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The design principles of green and sustainable chemistry and engineering provide researchers with new tools to create processes and products that cost less and are healthier and more sustainable. Try our green chemistry tools and get an overview of greener research areas.

Assessing the "greenness" of a reaction or product and developing safer and more efficient analytical techniques.

Breaking unsustainable and risky dependence on fossil carbon by developing new and existing chemicals from renewable sources.

Moving from stoichiometric to homogenous and heterogeneous catalytic reactions using greener organic, organometallic, inorganic and biological catalysts.

Managing the extraction, use, reuse, dispersion, and alternatives development for elements in the chemical enterprise that are facing critical supply risks.

Development and implementation of tools and metrics useful for analyzing the “greenness” of chemistries and processes.

Designing processes, systems, and devices that minimize sustainability impacts of chemical products and/or reactions throughout their life cycle.

Deriving information from empirical, mechanistic and computational methods to design chemicals that are less toxic.

Techniques and applications for solvent replacement and/or removal in various process conditions, as well as sustainability assessment of solvents.

Transforming wastes and residues to energy, fuels and other useful chemicals.

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Themed collection 2023 Green Chemistry Reviews

The need for hotspot-driven research.

Environmental benefit will be greatest if we green the step causing the most harm.

Natural deep eutectic solvents (NaDES): translating cell biology to processing

This review examines the possible functional roles of liquid natural deep eutectic solvents (NaDES) in plants and translating it to the laboratory.

Electrochemical nitration for organic C–N bond formation: a current view on possible N-sources, mechanisms, and technological feasibility

Rethinking nitration: sustainable electrochemical C-N functionalization. This work reviews diverse inorganic nitrogen sources for fine chemical production, with a perspective on innovative pathways to harness alternative nitrogen sources' potential.

From green to circular chemistry paved by biocatalysis

Biocatalysts raised by the green chemistry and circular chemistry principles can constitute the most important and efficient strategy for achieving many of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals launched by the UN.

Energy crisis in Europe enhances the sustainability of green chemicals

Europe's energy crisis has made green routes for ammonia and methanol synthesis economically competitive. This presents an opportunity for Europe to lead the grand transition towards a sustainable chemical industry.

Status check: biocatalysis; its use with and without chemocatalysis. How does the fine chemicals industry view this area?

Stages of the penetration of catalytic technology and the necessity for fruitful collaboration.

Limonene as a natural product extraction solvent

The use of natural product limonene as natural product extraction solvent offers multiple benefits that go beyond its environmentally benign nature.

Phosphorus sustainability: a case for phytic acid as a biorenewable platform

Phytic acid is a source of biogenic phosphorus that could serve as a key platform chemical in future biorefineries, helping to close the loop on the phosphorus cycle.

Recent advances in the heterogeneous photochemical synthesis of C–N bonds

Photocatalyst has been developed as an effective tool for C–N coupling due to high selectivity, mild reaction conditions and low energy comsume.

What does it mean that “something is green”? The fundamentals of a Unified Greenness Theory

Proposal of a general theory of greenness, connecting all chemical disciplines and not only; the description of basic concepts and relationships.

Using earth abundant materials for long duration energy storage: electro-chemical and thermo-chemical cycling of bicarbonate/formate

The HCO 3 − -HCO 2 − cycle, where aqueous solutions of formate salts are hydrogen and energy carriers, offers the opportunity of combining electrochemical and thermochemical operations, and of coupling CO 2 capture with energy/hydrogen storage.

Natural multi-osmolyte cocktails form deep eutectic systems of unprecedented complexity: discovery, affordances and perspectives

Tracking osmolyte patterns in biological contexts can help design novel multicomponent deep eutectic systems, which mimic the nuanced microenvironment of biomacromolecules operating within these biological contexts.

Furfural production from lignocellulosic biomass: one-step and two-step strategies and techno-economic evaluation

Seaweed-based polysaccharides-review of extraction, characterization, and bioplastic application, syntheses and polymerization of monoterpene-based (meth)acrylates: ibo(m)a as a relevant monomer for industrial applications.

This article provides a comprehensive overview of the current scientific status of monomer and polymer synthesis, as well as the areas of application for (meth)acrylates based on monoterpenes, using the industrially available IBOMA as an example.

Salt-assisted synthesis of advanced carbon-based materials for energy-related applications

This review provides a comprehensive overview of salt assisted synthesis of carbon based materials based on the role of salts in synthesis systems. Meanwhile, the application in energy related fields is emphasized.

The dawn of aqueous deep eutectic solvents for lignin extraction

This review addresses recent advancements in lignin extraction using ADES and underlying mechanism. Additionally, the economic and environmental sustainability is evaluated, highlighting the feasibility of industrial-scale applications in future.

Advanced nano-bifunctional electrocatalysts in Li–air batteries for high coulombic efficiency

This article focuses on the major obstacle of sluggish ORR and OER kinetics of the cathode in LABs and reviews the main advances of the major designing principles of various nanoscale bifunctional electrocatalysts, and the relation to the enhancing OER/ORR catalytic activity.

Molten salt technique for the synthesis of carbon-based materials for supercapacitors

We provide a comprehensive review of the molten salt strategy for the preparation of carbon-based materials by highlighting the roles played by molten salts. The application of these carbons in supercapacitors is also discussed.

Selective demethylation reactions of biomass-derived aromatic ether polymers for bio-based lignin chemicals

Unlocking lignin potential by selective demethylation of its monomers and oligomers.

