, it is my hope these tools and tips from personal experiences help support you on your writing adventure and the journey your academic career takes you. It is a very exciting time and it brings great opportunities for success, increased confidence, and empowers you to continue working hard at what you love.

When you find yourself in a writing slump, feel your anxiety increasing or you’re just having a bad day, it is okay to ask for help and support from your fellow peers, your professors, your home support team, they all want you to succeed. I want you to succeed and if you would like to discuss some strategies or need help from a fellow researcher please don’t hesitate to reach out and email me. I would be thrilled to help you produce the best paper you can while being true to yourself and your vision. Be well and happy writing!

Melissa Abbott

References: [1] American Psychological Association (APA), (2021). Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (7th ed.). Retrieved from https:// apastyle.apa.org/products/publication-manual-7th-edition [2] Citation Machine® – write smarter. (n.d.). Retrieved April 02, 2021, from https://www.citationmachine.net/ [3] Save time and improve your marks With CITETHISFORME, the No. 1 citation tool. (n.d.). Retrieved April 02, 2021, from https://www.citethisforme.com/ [4] Purdue Writing Lab. (n.d.). Purdue owl // Purdue Writing lab. Retrieved April 02, 2021, from https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/purdue_owl.html

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• Research Objectives | Definition & Examples

Research Objectives | Definition & Examples

Published on July 12, 2022 by Eoghan Ryan . Revised on November 20, 2023.

Research objectives describe what your research is trying to achieve and explain why you are pursuing it. They summarize the approach and purpose of your project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement . They should:

• Establish the scope and depth of your project
• Contribute to your research design
• Indicate how your project will contribute to existing knowledge

Table of contents

What is a research objective, why are research objectives important, how to write research aims and objectives, smart research objectives, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about research objectives.

Research objectives describe what your research project intends to accomplish. They should guide every step of the research process , including how you collect data , build your argument , and develop your conclusions .

Your research objectives may evolve slightly as your research progresses, but they should always line up with the research carried out and the actual content of your paper.

Research aims

A distinction is often made between research objectives and research aims.

A research aim typically refers to a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear at the end of your problem statement, before your research objectives.

Your research objectives are more specific than your research aim and indicate the particular focus and approach of your project. Though you will only have one research aim, you will likely have several research objectives.

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Research objectives are important because they:

• Establish the scope and depth of your project: This helps you avoid unnecessary research. It also means that your research methods and conclusions can easily be evaluated .
• Contribute to your research design: When you know what your objectives are, you have a clearer idea of what methods are most appropriate for your research.
• Indicate how your project will contribute to extant research: They allow you to display your knowledge of up-to-date research, employ or build on current research methods, and attempt to contribute to recent debates.

Once you’ve established a research problem you want to address, you need to decide how you will address it. This is where your research aim and objectives come in.

Step 1: Decide on a general aim

Your research aim should reflect your research problem and should be relatively broad.

Step 2: Decide on specific objectives

Break down your aim into a limited number of steps that will help you resolve your research problem. What specific aspects of the problem do you want to examine or understand?

Step 3: Formulate your aims and objectives

Once you’ve established your research aim and objectives, you need to explain them clearly and concisely to the reader.

You’ll lay out your aims and objectives at the end of your problem statement, which appears in your introduction. Frame them as clear declarative statements, and use appropriate verbs to accurately characterize the work that you will carry out.

The acronym “SMART” is commonly used in relation to research objectives. It states that your objectives should be:

• Specific: Make sure your objectives aren’t overly vague. Your research needs to be clearly defined in order to get useful results.
• Measurable: Know how you’ll measure whether your objectives have been achieved.
• Achievable: Your objectives may be challenging, but they should be feasible. Make sure that relevant groundwork has been done on your topic or that relevant primary or secondary sources exist. Also ensure that you have access to relevant research facilities (labs, library resources , research databases , etc.).
• Relevant: Make sure that they directly address the research problem you want to work on and that they contribute to the current state of research in your field.
• Time-based: Set clear deadlines for objectives to ensure that the project stays on track.

Prevent plagiarism. Run a free check.

If you want to know more about the research process , methodology , research bias , or statistics , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

Methodology

• Sampling methods
• Simple random sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Cluster sampling
• Likert scales
• Reproducibility

 Statistics

• Null hypothesis
• Statistical power
• Probability distribution
• Effect size
• Poisson distribution

Research bias

• Optimism bias
• Cognitive bias
• Implicit bias
• Hawthorne effect
• Anchoring bias
• Explicit bias

Research objectives describe what you intend your research project to accomplish.

They summarize the approach and purpose of the project and help to focus your research.

Your objectives should appear in the introduction of your research paper , at the end of your problem statement .

Your research objectives indicate how you’ll try to address your research problem and should be specific:

Once you’ve decided on your research objectives , you need to explain them in your paper, at the end of your problem statement .

Keep your research objectives clear and concise, and use appropriate verbs to accurately convey the work that you will carry out for each one.

I will compare …

A research aim is a broad statement indicating the general purpose of your research project. It should appear in your introduction at the end of your problem statement , before your research objectives.

Research objectives are more specific than your research aim. They indicate the specific ways you’ll address the overarching aim.

Scope of research is determined at the beginning of your research process , prior to the data collection stage. Sometimes called “scope of study,” your scope delineates what will and will not be covered in your project. It helps you focus your work and your time, ensuring that you’ll be able to achieve your goals and outcomes.

Defining a scope can be very useful in any research project, from a research proposal to a thesis or dissertation . A scope is needed for all types of research: quantitative , qualitative , and mixed methods .

To define your scope of research, consider the following:

• Budget constraints or any specifics of grant funding
• Your proposed timeline and duration
• Specifics about your population of study, your proposed sample size , and the research methodology you’ll pursue
• Any inclusion and exclusion criteria
• Any anticipated control , extraneous , or confounding variables that could bias your research if not accounted for properly.