Electrochemical cascade reactions: an account of recent developments for this modern strategic tool in the arsenal of chemical synthesis

The electrochemical cascade process majorly satisfies the essential criteria of green synthesis. Being an Integrated synthetic strategy it can produce more molecules in a shorter time and thus provides a modern strategic tool in the arsenal of synthetic chemists.

CO 2 -derived non-isocyanate polyurethanes (NIPUs) and their potential applications

Using CO 2 as feedstock to fabricate valuable products has become essential to green and sustainable chemistry and represents a rewarding challenge.

Electrochemical hydrogen production: sustainable hydrogen economy

The development of sustainable energy technologies has received considerable attention to meet increasing global energy demands and to realise organisational goals ( e.g. , United Nations, the Paris Agreement) of carbon neutrality.

Role of fungal enzymes in the synthesis of pharmaceutically important scaffolds: a green approach

Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that play an essential role in the biosphere.

Review and perspectives on carbon-based electrocatalysts for the production of H 2 O 2 via two-electron oxygen reduction

As a versatile and environmentally friendly chemical, hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) is in high demand.

Future bioenergy source by microalgae–bacteria consortia: a circular economy approach

Future sustainable approach of bioenergy production that uses microalgae–bacteria consortium to produce bioelectricity and biofuel for industrial and daily activities.

A review on green and sustainable carbon anodes for lithium ion batteries: utilization of green carbon resources and recycling waste graphite

Sustainable and effective methods for green synthesis of carbon anodes for lithium-ion batteries is reviewed in this work.

Stimuli-cleavable moiety enabled vinyl polymer degradation and emerging applications

This review delves into degradable vinyl polymers with stimuli-cleavable moieties, their chemistry, mechanisms, and applications in environmental remediation, drug delivery, advanced functional materials, and surface modification.

Bio-based platform chemicals synthesized from lignin biorefinery

Bio-based chemicals synthesized by lignin offer a promising pathway of bioenergy utilization to achieve the target of the Paris Agreement with <2 °C of climate warming temperature.

Deep eutectic solvents as a versatile platform toward CO 2 capture and utilization

Deep eutectic solvents provide a versatile platform for CO 2 capture and subsequent conversion into value-added chemicals.

Research progress in electrochemical/photochemical utilization of methanol as a C1 source

This review highlights the recent advances in various electrochemical and photochemical reactions using methanol as a sustainable C1 source.

When nanocellulose meets hydrogels: the exciting story of nanocellulose hydrogels taking flight

By revealing the intrinsic link between the inherent advantages of nanocellulose and hydrogels, we highlight the applications of nanocellulose hydrogels in medical treatment, electricity, sensor, environmental governance, food, and agriculture.

Physico-chemical challenges on the self-assembly of natural and bio-based ingredients on hair surfaces: towards sustainable haircare formulations

Polymers and surfactants are used in many technological and industrial applications such as the manufacture of functional materials and coatings, personal care and pharmaceutical products, food science, paints or tertiary oil recover.

Research status, opportunities, and challenges of cobalt phosphate based materials as OER electrocatalysts

Cobalt phosphate (CoPi) based material has attracted great attention due to its low cost, good stability, high catalytic activity, and redox properties. This review presents the recent advances of CoPi in OER process.

Sacrifice and valorization of biomass to realize energy exploitation and transformation in a photoelectrochemical way

The mechanism, substrate transformation, photoelectrodes, and configurations of photoelectrochemistry (PEC) of biomass are reviewed, different from PEC water splitting, photocatalysis, or electrocatalysis.

Recent progress in the electrochemical selenofunctionalization of alkenes and alkynes

The recent advances on the electrochemical selenofunctionalization of unsaturated C–C bonds were comprehensively summarized in this review.

Carbon materials for hybrid evaporation-induced electricity generation systems

The most recent developments in carbon materials for hybrid evaporation-induced electricity generation systems are discussed in detail and analyzed in depth.

Recent advancements in supramolecular macrocycles for two-dimensional membranes for separations

This review summarizes recent advancements of 2D supramolecular membranes for separations. This topic can provide new insights on developing 2D supramolecular membranes with high selectivity, mild flux, good stability and appreciable reversibility.

Recent advances in plastic recycling and upgrading under mild conditions

This review summarizes the emerging advanced technologies including bio-, photo-, electro-, and low-temperature thermocatalysis for recycling and upgrading of waste plastics under mild conditions.

A review of water splitting via mixed ionic–electronic conducting (MIEC) membrane reactors

Coupling catalytic water splitting with a mixed ionic–electronic conducting (MIEC) membrane reactor has been demonstrated as a very promising approach to enhance the hydrogen production rate by extracting the oxygen produced.

An overview on the recycling of waste poly(vinyl chloride)

The environmental threat of waste polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is growing. But the unique chemical structure of PVC makes its recycling itself have the ability to cause environmental harm. More advanced recycling processes are required.

Combined pyro-hydrometallurgical technology for recovering valuable metal elements from spent lithium-ion batteries: a review of recent developments

A combined pyro-metallurgical process with green chemistry principles for the recycling of valuable metals from spent lithium-ion batteries is reviewed.

Functional carbon dots derived from biomass and plastic wastes

The preparation methods, formation mechanism, properties and applications of functional carbon dots derived from biomass and plastic wastes are reported.

Shining light on layered metal phosphosulphide catalysts for efficient water electrolysis: preparation, promotion strategies, and perspectives

This review summarizes the design, preparation and promotion strategies of layered metal phosphosulphide-based electrocatalysts for water splitting; future perspectives and challenges are also briefly discussed.

2D layered materials: structures, synthesis, and electrocatalytic applications

We review the synthesis, structure and electrochemical applications of 2D nanomaterials, with particular emphasis on the relationship between their structure and catalytic activity.

Ionic liquids membranes for liquid separation: status and challenges

The exciting research activities in the fields of ionic liquid membranes (ILMs) for liquid separation are reviewed, covering the preparation strategy, applicability, transport mechanism, and future perspectives.

Progress in the biosynthesis of bio-based PET and PEF polyester monomers

This critical review covers advances in the preparation of the important polyester monomers terephthalic acid (TPA), 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA), and ethylene glycol (EG), with particular focus on biocatalytic approaches.

Cellulose processing in ionic liquids from a materials science perspective: turning a versatile biopolymer into the cornerstone of our sustainable future

The past two decades have seen fruitful efforts in shaping cellulose into functional materials using ionic liquids. This Tutorial Review aims at providing guidance from a materials science perspective to stimulate more research in this field.

Ionic liquids as a new cornerstone to support hydrogen energy

This work reviewed how ionic liquids support hydrogen energy technologies for production, storage and utilization.

Lignin-enhanced wet strength of cellulose-based materials: a sustainable approach

Cellulose is the most abundant renewable polymer resource in nature and cellulose-based materials are expected to serve as viable replacements to petroleum-based plastic products.

Heterogeneity in enzyme/metal–organic framework composites for CO 2 transformation reactions

Heterogeneity benefits enzyme/MOF design. In this review, our perspective on the research challenges and future directions for biocatalytic CO 2  conversion using MOF-based biocatalysts are discussed.

Green materials with promising applications: cyclodextrin-based deep eutectic supramolecular polymers

Binary DESPs and ternary DESPs are used for the separation of target compounds and as efficient adhesive materials.

Waste to wealth: direct utilization of spent materials for electrocatalysis and energy storage

We summarize the direct utilization of versatile waste sources in various electrocatalysis and energy storage systems in view of synthetic strategies, structural properties, electrochemical performance and the challenges and prospects.

Designing electrocatalysts for seawater splitting: surface/interface engineering toward enhanced electrocatalytic performance

Schematic illustration of interface/surface engineering strategies with various effective approaches for high-performance HER/OER electrocatalysts in seawater.

Sustainable production of active pharmaceutical ingredients from lignin-based benzoic acid derivatives via “demand orientation”

Catalytic production of several representative active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) from lignin.

Biocatalytic amide bond formation

The state-of-the-art of biocatalytic amide bond formation is discussed with the help of a manually curated database of enzymatic amidation reactions.

Salt-thermal methods for recycling and regenerating spent lithium-ion batteries: a review

The state-of-the-art salt-thermal method to recycle spent LIBs enables preferential Li recovery, recovery of anode/cathode material, direct regeneration of degraded anode/cathode material, and one-step re-synthesis of advanced functional materials.

Retrosynthesis from transforms to predictive sustainable chemistry and nanotechnology: a brief tutorial review

Retrosynthesis is a tool initially developed to simplify the planning of the synthesis of organic molecules. With the progress of computer-aided synthesis design (CASD), its development will be predictive green and sustainable CASD.

The dialkylcarbonate route to ionic liquids: purer, safer, greener?

The synthesis of ionic liquids can generate large amounts of waste and use toxic or expensive raw materials.

Advances in S–N bond formation via electrochemistry: a green route utilizing diverse sulfur and nitrogen sources

This review summarizes recent advances in S–N bond formation via electrochemistry from diverse sulfur and nitrogen sources to valuable sulfur–nitrogen-bond-containing compounds, such as sulfenamides, sulfinamides, sulfonamides, sulfoximines, isothiazoles and thiadiazoles.

Lignin as a green and multifunctional alternative to phenol for resin synthesis

The substitution of phenol by lignin not only reduces the feedstock cost of resin synthesis but also improves the resin's physicochemical properties and endues the resin with new functions.

Selective oxidation of biomass-derived carbohydrate monomers

The article discusses the potential production processes for glucaric acid, and the efforts to develop more sustainable oxidation practices for its production, with a focus on the strengths and weaknesses of each method.

Toxicological data bank bridges the gap between environmental risk assessment and green organic chemical design in One Health world

This review aims to introduce the rich applications of chemical toxicological data for environmental risk assessment and green chemical design by illustrating referable examples or cases. Further, we present a comprehensive toxicology databank.

Recent developments of MXene-based catalysts for hydrogen production by water splitting

In the application of electrolytic water splitting, MXenes can achieve performance optimization by doping, surface functional group regulation, construction of defect/vacancy, 3D/porous structure, or compounding with other materials.

Graphitic carbon nitride-based nanostructures as emergent catalysts for carbon monoxide (CO) oxidation

This is the first review that emphasizes the engineering of carbon nitride-based catalysts for thermal, electrochemical, and photoelectrochemical CO oxidation reactions experimentally and theoretically.

The functional and synergetic optimization of the thermal-catalytic system for the selective oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural to 2,5-diformylfuran: a review

The latest design and development of thermal-catalytic strategies are sorted based on the active species and types of catalysts. The ongoing challenge and opportunities have been concluded.