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The Consequences of Poor Academic Writing

Posted by Rene Tetzner | May 26, 2021 | How To Get Published | 0 |

The Consequences of Poor Academic Writing Those who attempt to write something constructive these days about the importance of using correct and effective spelling, punctuation and grammar run something of a gauntlet. More writers than ever argue that adhering to the intricate rules and patterns of written language has become pedantic, while readers have grown accustomed to ignoring the errors that seem to pop up with greater frequency each year, and not just in online, open-access and self-publishing contexts. Some tend to see the defenders of those rules and patterns as huddling behind the ivory walls of education and tradition, reaching out now and then to strike well-aimed blows at those positioned firmly on the other side of the grisly moat of language skills with little intention of trying to cross the divide. As mucky as this battleground may seem, however, professional and scholarly authors who wish to communicate effectively and have their writing and research taken seriously must make every possible effort to write clearly and correctly.

The consequences of poor writing are perhaps the most convincing arguments for writing correctly. Most obviously, if an author’s language is not adequate for accurately communicating his or her meaning, it is likely that readers will become confused or be completely misled, and consequently unlikely that any but the most determined individuals will persist in reading the text concerned. If, on the one hand, these readers are the editors and reviewers responsible for publishing decisions, it is probable that the text will not be published, or, in the best scenario, will only be considered for publication after careful proofreading, editing and rewriting. If, on the other hand, the readers are the end consumers of your work, whether they are reading for research, instruction or pleasure, it is entirely possible that they will not choose to purchase and read your writing after consulting an abstract or sample, and, if the work is scholarly, not bother to include it among their citations and references even if they do manage to slog through it.

Errors will, of course, always slip in – they are a fact of writing, and even careful written work that is repeatedly proofread and edited can retain errors – but these are accidents quite apart from truly poor writing that reveals little understanding of the rules and patterns of spelling, grammar and punctuation. Even if you believe that many other authors writing material similar to your own do not adhere to these rules and patterns, it is wise to stand out by being an author who does, whether you are composing an academic article, a novel or a blog post. If you find that you are unable to polish your prose to an acceptable standard, the services of a professional proofreader or editor can provide an excellent solution. Keep in mind that aiming for perfection will certainly not turn anyone away from your writing or prevent editors from publishing it, but it will engage, retain and even impress readers and editors who would quickly abandon through confusion or frustration the writing of authors that reveals how little its creators care for precise and effective communication.

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Conducting Research: Advantages and Disadvantages Essay

Even though some educators see researching as a compulsory task to obtain certain status in academia, it is important for the development of the entire society. Researchers identify issues to be addressed and provide effective solutions to the problems outlined. Conducting research is a certain kind of participation in the ongoing debate on important issues. Admittedly, debate and discussion lead to solutions and ideas which improve practice. Nonetheless, conducting research is also associated with certain limitations. It is possible to focus on three major advantages and three disadvantages of researching to reveal its importance for the development of any area of human activity, especially when it comes to education.

One of the major advantages of conducting research is the chance to participate in a broader discussion of particular issues. With the help of research, people accumulate knowledge and each researcher adds to his/her knowledge (Creswell, 2008). Every educator researches specific issues he/she encounters. It is necessary to note that research is based on data. Therefore, educators do not only share their opinions, but they provide specific data which justify their conclusions or refute some theories. Accumulation of knowledge is of paramount importance for educators as it helps them develop efficient tools to address existing issues and even foresee upcoming problems.

Another advantage of conducting research is that it provides practitioners with particular tools to address their issues. Creswell (2008, p. 4) stresses that research “suggests improvements for practice”. Therefore, educators (as well as practitioners in other fields) may find many effective solutions to their problems or develop new tools to address issues. Admittedly, this positively affects the development of every field as sharing particular tools helps practitioners develop their strategies to address a variety of issues (McKay, 2007). Thus, Koshy (2005) notes that the use of action research enables practitioners (especially novice educators) to outline an issue and develop specific strategies to address it. In other words, educators outline problems and solutions applicable in particular situations.

Another important advantage of conducting research is that it can be generalized and transformed into policies that can be applicable and beneficial in a variety of situations. Creswell (2008) claims that the ongoing debate and several tools provided by practitioners enable policymakers to come up with appropriate policies which will positively affect the entire system. Therefore, it is possible to note that conducting research helps a practitioner be aware of the ongoing debate on issues. It also helps educators develop particular tools to address every issue. Finally, it helps practitioners bring the issue to the fore and help policymakers work out effective strategies which may make a difference.

As has been mentioned above, conducting research is also associated with disadvantages. It is necessary to note that the disadvantages do not belittle the importance of conducting research. However, it is necessary to understand these disadvantages to be able to diminish the negative effects of these limitations on particular research. One of the major disadvantages is the amount of time necessary for conducting research. Creswell (2008) claims that accumulating knowledge often takes a lot of time. Some research requires years to obtain the necessary amount of information to come up with a plausible solution. This is a significant disadvantage as the contemporary world is rapidly changing and it is important to react quickly to the changing circumstances. Data analyzed and generalized may become outdated and inapplicable.

Another disadvantage is that any research is associated with certain limitations. Thus, the number of participants and amount of information gathered may be insufficient. This may lead to implausible conclusions and erroneous findings (McKay, 2007). Admittedly, it is almost impossible to obtain comprehensive data within a single survey. It is necessary to conduct several surveys to acquire the necessary amount of data. It is necessary to note that some researchers do not understand the importance of thorough analysis and comprehensive data and tend to obtain quite an insufficient amount of information. This explains the number of surveys that provide contradictory data. This adds controversy to the research. Admittedly, this negatively affects the accumulation and sharing of knowledge.

Apart from the analysis of insufficient data, conducting research is also associated with certain biases. Creswell (2008) states that some researchers may put inadequate or vague questions. This distorts data as participants tend to understand such questions differently. Some researchers may also reveal their findings inarticulately which also leads to a lot of controversies (Creswell, 2008). Researchers may use inappropriate statistical tools which also results in distorted data and controversial conclusions (Opdenakker, 2006). Besides, it is impossible to ensure unbiased research as researchers have a certain background that affects the way they perceive information. More so, some researchers do not focus on the unbiased presentation of data, which also adds controversy to the research.

In conclusion, I would like to add that all these advantages and disadvantages are manifested in every educator’s life as well as on a global scale. Being a practitioner, I understand that research will help me gain knowledge on a variety of topics. It will also help me find new ways to handle problems. I will be able to learn more about solutions found by others. This will enable me to adjust these solutions to particular situations. Admittedly, this will positively affect my development as a practitioner. However, I also understand that I will face certain difficulties as conducting research has several disadvantages. I will have to invest a lot of time as conducting research is a very time-consuming activity. I will need to collect a sufficient amount of data to be able to analyze information and come to some conclusions. I will also be attentive when using data revealed by other researchers as I will need to evaluate each survey. I will have to be attentive when implementing my research and analyzing data as I must remain unbiased. Thus, understanding the importance of conducting research and its limitations, I will be able to develop as a practitioner and contribute to the development of certain areas.

Reference List

Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Koshy, V. (2005). Action research for improving practice: A practical guide. Upper Thousand Oaks, CA: Paul Chapman Publishing.

McKay, C.E. (2007). Evidence based practices in mental health: Advantages, disadvantages, and research considerations. CMHSR, 4 (5). Web.

Opdenakker, R. (2006). Advantages and disadvantages of four interview techniques in qualitative research. Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung / Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 7 (4). Web.

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Academic Writing Groups: 5 Benefits for Researchers

Writing for academia can be a daunting task, not just for early career researchers but also for seasoned experts, which has led to the emergence of academic writing groups. A lack of time, the pressure to publish and the consequent build-up of anxiety often translates into a situation where researchers find themselves struggling to write. A study undertaken in the US some years ago surveyed 40,000 academics and found that 27% had never published in a peer-reviewed journal, 43% had not published an article in a journal in the past two years, and an alarming 26% spent zero time on writing. 1 For those struggling to keep up with their writing, academic writing groups can be an invaluable support system!

What are writing groups?

Academic writing groups provide both early career researchers and faculty members a conducive environment where members can share their writing with others, receive feedback, and gain motivation and accountability for their writing goals. Online writing groups for academics are becoming increasingly popular with universities often encouraging students and faculty to join. Academic writing groups spur members to stay abreast and aware about reading and writing sources through regular interactions and networking. These groups provide a forum for researchers to come together frequently, either physically or online, to discuss theses or dissertations, journal articles, grant writings, and other kinds of academic articles or manuscript writing for publication.

The primary objective of writing groups is to help members to improve their writing skills with constructive criticism. Members of these academic writing groups evaluate and address specific challenges that members could be facing and also acknowledge and applaud progress milestones. In academia today, universities and academic institutions have specific, devoted faculty and PhD writing groups to help research students and scholars achieve their writing goals. While this broadly explains the increasing trend of researchers and scholars joining academic writing groups, let’s look at the specific benefits they offer.

Advantages of academic writing groups

Being part of physical or online writing groups for academics can benefit you in managing uncertainties in your publishing journey and professional growth. Here are 5 ways in which they can support research authors.

1. Providing a social anchor

The process of writing can often be a lonely effort that can be counter-productive and create apprehensions and doubt within the researcher or student. By being part of academic writing groups, you can always be assured to peer support and constructive feedback to your writing process. This can make the task more enjoyable. The constant interaction and exchange of ideas and perspectives imbues members with a sense of motivation.  Moreover, being part of a social support group enthuses them to move ahead with their writing tasks while successfully balancing work and home requirements.

2. Observing a writing schedule

Researchers and students are often constrained for time. They not only have to attend classes but also have to juggle multiple important tasks like reviewing literature, conducting lab experiments, data collection and analysis, along with taking on part-time teaching and attending seminars and conferences. Being a member of an academic writing group can help you reserve and devote specific time to focus only on your writing tasks and get assistance when required.

3. Increasing output and productivity

There is sufficient proof to show that being a member of an academic writing group increases productivity and output levels of members. There has been an increased rate of publications and grant proposals that have been submitted by members as part of writing groups. 2 Members are usually motivated to write more, and the regular writing group meetings and timelines enable them to be consistent with their writing goals.

4. Improving academic writing skills

One of the most beneficial aspects of being a member of an academic writing group is getting answers to any questions and/or doubts that you may have regarding your writing. The sustained process of exchanging information in a writing group means that one receives helpful advice and tips that can elevate the writing process and help you evolve as a better academic writer.

5. Creating a love for writing

Early career researchers, PhD students, and even experts sometimes, lack confidence in their own writing skills, which leads to a sense of fear and apprehension about the writing process. This gets worse when you don’t have English as your first language or when frequent rejections put a halt on your publishing journey. Here, academic writing groups come out as a supportive community, instilling confidence and empowering researchers and students to evolve as competent academic writers.

Making the Most of Your Academic Writing Group Experience

To fully benefit from your academic writing group experience, consider the following tips:

• Set clear goals: Define your research and writing objectives at the outset to ensure that the group’s feedback and discussions align with your aspirations.
• Actively participate: Engage proactively in discussions, provide constructive feedback to others, and share your insights openly.
• Be open to feedback: Embrace feedback with an open mind, as constructive criticism is an integral part of the learning process.
• Respect diverse perspectives: Embrace the diversity within the group and appreciate the array of perspectives and research backgrounds.
• Establish regular meetings: Consistency is key to the success of an academic writing group. Set a regular meeting schedule to maintain momentum and progress.

So, if you are an early career researcher or student, you may want to explore online writing groups for academics. Find out more about the group’s focus and interest, whether it is a PhD writing group, a specific thesis writing group, or a broader academic writing group, make a choice and join. Not only do these groups act as a valuable resource to improve your writing skills, it is also a great way to build and strengthen your professional networks.

References:

• Majumder, K. Why are researchers joining writing groups. Editage Insights, September 2022. https://www.editage.com/insights/why-are-researchers-joining-writing-groups
• Kwan. P.P., Sharp, S., Mason, S., Saetermoe, C.L. Faculty writing groups: The impact of protected writing time and group support, International Journal of Educational Research Open, Volume 2, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2021.100100

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Try it for free or upgrade to  Paperpal Prime , which unlocks unlimited access to premium features like academic translation, paraphrasing, contextual synonyms, consistency checks and more. It’s like always having a professional academic editor by your side! Go beyond limitations and experience the future of academic writing.  Get Paperpal Prime now at just US$12 a month!