Addressing the CO 2 challenge through thermocatalytic hydrogenation to carbon monoxide, methanol and methane

Addressing the CO 2 challenge is mandatory for the well-being of Earth's ecosystem and humanity. CO 2 catalytic hydrogenation is a suitable solution.

From non-conventional ideas to multifunctional solvents inspired by green chemistry: fancy or sustainable macromolecular chemistry?

The review teach the reader how the use of an unconventional polymerization medium not only as scientific fantasy designed to validate an established concept but also as a viable tool for the sustainable development of macromolecular chemistry.

Review of high-performance sustainable polymers in additive manufacturing

This review evaluates the current state of sustainable polymers in additive manufacturing with a focus on higher performance capabilities.

Marine chitin upcycling with immobilized chitinolytic enzymes: current state and prospects

Immobilized chitinase, β- N -acetylglucosaminidases, chitin deacetylases and chitosanases enable ecofriendly enzymic conversion of chitin and its derivative, chitosan, into low-molecular weight sugars known as chitooligosaccharides (COSs).

About this collection

Welcome to our online collection of Green Chemistry Review articles. Here we feature Critical reviews, Tutorial reviews and Perspective articles published in 2023.

For more information about the different review types, please go to https://rsc.li/greenchem

Congratulations to all the authors whose articles are featured and we hope readers enjoy this collection.

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Acquire the skills and experience required to thrive in the field of green chemistry.

Acquire the skills and experience required to thrive in the field of green chemistry

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Apply your expertise to a unique research project examining an area of green, sustainable or environmental science

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Qualification, september 2024, £14,650 home, £40,500 overseas, delivered by, department of chemistry, minimum entry standard, 2:1 in chemistry, engineering or a related subject, course overview.

Discover how the application of green technologies is helping reduce reliance on fossil fuels on this Master's course.

You'll explore how greener manufacturing processes are helping minimise the impact of environmental damage on the planet. You'll also examine the new technology that is helping future innovations be built on more sustainable foundations.

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Sustainable Chemistry (lectures)

Explore current applications and challenges in sustainable chemical processes and products.

Recovery of Metals from Waste (lectures)

Analyse key topics relating to metal recovery and recycling.

Journal Club and Renewable Energy Poster

Work on presentations that assess your ability to understand and critique material on an unfamiliar topic. 

You'll present this as part of a group in a clear, engaging and insightful manner, both visually and orally.

Proposal for Green Chemistry Research Project

The proposal assesses your aptitude to critically analyse scientific literature to provide context to your research.

You’ll also plan the work packages necessary to complete the research project and reflect on ethical, safety and commercial/societal considerations.

You'll undertake a research project, which incorporates a research proposal, dissertation, oral exam and oral presentation. The dissertation will evaluate your skills at presenting, describing and critically discussing your own experimental data. At the oral presentation, you'll be assessed on your ability to present your research with the help of visual tools in a concise fashion.

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2:1 in chemistry, engineering or a related subject.

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For admission to this course, you must achieve the  standard university requirement  in the appropriate English language qualification. For details of the minimum grades required to achieve this requirement, please see the  English language requirements .

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ATAS course description

The description of the MRes course that you should use in your ATAS application is the below:

• Title of the research : Green Chemistry
• Description : The MRes course in Green Chemistry at Imperial College London is designed to improve the students’ understanding and experience in all areas of Green Chemistry by promoting the design and efficient use (i.e. resource management) of environmentally benign chemicals and chemical processes. The research project will be based in a multidisciplinary area, supervised by a chemist and another academic. This will often be a chemical engineer, biochemist or biologist, who will provide complementary expertise to the project. The student will be examining areas such as renewable feedstocks, alternative energy sources and environmental technologies. These studies will include a proposal, literature report, dissertation, oral presentations and exams.

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Explore how green chemical technologies can be applied in commercial or academic laboratories.

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Industrial applications of green chemistry: Status, Challenges and Prospects

• Review Paper
• Published: 23 January 2020
• Volume 2 , article number  263 , ( 2020 )

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• Rajni Ratti 1  

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Green Chemistry is expanding its wings from academic laboratories to industrial units. Sustainable practices include replacement of volatile organic solvents which constitute the bulk of a reaction material, developing recyclable catalysts, developing energy efficient synthesis and encouraging the use of renewable starting material. By following the principles of green chemistry, turn-over of many companies have increased immensely leading to both environmental as well as economic benefits. This review explores various examples wherein green chemistry has enhanced the sustainability factor of industrial processes immensely and suggests the measures which should be taken to promote as well as popularize the green practices in synthesis.

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Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

1 Introduction

The 20th century has seen a phenomenal growth of global economy and a continuous improvement of standard of living in the industrialized countries. The increasingly competitive economic outlook and the shrinking graph of natural resources on the planet pose an urgent need to reduce the energy expenditure as well the production of waste. Sustainability is one of the main drivers for innovations in order to allow the technical industries to work for the well-being of consumers in a safe and healthy environment. The most attractive concept towards achieving sustainability is “Green Chemistry”—a term coined at United States Environmental Protection Agency by Anastas and Warner [ 1 ], and is defined as the utilization of a set of principles that reduces or eliminates the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and application of chemical products [ 2 , 3 , 4 ]. The term ‘hazardous’ is used in its broadest context which includes physical (e.g. explosive, flammable), toxicological (e.g. carcinogenic, mutagenic) and global (e.g. ozone depletion, climate change) factors. The tools of green chemistry are alternative feedstock, solvents and reagents, and catalytic versus stoichiometric processes. Developing green methodologies is a challenge that may be viewed through the framework of the “Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry” (Designed by P.T. Anastas and Warner).