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Scientific Writing of Novice Researchers: What Difficulties and Encouragements Do They Encounter?

Dr. shah jatin.

Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore

Dr. Shah Anand

Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and consulting associate, Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina

Dr. Pietrobon Ricardo

Research on Research Group, Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina

Writing scientific articles is a daunting task for novice researchers. In this qualitative study carried out in 2007, the authors evaluated the experiences of a group of novice researchers engaged in the writing process, to elucidate the main difficulties and sources of encouragement they encountered.

Sixteen novice researchers were interviewed. Most were women (10), and most were enrolled in programs of medicine (9), followed by nursing (4) and physical therapy (3). These were drawn via convenience sampling from a randomized control trial in which 48 of them were equally assigned to either an online or a face-to-face course of instruction. On completion, interviews were conducted in focus groups of four students each. The interviews were transcribed and read independently by two of the authors, who then encoded the material based on the principles of grounded theory. Initial categories were converted to major emerging themes, which were validated when participants were asked to review the findings. Triangulation of results was carried out by discussing the emerging themes in an online forum with five specialists in college writing education.

Classifying the diverse responses of participants led to the emergence of four major themes: cognitive burden, group support and mentoring, difficulty in distinguishing between content and structure, and backward design of manuscripts.

Conclusions

The themes produced by this study provide some insight into the challenges faced by novice researchers in their early attempts at scientific writing. Remedies that address these challenges are needed to substantially improve scientific writing instruction.

Writing scientific articles is a daunting task for novice researchers. We carried out the qualitative study described below to evaluate the experiences of a group of novice researchers engaged in the writing process, to elucidate the main difficulties and sources of encouragement they encountered.

Introduction

Clear communication of research findings is essential to sustain the ever-evolving biomedical research field. Serving as the mainstay for this purpose, scientific writing involves the consideration of numerous factors while building up an argument that would convince readers and possibly enable them to arrive at a decision. Those who report research must attend to the soundness of the subject matter, to the nature of the intended audience, and to questions of clarity, style, structure, precision, and accuracy. These factors, along with the weight of responsibility to the scientific community, make scientific writing a daunting task. Consequently, many researchers shy away from this critical element of research, which may impede the progress of science and their own scientific careers.

Ability to accurately and effectively communicate ideas, procedures, and findings according to readers’ expectations are the primary skills required for scientific writing. Additionally, skills such as the ability to relate and interlink evidence, to lend permanence to thoughts and speech, to enable one’s writing to serve as a future reference to others, and to protect intellectual property rights [ 1 ] need to be developed and tempered over a period of time. These skills are necessary for all researchers but especially for novice researchers in the beginnings of their careers so that they do not face failure and lose valuable time learning these skills later.

Individuals entering the research field with no or little experience with past publications qualify as novice researchers. Even clinicians intending to explore and publish findings about research questions based on their clinical practice need to learn these skills to effectively contribute to health care.

Instruction in scientific writing and subsequent publication in peer-reviewed journals will help novice researchers refine their ideas and increase their expertise, because the act of writing is itself a valuable tool for learning and for fostering the scientific thought process [ 2 ]—this aligns with the principles of the “writing to learn” movement [ 3 , 4 ]. Effective writing skills help new scientists take part in the ongoing, ever-evolving scientific conversation [ 5 ]. The practice of scientific writing develops habits of reflection [ 2 ] that make for better researchers, and publication in respected journals strengthens the scientific process while playing a crucial role in career advancement. Failure to publish will adversely affect a researcher’s reputation, funding opportunities, and overall success [ 6 ]. Thus, consistent efforts to understand the factors influencing scientific writing and to develop and apply new training techniques to groom writing skills are important.

There are a number of anecdotal accounts of various methods used to educate novice researchers [ 7 ]. A 2003 study surveyed investigators to identify the reasons for “failure to publish” after presenting abstracts at a national meeting. The prime culprits were time constraints (the most common reason), the ongoing status of the studies, and issues of coauthorship [ 8 ] Rodgers and Rodgers [ 9 ] went a step further, identifying variables such as time constraints, institutional policy, work pressure, and motivation.

As it stands, novice researchers, often overwhelmed by their many commitments, find it difficult to hone their writing skills. To help novice researchers realize their true potential, there is a clear need for qualitative studies that can identify the barriers to good scientific writing. However, to this point, there have been few studies analyzing the various obstacles to their progress. We carried out the study reported here to qualitatively evaluate the scientific writing of a group of novice researchers to pinpoint the difficulties and encouragements they encounter while engaged in the writing process. We used a grounded theory approach and formed no preliminary hypotheses; rather, common themes emerged from a qualitative interpretation of the interviews. These themes were reconfirmed with students and mentors to identify and address any errors in the interpretation of the findings.

The present study enrolled a subset of participants from a randomized controlled trial (RCT) in 2007. That RCT study’s participants were students from Duke University’s schools of medicine, nursing, and physical therapy. They were enrolled to compare (1) an intervention in which students wrote sections of scientific manuscripts in a virtual writing environment using text structure templates versus (2) a control group in which students wrote sections of scientific manuscripts in a local writing environment without any formal guidance or text structure templates.

Randomized controlled study

Sections of scientific manuscripts were defined as sections of formal peer-reviewed manuscripts (e.g., introduction, discussion, etc.) or sections of term papers written with research statements, including references to sources and presentation of acceptable evidence. Virtual writing environments were created with the application Writely, now known as Google Documents [ 10 ], which allowed documents to be shared among study participants and investigators. Local environments included word processors residing on participants’ computers, such as Microsoft Word or Open Office. Text structure templates were defined as a set of templates specifying the role of each text block (a subsection of a scientific manuscript that deals with a single idea or argument). For example, the template for the introduction specified that it should have four distinct subsections, or “text blocks”: (1) a statement of the topic’s significance, (2) a description of the information gap that the study addresses, (3) a literature review to support the claim of an information gap, and (4) the study objective. Each text block was represented by a title, a brief explanation of its role in the context of the manuscript, and previous examples of text blocks in the same category from peer-reviewed publications. The list of templates was made available at the Web site for the research on research (RoR) group [ 11 ].

In the RCT, 48 participating students were randomly paired and divided into two groups (24 in each group) based on the instructional intervention involved. Each participant had a mentor who was either a faculty member from Duke University or a member of the RoR group. In the “online scientific writing workshop” group, the students used a virtual writing environment (i.e., text structure templates; e-mail and PowerPoint-based instruction were provided for guidance in using the virtual tools, such as Voice over Internet Protocol). The “standard writing guidance” group used a traditional local environment (i.e., without templates, but participants received instructions face-to-face in real time and could access mentors by e-mail or conference call when necessary). Based on the mutual areas of interest of the student pairs and their mentors, they were asked to design a research question, choosing from a list of topics that were logistically feasible within the study period of seven months. Research questions could also be formulated with the help of an experienced researcher from the RoR group under the supervision of one of the authors (R.P.). Criteria of novelty and accessibility were considered for the allocation of research projects.

Qualitative study

Following the convenience sampling method, a total of 16 novice researchers, who were students from the second and fourth years of their courses of study, were enrolled in the present qualitative study. Most students were women (10), and most were enrolled in medicine programs (9), followed by nursing (4) and physical therapy (3). Two of the students in medicine had previously worked on published manuscripts but had made only minor contributions and were not primary authors.

On completion of the writing task, we conducted interviews in four focus groups of four students each. To compare the experiences of the intervention and nonintervention participants, the focus groups combined participants from both groups. Students not available for face-to-face interviews participated through conference calls, although we did not combine face-to-face and telephone interviews within a given focus group, to avoid the unintentional exclusion of conference call interviewees. Two students who could not participate in the focus groups were interviewed individually. All interviews were audiotaped for future reference.

Interviews lasted between 73 and 95 minutes. Participants were informed that the study would not influence their grades or the likelihood of their manuscripts’ acceptance for publication. They were told that the objective of the focus groups was to learn about the challenges they encountered while writing the manuscripts and their strategies for completing the project. We did not conduct pilot interviews; rather, we used open-ended questions for the first interview and subsequently updated it as the contents of each interview were analyzed. Initial open-ended questions focused on (1) factors that made the writing process either easier or more difficult, (2) interaction with the mentor and other peers during the writing process, and (3) specific factors within the participant’s allocated section (e.g., introduction) that posed difficulties or facilitated the process. Because qualitative analyses were performed after every interview, after a time, questions tended to focus more on what seemed to be emerging themes, clarifying them and obtaining further details on how these themes affected participants. After interviewing 14 of the participants, we determined that we had reached a saturation point at which all emerging themes had been extracted and consolidated [ 12 ]. Despite this, we continued until we had interviewed all 16 participants.

Data analysis

Interviews were transcribed and read independently four times each by two of us. One of us (R.P.) was trained in qualitative research from his PhD and had previous exposure to phenomenology. The other (A.S.) had previous experience with one qualitative study and participated in study groups discussing methodological aspects of grounded theory as well as ethnographic studies. Each of us independently coded the transcripts following principles of grounded theory [ 13 ]. After each coding, the coders exchanged files and discussed points of disagreement in a Web conference. Although it was not our primary aim to reach agreement on every portion of code, successive reviews led to greater agreement in coding. Initial categories were converted to major emerging themes, agreed on by both coders. Our initial emerging themes were then respondent-validated by asking all study participants to review the findings. Each emerging theme was accompanied by a brief explanation and anonymous quotes. This comparison led to a few clarifications of meaning for one quote, which was incorporated into our results, though we were careful not to let participants’ individual observations interfere with the emerging themes drawn from data obtained from the group as a whole. We considered respondent validation an error-reducing measure rather than a strict validation. We triangulated our results by discussing the emerging themes in an online forum with five specialists in college writing education. Triangulation was used not to generate hypotheses about emerging themes but to validate them once they had been found. Rather than an attempt to achieve consensus, our aim in triangulation was to increase the comprehensiveness and reflexivity of our analysis. (Reflexivity acknowledges a researcher’s contribution into the construction of meaning in a qualitative study by highlighting his or her assumptions and values that might influence the interview. It helps in ensuring that both data collection and interpretation are well within the premises of the researcher’s knowledge [ 14 ]) Hence, not all suggestions from these two sources (i.e., respondent validation and triangulation) were taken into account, and we did not use any further methods to achieve consensus. We also described negative cases in which emerging themes seemed not to be in complete agreement with outlier observations.

To provide adequate reflexivity regarding our analysis, we describe ourselves below. All of us are clinical researchers with prior experience mentoring novice researchers. None of us sponsor any particular educational school of thought, and none of us had strong preexisting opinions about the themes that would emerge from this qualitative analysis. Each of us, however, to a greater or lesser degree, had had experiences during our research careers that reflected the emerging themes described in our study.

This study received approval from Duke University’s institutional review board. Informed consent was obtained from all participants before participation.

Classifying the participants’ diverse responses led to the emergence of four major themes (described in the following paragraphs): cognitive burden, group support and mentoring, difficulty in distinguishing between content and structure, and backward design of manuscript. The participants and their mentors confirmed the validity of these themes, which assisted in identifying communication gaps and major deviations from the themes.

Cognitive burden

The participants differed greatly in their perceptions and management of the writing task. Some considered the task excessively complex and demanding, even overwhelming, on top of their other responsibilities. For example, one respondent noted, “Every time I thought about my article I would always come up with an excuse not to do it. I either had to watch a movie because I was tired, or I had to go to the grocery store…. I am not lazy, but the task just seemed to be overwhelming.” Constraints like lack of time, procrastination, anxiety, and apprehension found expression in different ways. One participant commented, “When I started the article I was excited…. Then, on the second day things started getting difficult and I just didn’t feel like going back…. I was busy and just couldn’t find the time to go back.” Another said, “As the weeks passed, the idea that I had to write that article kept coming back to me and that kind of made me a little anxious … there was just too much going on.” Efforts directed at self-motivation and difficulty in staying focused were also reported, which can be seen from “I kept trying to pace myself … and even told my boyfriend about my deadlines to see whether that would get me going … but every time my deadline was approaching I could pull an excuse and do something else…. I don’t know, it’s so hard to be focused” and “I was sitting for about 30 minutes and it seemed like a full afternoon…. I rewrote a single sentence a thousand times … things just didn’t move.”