2 The twelve guiding principles of green chemistry

Since its inception in early 1990s, green chemistry has grown into a significant, internationally engaged focus area within chemistry [ 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ]. Green chemistry is basically a proactive approach aimed at designing a synthesis/process in a sustainable way right from the beginning. Preventing waste formation rather than devising methods to cleaning it up, developing atom efficient technologies based on renewable feedstock using minimum energy requirements and inherently safer chemicals, discouraging the use of volatile organic solvents and replacing them by greener alternatives are the main aims of green chemistry. To develop sustainable processes stoichiometric reagents should be replaced by catalytic reagents, end products should be bio-degradable and analytical methodologies should allow real time in-process monitoring. It is not always possible to incorporate all the principles in a particular process, however efforts should be made to follow as many principles as possible.

3 Industrial applications of green chemistry

Green Chemistry is not a lab-curiosity; instead it aims at big objective of creating a sustainable tomorrow. Increasing number of green methodologies developed by academic and industrial researchers enables companies to commercialize these ideas. Industry, from small businesses to large corporations, has already made strategic moves towards sustainability by adopting the principles of green chemistry. The development of less hazardous processes and commercial products, the shift from inefficient chemical routes towards bio-based synthesis, and the replacement of oil-based feed stocks by renewable starting materials are only a few examples of the major decisions taken that will ultimately have vast consequences for the world chemical markets.

As per the analysis of Environmental Protection Agency, the US drug industry has decreased the use of VOCs by 50% between 2004 and 2013 by adopting principles of green chemistry. In the same time span, the amount of chemical waste released to air, land and water decreased by 7% as per Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) of EPA.

Recently four industrial drug units located in Hyderabad region of India has been closed on account of creating pollution [ 9 ]. China, too, has strict environmental concerns and has taken regulatory action on 40% of the industrial units located in thirty provinces [ 10 ]. These changes in policy suggest that it has become imperative to follow green practices.

Plastics, in spite of several uses, have a bad reputation owing to their origin from polymers derived from non-renewable petrochemicals and their non-bio-degradable nature. However, the same can be made from renewable feedstock as shown by a study carried out by Utrecht University [ 11 ]. Studies by Utrecht University also show that the market of bio-plastics will grow by approximately 37% per year till 2013 and at a rate of 6% between 2013 and 2020. Many marketing hubs have joined the initiative to replace plastics with bio-plastics. Wal-Mart has been using bio-plastics in packaging wherever possible [ 12 ]. On similar lines Nokia, a mobile making company, used 50% bio-plastics in Nokia 3111 Evolve phone cover as well as in Nokia C7 phone [ 13 ].

Procter & Gamble replaced most of the PVC based materials with greener alternatives [ 14 ]. Along with other companies P&G have taken the initiative to develop new solvents so as to replace volatile organic carbons in glossy paints.

Greener synthesis of Ibuprofen launched by BASF involves half the number of steps as compared to traditional method. Atom efficiency of new process is almost double than the old synthesis. In pursuit for the development of sustainable methodologies, BASF developed BASIL™ (Bi-phasic Acid scavenging utilizing ionic liquids) process involving the production of generic photo initiator precursor alkoxyphenylphosphine [ 15 ]. Using this technology the yield increased from 50 to 98%.

The Warner Babcock institute for Green Chemistry has developed a green hair-dye “Hairprint” which is a non-toxic, vegetable based product providing an alternative to the toxic, skin irritating and carcinogenic dyes [ 16 ].

USA based Merck & Co., Inc. has successfully applied the principles of green chemistry to the synthesis of antiviral drug (cytomegalovirus infection) Letermovir which is currently in phase III of clinical trials. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) is a common virus whose infections are generally asymptomatic in healthy individuals but can cause severe damage in patients with immuno-depressed systems. The importance of this drug can be judged from the fact that it has been granted Fast-Track status by FDA and Orphan product designation by European Medicine agency for the prevention of CMV viremia in high risk population.

An evaluation of its traditional synthesis scheme revealed several areas for improvements like a very low overall yield of 10% due to a late stage resolution to access a stereogenic center, the use of nine different solvents, high palladium loading in Heck coupling. Moreover, no recycling of solvents and reagents had been there in the scheme.

Greener synthesis, as published by Merck, involves a novel cinchonidine based PTC-catalyzed Aza-Michael reaction for configuring the single stereocenter as shown in Scheme 1 [ 17 ]. Also, there is an increase in overall yield by 60%, reduction in raw material cost by 93% and reduction in water usage by 90%. It has been estimated that, once operational, this optimized process will lead to reduction of more than 15,000 MT of waste over the life time of Letermovir. Life-Cycle Assessment reveals that the green process is expected to decrease the carbon foot-print by 89%. It is quite evident from the green synthesis of Letermovir that the Green Chemistry is not only environmentally friendly but also economically lucrative. This scheme has won the EPA’s Presidential green chemistry award under the category “Greener synthetic pathways” in 2017 [ 18 ].