Other participants reported diametrically opposite responses, emphasizing the challenge and sense of achievement on getting the job done (especially those who’d taken an organized, planned approach). For instance: “Creating steps helped me because I knew my task was not to get the whole manuscript done that day. I had a limited amount of text to write and … all of a sudden my task seemed easy … something that I could complete that day and would give me a sense of ‘You’ve got the job done.’”

Group support and mentoring

Most of the respondents were open to, and even in favor of, the idea of group writing. This was reflected in responses that favored group loyalty—responsibility, comfort zone, and encouragement. The responses point toward the role of colleagues, friends, and mentors in aiding the writing task. A typical comment was, “I felt like I owed it to my team…. We had a scheduled meeting and my role was to get that text written … so, I would just sit and write it.” A friendly communal working relationship was encouraging and comfortable for some of the respondents: “For me, it was really nice that a good friend of mine was my ‘writing bud….’ Friendship and group writing definitely go together…. I can see how this wouldn’t work in a group that I didn’t feel like working with.” Healthy and productive peer competition was apparent from some of the responses such as “So, we talked on the phone and she [referring to her peers] had written a lot more than I did…. Okay, I had to catch up no matter what.”

The role of mentors in guiding, encouraging, and supporting novice researchers was also substantial. Many researchers looked to mentors for support and reassurance. One respondent said, for example, “Well, I know I could get in touch with my mentor, but then I hadn’t really done much…. So, would I send him an e-mail just to say ‘Hey, I haven’t done anything. … Can you give me a hand? … Cheer me up?’”

Difficulty in distinguishing between content and structure

Many participants’ reflections regarding the distinction between content and structure revealed initially diverse views that converged to agreement. Slow yet significant steps were taken toward overcoming initial difficulties, understanding assigned roles, and drawing on similar past experiences. Some participants found it difficult to appreciate the difference between content and structure. They found resolution by taking small steps toward the goal of understanding the distinction. One commented, “At first I couldn’t really tell the difference [between content and structure]. It helped me to start breaking the text into small portions [text blocks].” A relatively higher focus on content, based on what they had seen in other articles, along with a lack of stress on structure, context, and argument building, was also noted. This is evident from the comment, “He [the mentor] told me that my Introduction wasn’t right…. I went back and fixed it to make it focus on the topic…. I guess I was just trying to add more text, looking at what I had seen in other articles.” Some researchers had a sense of text structure but perceived it differently from the way it was communicated by the mentors: “I guess I have always thought about text structure, but just not the way you have put it.” Some were helped by remembering previous instances in which similar methods were applied; experience guided them in differentiating between content and structure and, ultimately, helped them write more effectively. “In previous manuscripts I did something similar by taking an article that my mentor had written and then using it to guide me.”

Backward design of manuscript

For some participants, comprehending the overall perspective of the manuscript was a turning point, whereas others lost focus when they began to write. Those participants who were able to have the overall perspective and visualize the completed manuscript were then able to work backward from that goal to plan and implement the steps of writing the manuscript, hence the theme “backward design of manuscript.” The big picture dawned on one of the participants while analyzing text structure: “It may sound silly, but while I was going over the [text structure] templates, I suddenly realized the connection between the project itself and how the manuscript creates a nice flow that leads the reader from the start to finish.” Clarity on the final goal assisted in avoiding time-consuming deviations. One participant communicated this through saying, “If you know where you are trying to get it, that just makes the whole writing much easier … makes it a straight line, no going around.” In another instance, despite initial clarity, focus was lost: “I can see now how the two connect … after you go over this it seems obvious, but when you are writing your section it is quite hard to keep focused. I think that at some points I just ran out of things to say, and I went on a tangent … in a way I knew it didn’t sound right, but I wasn’t really sure what exactly was wrong.”

Negative cases

Some responses highlighted critical aspects of the study that needed to be addressed. Missing important data could lead to an inaccurate article, and plagiarism was perceived as a serious threat. One of the participants had failed to note certain important points, leading to an inaccurate article: “When I got feedback about my texts I noticed that I had missed several points. [Name of mentor] asked me why I had missed them, and my answer was just that I didn’t notice them.” The participant was then asked what she would do in the future to prevent this from happening: “I would probably make documents that are easier to read … perhaps ask students [participants] to watch the video more than once … but I think that a lot of the learning comes from getting feedback from a real person instead of a set of instructions.”

Suggested solutions included user-friendly documents and personal feedback. The participants also mentioned another problem, the risk of plagiarism while using templates. “I think there is a serious risk of plagiarism when you allow people to copy from templates…. I would be very concerned to use it unless I really knew the person I was working with.” Another participant was asked what he would do to prevent this from happening, and he replied, “Today there are places on the Web where you can go, enter a text, and then check to see whether some of its portions were plagiarized.” A second researcher also referred to online plagiarism-identifying tools as a means of reducing this risk.

To our knowledge, this is the first qualitative study involving virtual and face-to-face scientific writing interventions among medical, nursing, and physical therapy students. The themes that emerged provide insight into the thought processes of novice researchers. The theme of “cognitive burden” emerged from the many constraints that limited participants’ ability to complete the writing task. The constraints ranged from those arising from within the individual (subjective) to those associated with the task (objective). One or both types of constraint placed an intellectual burden on some but not all of the participants, which had far-reaching consequences on their quality of work and likelihood of completing the task. A preference for group writing and a mentor’s guidance also surfaced during the analysis—this led to the theme “group support and mentoring.” Understanding the difference between content and structure is critical to a well-written scientific paper; the participants brought up many issues concerning the difficulty of making this distinction, which led to an important theme—“difficulty in distinguishing between content and structure.” Other statements of participants described the importance of identifying the desired end result, then planning and implementing steps in reverse. This led to the theme “backward design of manuscript.”

In our study, cognitive burden was seen to be a critical factor in the initiation, implementation, and completion of the writing task. In a similar study by Pololi et al [ 15 ] describing students’ experiences in a writing project, it was observed that, consistent with adult learning principles, the students responded positively to self-determined goals and deadlines, which helped ease their cognitive burden. Furthermore, they viewed the project as a challenging experience that helped them develop their writing skills, increase their self-confidence as writers, gain access to valuable writing resources, positively provide and respond to feedback, and recognize the importance of writing in academic medicine [ 15 ] In yet another study, it was observed that the significance of the written text can stimulate motivation [ 16 ].

In contrast, other studies have noted preexisting barriers to effective writing that were related to cognitive burden. For example, lack of writing experience, unfamiliarity with writing for scholarly publication, writing-related anxiety, lack of confidence in one’s ability, sensitivity or resistance to feedback, the perception of good writing skills as “nice” but not necessary for the job, bad habits, memories of tortuous writing experiences, and fear of failure may lead to failure in the writing process [ 15 , 16 ].

Most participants in our study favored group writing. Pololi et al [ 15 ] have demonstrated that participants working in pairs produce shorter but better texts in terms of task fulfillment, grammatical accuracy, and complexity. In fact, most students in that study reported a positive experience with group writing, though some expressed reservations. Collaboration allows students to pool ideas and provide feedback.

Group support has also been shown to increase the frequency of faculty’s publications by emphasizing the group process and respectful collaboration [ 17 ]. Collaborative collegiality was strongly apparent in all writing groups studied by Galligan et al [ 18 ]. However, significant conflicts (including task conflict characterized by disagreements on task content, affective conflict characterized by hostility or anger among group members, and process conflict characterized by approaches to the task at hand), which affect team performance, have been experienced in geographically distributed collaborative teams. This is more so in dispersed teams as opposed to localized teams [ 19 ]. Apart from these, concerns about a sociotechnical gap such as technical challenges, expanding and conflicting user needs, underuse of groupware technology attributable to insufficient incentives, subtle organizational nuances, and changing organizational structures could also mar collaborative work [ 20 ]. In addition to this, collaborators’ backgrounds, expertise, and viewpoints, lack of rapid synchronous feedback, and other communication problems may adversely affect a group’s progress [ 21 ].

Making the distinction between structure and content is crucial. A well-structured research article helps disseminate scientific information, and the content and interpretation help readers make important decisions [ 22 ]. Readers have certain expectations regarding the placement of concepts in a scientific manuscript [ 23 ], which enables them to search and access information more quickly and efficiently [ 22 , 24 ].

Awareness of structure in scientific articles affects readers’ reactions and feedback [ 23 ] Poor placement of information confuses the reader [ 24 ], and a weak structure causes confusion and misinterpretation. It draws the reader’s focus away from the content because he or she must concentrate on unraveling the structure [ 22 ]. Coordinating the structure of a research paper is a difficult task, which may discourage researchers [ 23 ].

Visualizing the completed manuscript and working backward from that goal to devise a series of manageable intermediate steps is crucial to the scientific writing process, as explained by Wiggins and McTighe [ 25 ]. The backward design method has been credited to be beneficial in writing logically organized research papers [ 26 ].

Participants in our study who used backward design wrote logically structured paragraphs and well-organized papers. It is important to note, however, that it may be difficult to avoid bias in backward-design studies, which base their hypotheses on predetermined conclusions. Also, if the protocol studied in the backward design approach lacks certain features or has some limitations, these errors may be carried to the real manuscript.

Basic writing skills acquired as early as grade school lay the foundation for future attempts at writing in any context. These skills include composition, writing reports, theme-based write-ups, paraphrasing, reading comprehension, and letter writing. Over the years, their significance and application are frequently sidelined and undeveloped. Consequently, novice researchers lack confidence and often struggle with writing. The abilities they have retained need to be revived, honed, and applied to the goal of writing and publishing quality scientific research. Writing to learn is a novel and evolving concept with diverse and fragmented views [ 27 ]. In accord with this concept, informal writing as a way of enhancing personal understanding has numerous benefits, which have resulted in its wide application. At the same time, research and teaching methods aimed at disseminating scientific ideas via good writing have been misconstrued and underutilized [ 2 ].

Our aim in undertaking a qualitative study was not to generate a statistically representative sample but, rather, to evaluate a restricted sample to bring about an in-depth discussion in the educational community of the issues involved. Our findings should be verified with additional studies, preferably using methods with greater potential for statistical validation, such as surveys or even large cohort studies. Furthermore, our study was focused exclusively on a comparison between virtual and face-to-face interventions, but the virtual environment is evolving, so some of our findings are likely to change over the years as technology improves. However, some themes, such as cognitive burden, are inherent to the writing process and will probably evolve into other forms rather than simply disappear as a result of new technology. For example, writing in virtual groups might decrease the cognitive burden that would be higher in individual writing but that, presumably, would not extinguish it. Finally, we acknowledge the potential for unintentional bias in interpreting interview transcripts in our study. We minimized the bias by ensuring that interview transcripts were screened multiple times by at least two of us.

The themes produced by this study concern the mindsets and thought processes of novice researchers and the challenges they face in their early attempts at scientific writing. Remedies that address those challenges are needed to help break down the barriers to quality scientific writing. Common detrimental beliefs and perceptions, seen especially in novice researchers, can be alleviated by considering their root cause. Our study demonstrates a number of points to be considered when evaluating the scientific writing process; these findings have important implications for the education of novice researchers. Future studies should determine whether these findings can be generalized to larger populations.

Acknowledgments

This study was made possible by the following grants: (1) Grant Number 1 UL1 RR024128-01 from the National Center for Research Resources (NCRR), a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) and NIH Roadmap for Medical Research; (2) DU CIT Scientific Writing Workshop using Online Instructional Technology Surgery; and (3) School of Nursing, Physical and Occupational Therapy, Community and Family Medicine, Duke University.

The contents of this report are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official view of the NCRR or the NIH. Information on the NCRR is available at http://www.ncrr.nih.gov . Information on Reengineering the Clinical Research Enterprise can be obtained from http://nihroadmap.nih.gov/clinicalresearch/overview-translational.asp .

Contributor Information

Dr. Shah Jatin, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore.

Dr. Shah Anand, Department of Radiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and consulting associate, Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina.

Dr. Pietrobon Ricardo, Research on Research Group, Department of Surgery, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina.