Green synthesis of Letermovir

Of the various technologies used in green chemistry, biocatalysis holds an important place [ 19 ]. Most of the reactions occurring in physiological systems are catalyzed by enzymes which are nature’s catalysts. Enzymes are not only biodegradable but are renewable as well due to the ease of production by fermentation of sugar etc. In order to achieve the aims of sustainability, more and more companies are working in the area of designing and using enzymes as biocatalysts. An impressive case highlighting the impact of biocatalysis on pharmaceutical manufacturing is the greener synthesis of Pregabalin, an active ingredient of neuropathic pain reliever Lyrica ® . In 2008, Pfizer improved the classical route for the synthesis of Pregabalin by adopting biocatalysis as a key step which led to 90% reduction in solvent usage, 50% reduction in the requirement of raw materials besides energy savings [ 20 ]. Solvent and energy saving in the process is equivalent to reducing 3 million tons of CO 2 emissions which is actually equivalent to taking 1 million Indian cars off the road for a year. Schemes  2 and 3 compare the classical and greener route for the synthesis of pregabalin.

Conventional synthesis of Pregabalin

Enzyme catalyzed synthesis of Pregabalin

Not only in drug synthesis, biocatalysts also find important applications in the synthesis of plastics. Now a days, research is mainly targeted towards the synthesis of biodegradable plastics from renewable resources.

California based start-up “Newlight Technologies”, founded in 2003, took a funding of $9.2 million for developing a carbon negative technology that combines air with methane emissions to produce Aircarbon™ a thermoplastic. Aircarbon™ is approximately 40% oxygen from air and 60% carbon and hydrogen from methane emissions. The technology itself was not new but the use of a proprietary biocatalyst by Newlight Technologies made it actually commercially viable by increasing the yield nine times and decreasing the cost by a factor of three thereby making Aircarbon cheaper than oil based plastics. With the commercial scale-up in 2013, Aircarbon™ was adopted by a number of leading brands like Dell, Hewlett-Packard, IKEA, Sprint, The Body Shop and Vinmar for manufacturing their respective products. In recognition of the company’s commercial achievements, Newlight was named “Most innovative company of the year” in 2013 and Aircarbon™ was named “Tech innovation of the year” by The American Business Awards [ 21 ]. For the green attributes of the process involving capturing and using greenhouse gases, Newlight technologies has been awarded the prestigious EPA’s Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge award in 2016 [ 22 ].

Most chemical processes involve solvents in the reaction and separation step to dissolve solids, reduce viscosity, modulate temperature, and recover products by means of extraction or recrystallization as reaction media or for cleaning purposes. Solvents not only dissolve the reactants but they also affect the rates, chemo-, regio- and stereoselectivities of reaction. However, majority of the organic solvents used in industry, despite their inherent advantages, are associated with several ill-effects on human health and environment. Moreover, these solvents are derived from non-renewable resources like petroleum. These parameters are in contradiction to the very basics of Green Chemistry. Due to these reasons, the only alternative available is to substitute these environmentally harmful solvents with some benign solvents. Hungerbuhler et al. [ 23 ] discussed the following four directions towards the development of green solvents

Substitution of hazardous solvents with one that show better EHS (Environment, Health, Safety) properties such as increased biodegradability or reduced ozone depletion potential [ 24 ].

Use of “bio-solvents” i.e. solvents produced from renewable resources such as ethanol produced by fermentation of sugar-containing feeds, starchy feed materials or lignocellulosic materials [ 25 ].

Substitution of organic solvents with supercritical CO 2 in polymer processing avoids the use of chlorofluorocarbons, and reduces the ozone depletion [ 26 ].

With ionic liquids that show low or negligible vapour pressure, and thus fewer emissions to air [ 27 ].

Fabric dyeing consumes a lot of water. About 7 gallons of water is used up to dye a T-shirt and lot of energy is wasted in drying the dyed material. A Dutch start-up recently launched water-free dyeing using supercritical carbon dioxide as a solvent under pressure and at elevated temperature. As no water is used so energy required in drying is also saved [ 28 ].

Elevance Renewable Sciences, Inc., used a nobel prize winning metathesis technology developed by Grubb’s to produce two green solvents

In collaboration with the surfactant manufacturer Stepan, Elevance produced a surfactant called STEPOSOL MET-10U as a replacement for N-methyl pyrrolidone and dichloromethane in adhesive removers and paint strippers. This surfactant can also be used in household and industrial cleaners in place of glycol ethers. STEPOSOL MET-10U is a unique unsaturated di-substituted amide derived from a bio-based feedstock [ 29 ]. With a Kauri-Butanol value greater than 1000, STEPOSOL MET-10U provides superior cleaning performance and is environmentally friendly due to a low vapor pressure, high boiling point, and Biorenewable Carbon Index (BCI) of 75%.

Another heavy-duty green degreasing solvent developed by Elevance Renewable Sciences is Elevance Clean™ 1200 which is a VOC free bio-based solvent [ 30 ]. In 2015, Elevance Clean™ 1200 was awarded bio-based product innovation of the year at WBM bio business awards for its out-standing cleaning performance. Being produced from natural oils this non-flammable solvent meets the various restrictive environmental regulations. Therefore, Elevance Clean™ 1200 is

VOC exempt (Directive 2004/42/CE of the European Parliament and the Council)

REACH registered

Readily biodegradable (by OCED method)

Free of components listed in the EU dangerous substances directive (Regulation No. 1272/2008).

The various advantages of Elevance Clean™ 1200 are enlisted below

Strong solvency characteristics greater than even of d-limonene, dibasic esters, vegetable esters and isoparaffins on the Kauri butanol (Kb) scale.