10 quick tips to improve essay writing skills

M any students struggle to hone their writing skills for years if not decades. While it might seem straightforward, the reality is that many learners fail because it’s demanding. However, there’s no cause for alarm. Writing hardly comes naturally even to the most gifted authors. It takes hard work, practice, and dedication. In this article, we’ll share with you a few secrets to improve essay writing skills in college. Read on to understand.

The importance of essay writing skills

If you didn’t know it, essay-writing skills are vital for academic and professional success. Their potential to open doors of opportunities is almost unmatched. Below are some benefits of honing your writing skills:

• Enhances critical thinking
• Improves communication skills
• Develop researching skills
• Inspires and enhances creativity
• Boosts your analytical skills
• Makes you a better planner
• Improves academic performance
• Improves your chances of career success
• Promotes lifelong learning

Tools and resources to improve writing skills

Undeniably, technology has completely revolutionized our education system. Whether we like it or not, it’s here to stay and we must embrace it or risk being left behind. Today, there are numerous Edtech programs to help students write essays better. We believe each college student should consider the following three resources. First, if you struggle with brainstorming, use Evernote to capture ideas and notes for writing inspiration. Secondly, try online help if you’re overwhelmed with work, education, and family responsibilities. A same day essay writing service like FastEssay has a team of highly qualified individuals providing quick essay writing services for students like you. They can help you with both business and academic writing services. Lastly, try Textero, an AI platform that can assist you in generating texts in minutes!       

From mediocre to masterful: 10 tips to get better at writing essays

Learn to plan.

Failing to plan is planning to fail – nothing could be truer. If you want to master a skill, you must develop a clear plan for learning, practicing, and conquering it. Writing isn’t any different. Many students fail to hone their writing skills because of poor preparation. We’d advise you to develop a flexible practice schedule to help you master new words and phrases. Most importantly, you must recognize that learning doesn’t happen overnight. Therefore, follow your plan with patience and discipline.

Read widely

Just as an iron sharpens another, you’ll learn a lot from accomplished authors in your area of interest. It’s improbable to become a great writer if you’re a lazy reader. You must be willing to read widely and pick a few tips along the way. You can learn new phrases, vocabularies, idioms, and expressions from simple newspaper cutting, magazines, books, or blog articles. Moreover, it’s not just about the positives, you’ll also learn what to avoid in your own articles. For example, if the material you’re reading has a flat and uninspiring introduction, you can learn to make yours catchy to improve readership and engagement.   

Understand the process

Essay writing is a process. It’s structured. You can’t write winning essays haphazardly. It’s critical to understand this basic concept. Otherwise, it would be impossible to accord the process the respect it deserves. Too many students crafting an essay can take any direction and shape. In some cases, it’s the case of putting the cart before the horse. Employing such tactics often proves counterproductive. However, if you want to improve your essay writing skills, you must recognize the stages involved, i.e., brainstorming, drafting, revising, and editing, and follow them. Understand that they’re all critical to a winning paper.  

Use the right structure

The structure of your essay is just as important as the writing process. It’s unsurprising, therefore, that most educators emphasize it in their teachings. While a typical essay has three parts, introduction, body, and conclusion, each of them demands different skills and organization. For example, you must understand that the introduction will require a special touch with a solid thesis statement. In addition, your body paragraphs must flow logically and provide irrefutable evidence. Most importantly, your conclusion should come last and highlight all your major arguments. Ignoring any of these parts could lead to a failing grade.

Choose the right topics

Even though some lecturers insist on select topics, many allow students to choose subjects that interest them. Therefore, if you have the freedom, please focus on your interests. Writing about subjects, ideas, and topics that pique your curiosity is likely to unlock your creative genius, making the process seamless and enjoyable. The reverse is true for issues that hardly interest you. Remember that your keen interest in a subject will make you dedicate more of your time to it, research deeply, and explore its controversies, which can only spice up your work.

Incorporate evidence

Writing an essay is like drawing on an empty canvas. You can model it the way you want, creating a masterpiece or trash. However, with each stroke, you make permanent marks that expose your thought pattern and mental state. So, avoid babbling, and instead craft a logical paper by incorporating supporting arguments. Don’t take your audience on a guessing trip, wondering if your claims are factual or mere hearsay. Instead, support every claim with evidence from reliable and credible sources. To become better at writing, you must be accountable to your audience.

Embrace simplicity

Sometimes we try too hard to impress our audiences. In fact, many students try too hard to capture their teachers’ attention. While this isn’t a crime, they run the risk of crossing the line. This shouldn’t happen if you intend to improve your writing skills. Be simple in your approach.  Avoid using complex vocabulary and phrases. Additionally, be wary of incorporating ideas that are beyond your scope. For example, when writing an English essay about the disadvantages of smoking, don’t change it into a medical opinion piece, digging deeply into the complex interlink between tobacco and cancer. Keep it simple.

Follow instructions

The simple things are often the hardest to adhere to. This partly explains why teachers occasionally include trick questions in their exam papers. It doesn’t matter how well-structured and polished your essay is if you don’t follow your lecturers’ instructions.  For instance, if your teacher wants a 500-word paper, don’t surprise them with a 1000-word article. Otherwise, they’ll be more likely to mark you down, reject your submission, or fail you than praise you.

Editing and proofreading your essay

No one is perfect. If it would help, you should know that even the most accomplished authors make mistakes. However, writing better papers demands that you work on your errors constantly until they no longer define you. Don’t be the writer known for structural, stylistic, or grammar issues. Once you’re done with your first draft, let it settle for a few hours, then proofread and edit it to eliminate all errors. This is the surest way to get better at writing essays.

Maintain timeliness

You’ll be surprised to learn the number of students who’ve failed their courses for late submissions. The introduction of the Education Management Information System has made it impossible for learners to submit their papers after the deadline by automatically locking the submission pane. It doesn’t matter how great your essay is if you can’t submit it for marking. The best strategy is to start working on your paper early and complete it with days to spare.  

Read widely and excel in essay writing!   

As captured in the short article above, there are numerous strategies for improving your essay writing skills. While these aren’t the only ways to write better essays, they can surely set you on the right path to honing your skills. With the right attitude, adherence to all instructions, timeliness, and simplicity, you can conquer most hurdles on your way and become an accomplished writer. But most importantly, READ!