Excellent performance across a broad range of cleaning applications which includes metal cleaning, industrial and institutional degreasing, transportation and food processing.

Being non-flammable, it is easy to handle. It works very well in the neutral pH range (6–9) thereby eliminating the need of caustic cleaning products.

In 2014, Solberg Company won the first Insight Innovation award at the 3 rd annual THINC for its environmentally-friendly fire-fighting foam concentrate RE-HEALING. Conventional firefighting foams use fluorinated surfactants which are hazardous for the environment. The RE-HEALING firefighting foam concentrate use a blend of non-fluorinated surfactants, sugars, solvent and corrosion inhibitor leading to far less environmental impacts. Control, extinguishing time, and re-ignition resistance are necessary for the safety of fire-fighters and RE-HEALING fulfills all these conditions. The company also won the 2014 EPA Presidential Green Chemistry award for this innovation. [ 31 ].

Using catalytic reagents over stoichiometric reagents is one of the principles of green chemistry. Developing recyclable and recoverable catalyst adds to the green profile of a technology. Exhausts from the automobile engines pose a major threat to the environment. Inside the engine, temperature being very high, oxygen and nitrogen react to form nitric oxide (NO). Conversion of NO to NO 2 is highly desirable for the removal of oxides of nitrogen. However, this reaction is, in general, quite slow. A team of scientists from U.S, China and South Korea developed the catalyst using Mn-Mullite (Sm, Gd) Mn 2 O 5 –manganese–mullite materials containing either Samarium or Gadolinium to convert the toxic diesel engine exhaust product nitric oxide to a more benign nitrous oxide [ 32 ]. Over a range of temperatures, the new catalyst performed better than platinum (around 64% better at 300 °C and 45% better at 120 °C).

RCHEM Pvt. Ltd. Hyderabad, in collaboration with Chaudhuri et al. [ 33 ] developed a green synthesis of anti-ulcer drug Ranitidine. The conventional synthesis generates dimethylsulfide which is a hazardous to human health. Prof. Chaudhuri, from IIT Guwahati, and Prof. Kantam from IICT Hyderabad developed vanadium-titanium and titanium phosphorous based solid supported catalysts. In the presence of these heterogeneous catalysts H 2 O 2 acts as an oxidant to convert the dimethylsulfide to colourless odourless liquid dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). The DMSO generated is further used in the manufacturing process of drug thereby reducing the cost of production by 20%.

There are numerous applications where green chemistry has marched beyond the research laboratories and finding commercial applications. However, a lot more efforts are required, particularly in the area of life-cycle analysis so as to evaluate the environmental impact of the various “green” drugs after these traverses the human physiological system. Terry Collins, from the University of Pittsburg, developed a series of tetra-amido macrocyclic ligand based catalysts modelled on peroxidase enzymes [ 34 ]. Collins proposed that addition of these at a late stage in the sewage treatment process could help break down a wide variety of chemical residues from the drugs before they can affect the environment.

4 Challenges

Just being green is not enough for a process to be a commercial success. Regulatory, economic, political and technical challenges often impede the industrial implementation of a green process.

Current regulations are focused on reducing risk through reductions in exposure while green chemistry promotes the reduction of inherent risk by reduction of hazard. In U.S, the regulations require that every time a manufacturer changes the production process, it has to undergo a re-certification process with the FDA. This process is both costly and time- consuming, and hence serves to dissuade firms that would otherwise invest in developing atom efficient chemistries that reduce waste. Changes to more benign processes are inhibited by cost-intensive, control-oriented regulation. Lack of awareness among the different stake-holder groups poses a barrier to the implementation of green processes. Developing a successful green process is not only about green chemistry, it involves the knowledge of green engineering, biotechnology, economics and above all toxicology. The chemists generally lack the training in these disciplines which further hampers the implementation of green chemistry on an industrial scale. Even if all factors are the in the favour of a green process, it can be rejected on a commercial-scale if it fails to be economically attractive. Green industrial processes should be comparable to the traditional processes in terms of costs of the products.

There are a number of examples of technically robust, environmentally-friendly processes that have been started at first but were withdrawn at a later stage due to commercial implications. It does not always pay to be green in the chemicals sector. Thomas Swan and Company in Consett, UK, implemented the work of Martyn Poliakoff (Nottingham University), to start world’s first continuous-flow reactor using supercritical carbon dioxide as a solvent [ 35 ]. Sc-CO 2 system lead to selective hydrogenation of isophorone to 3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexanone without any by-product formation. This lead to elimination of an expensive and energy-intensive separation required by the conventional technique. But due to the lack of government subsidies, the plant could not provide chemicals more cheaply than those made by the traditional non-green methods. Therefore, after commercially running from 2002 to 2009, this plant was taken out of production.

Similar things happen with the process involving isomerization of 3,4-epoxybut-1-ene to 2,5-dihydrofuran in a phosphonium iodide ionic liquid developed by Eastman Chemical Company.

Capital investment also prevents the commercialization of a green technology. IFP (France) used ionic liquids, as solvent as well as co-catalyst, on a large scale for the nickel catalyzed dimerization of alkenes, named as Difasol process [ 36 ]. This is a biphasic process wherein the product forms a separate layer above the ionic liquid layer and thus can be easily separated. Compared to the conventional Dimersol process, this method has many advantages like better catalytic activity, ease of separation of product, better dimer selectivity and higher reactor space time yields. However, the cost of capital equipment posed a hurdle towards its commercial implementation.

The commercialization of green processes also requires many changes in all part of the long and global supply chain. Eden Organic foods developed a BPA-free coating for food packaging which was found to be compatible with some foods like beans but not for highly acidic tomato sauce. Switching to different coating type for different food type implies a smaller market size and change in manufacturing machines and consequently a higher cost. The implementation of such initiatives requires that everyone in the value chain agrees and is willing to accept the changes.

As most of the industries have been driven by monetary profits therefore voluntary adoption of the sustainable practices seems less feasible. A strong, attractive and balanced regulation is required so as to enforce the greener practices. The most promising and significant regulation is the REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemical substances) regulation framed and launched by European Union in 2007 [ 37 ]. On one hand REACH makes it mandatory for the chemical companies to disclose more information on the environmental and health risks of their products; on the other hand it grants potential exemptions on registration for five years for a process which favours new sustainable innovation. This move of European Union has motivated other countries to devise similar regulations so as to create a sustainable chemical industry.

5 Prospects

Green chemistry holds the key to a sustainable society. It has the inherent potential to bridge the gap between society and science. Innovations, backed by sound policies and regulations, will accelerate the large-scale implementation of green processes. Next generation of chemists should be taught the basics of green chemistry at a very early stage so that they can think green and develop safer methodologies. Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary research can help in solving the various technical hurdles for commercializing this philosophy. Subsidizing the greener initiatives and tax exemptions to the companies adopting green processes will have a positive impact. Industries should realize the fact that getting a new greener process registered and making capital investment is a one-time investment which can have positive impacts on various aspects of society and environment. Collective and sincere efforts by researchers, engineers, corporates and policy- makers can actually make the chemistry Green.

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Ratti, R. Industrial applications of green chemistry: Status, Challenges and Prospects. SN Appl. Sci. 2 , 263 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2019-6

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Received : 13 July 2019

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-2019-6

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• Prevention of waste to avoid treating or cleaning up waste after it has been created;
• Atom economy through new synthetic methods designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product;
• Less hazardous chemical syntheses designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment;
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Source: "Green Chemistry: Theory and Practice," Paul T. Anastas and John C. Warner. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.

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35911 Overview of the Research Proposal

• Published: August 2008
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In this module, we focus on writing a research proposal, a document written to request financial support for an ongoing or newly conceived research project. Like the journal article (module 1), the proposal is one of the most important and most utilized writing genres in chemistry. Chemists employed in a wide range of disciplines including teaching (high school through university), research and technology, the health professions, and industry all face the challenge of writing proposals to support and sustain their scholarly activities. Before we begin, we remind you that there are many different ways to write a successful proposal”far too many to include in this textbook. Our goal is not to illustrate all the various approaches, but rather to focus on a few basic writing skills that are common to many successful proposals. These basics will get you started, and with practice, you can adapt them to suit your individual needs. After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following: ◾ Describe different types of funding and funding agencies ◾ Explain the purpose of a Request for Proposals (RFP) ◾ Understand the importance of addressing need, intellectual merit, and broader impacts in a research proposal ◾ Identify the major sections of a research proposal ◾ Identify the main sections of the Project Description Toward the end of the chapter, as part of the Writing on Your Own task, you will identify a topic for the research proposal that you will write as you work through this module. Consistent with the read-analyze-write approach to writing used throughout this textbook, this chapter begins with an excerpt from a research proposal for you to read and analyze. Excerpt 11A is taken from a proposal that competed successfully for a graduate fellowship offered by the Division of Analytical Chemistry of the American Chemical Society (ACS). As is true for nearly all successful proposals, the principal investigator (PI) wrote this proposal in response to a set of instructions. We have included the instructions with the excerpt so that you can see for yourself how closely she followed the proposal guidelines.

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School of Chemistry

On this page, ucc subjects ranked in world’s top 50 and 100.

UCC has been named as one of the world's top universities for the study of 24 subjects according to the latest world subject rankings produced by higher education analysts, QS.

Nursing (32), Law (73), Agriculture & Forestry (79), Pharmacy & Pharmacology (94), Performing Arts (51-100) have all been ranked in the top 50 and top 100 in the world.

English Language and Literature (101-150), Anatomy & Physiology (101-150), Politics & International Studies (151-200), Philosophy (151-200), make up the nine UCC subjects featuring in the top 200 globally. 

Each of Performing Arts, Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Pharmacy & Pharmacology, Nursing, Chemistry, Physics & Astronomy, Economics & Econometrics, and Politics & International Studies improved their ranks this year. Nursing at UCC improved one place and now ranks an impressive 32 nd  in the world. 

This year's rankings included 1,559 institutions from 149 countries. The rankings are based on a combination of different indicators relating to academic and employer reputation, and research.    

UCC President Professor John O’Halloran said: "We are delighted that the work of our academic, research and teaching staff has been recognised by QS World University Rankings.

The spread of subjects featuring across our colleges is very positive. Our rankings are reflective of our ambition to maintain and improve UCC’s position as one of the world’s best universities."

Prof. Anita Maguire, Head of UCC's School of Chemistry said: "I am delighted to see the excellent work in the School of Chemistry in provision of education and research across the breadth of the discipline has been recognised internationally, especially in the context of the strategically important role played by the School in the provision of skilled chemistry graduates at BSc, MSc and PhD level to underpin economic growth nationally."

More information on the latest cycle of the QS subject rankings can be found  here .

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