• Text editing
  • Free AI Essay Writer
  • AI Detector
  • AI Essay Checker
  • Outline Generator
  • Paragraph Generator
  • Caktus AI Review
  • Copy.AI Review
  • Editpad Review
  • EssayAILab Review
  • EssayGenius AI Review
  • Humata AI Review
  • Hyperwrite AI Review
  • Inferkit Review
  • Jasper AI Review
  • Jenni AI Review
  • Kipper Review
  • Notion AI Review
  • Perplexity Review
  • Smodin.io Review
  • Sudowrite Review
  • Sudowrite vs ChatGPT
  • Textero.ai Review
  • The Good AI Review
  • TinyWow Review
  • ToolBaz Review
  • UPDF Review
  • Best AI Detectors
  • ChatGPT Detector Review
  • Content At Scale AI Review
  • GPTZero Review
  • Originality AI Detector Review
  • Passed AI Review
  • Turnitin AI Detector Review
  • Winston AI Review
  • Writefull AI Detector Review
  • Writer.com AI Detector Review
  • ZeroGPT Review
  • GPTzero vs Turnitin
  • Best AI Tools for Academic Research
  • Best AI Chrome extensions for college students
  • Top AI Coding Tools
  • Best AI Translation Tools
  • Plagiarism Checker
  • Paragraph Expander
  • Essay Expander
  • Literature Review Generator
  • Research Paper Generator
  • Thesis Generator
  • Best Plagiarism Checker
  • Copyleaks Review
  • Chegg Plagiarism Check Review
  • Grammarly Review
  • iThenticate Review
  • Originality AI Review
  • PlagiarismCheck Review
  • Plagium Review
  • Plagscan Review
  • Quetext Review
  • Quillbot Review
  • Scribbr Review
  • Turnitin Review
  • Grammarly vs Turnitin
  • Quillbot vs Grammarly
  • Scribbr vs Turnitin
  • Copyleaks vs Turnitin
  • Quillbot Coupons
  • Grammarly Coupons
  • Smallseotools vs Turnitin
  • Best Essay Writing Service Reviews
  • Fast Essay Writing Service
  • 123HelpMe Review
  • 99Papers Review
  • CheapWritingService Review
  • CustomWritings Review
  • DoMyEssay Review
  • EduBirdie Review
  • EssayHub Review
  • EssayPro Review
  • EssayShark Review
  • EssayWriter Review
  • ExtraEssay Review
  • Nerdify Review
  • Paperhelp Review
  • PapersOwl Review
  • PaperCoach Review
  • SpeedyPaper Review
  • StudyBay Review
  • StudyMoose Review
  • WritePaperFor.me Review
  • How to Write a Reconsideration Letter
  • How to Write a Travelogue
  • How to Write an Autobiography
  • How to Write a Brochure
  • How to Write an Evaluation Letter
  • How to Write a Progress Report
  • How to Write an Informal Letter
  • How to Write a Complimentary Letter
  • How to Make a Newsletter
  • How to Write a College Deferral Letter
  • How to Write a Process Paper
  • How to Write a Meeting Agenda
  • How to Write a Hardship Letter
  • How to Write a Refund Letter
  • How to Write Meeting Minutes
  • Dissertation vs Thesis
  • How Long Is a Dissertation?
  • How to Write a Dissertation Abstract
  • How to Write a Dissertation Proposal
  • How to Write an Academic Assignment
  • Writing Guides for Students
  • Writing Essentials
  • How to Write a Review
  • How to Write an Essay
  • How to Write a Research Paper
  • How to Write a Letter
  • Creative Writing Guides
  • Business Writing Guides
  • General Writing Guides
  • Stages of the Writing Process
  • Grammar Handbook
  • Summarizing Tool
  • AI Content Shortener
  • Paraphrasing tool
  • AI Rephraser
  • Rewording Tool
  • Sentence Rewriter
  • Paragraph Rewriter
  • Citation Generator
  • Reference Finder
  • Book Citation Generator
  • Legal Citation Generator
  • Journal Citation Generator
  • Reference Citation Generator
  • Scientific Citation generator
  • Source Citation Generator
  • Website Citation Generator
  • URL citation generator
  • Best Article Rewriter
  • AISEO Review
  • Article Rewriter Review
  • Article Rewriter Tool Review
  • Conch AI Review
  • Duplichecker Review
  • Editpad Paraphrasing Tool Review
  • Frase Review
  • Hypotenuse AI Review
  • IvyPanda Review
  • Paraphrase-Online Review
  • PrePostSEO Review
  • Quillbot Paraphraser Review
  • Rephrase Review
  • Rewriter Review
  • SearchEngineReports Review
  • Sentence Checkup Review
  • SEOMagnifier Rewriter Review
  • SmallSEOTools Review
  • Undetectable AI Review
  • Wordvice Review
  • Best Grammar Checker
  • Ginger Software Review
  • GrammarCheck Review
  • Grammarly Grammar Checker Review
  • Grammar.com Review
  • JSpell Checker Review
  • LanguageTool Review
  • ProWritingAid Review
  • Quillbot Grammar Checker Review
  • Reverso Review
  • Sapling Review
  • Scribbr Grammar Checker Review
  • SpellCheckPlus Review
  • Writer.com Grammar Checker Review
  • Ginger vs ProWritingAid
  • ProWritingAid vs Quillbot
  • Grammarly vs Ginger
  • Languagetool vs Prowritingaid
  • ProWritingAid vs Grammarly
  • Languagetool vs Grammarly
  • Best Citation Generator
  • BibGuru Review
  • BibMe Review
  • CitationMachine Review
  • CiteThisForMe Review
  • EasyBib Review
  • MyBib Review
  • TypeSet (SciSpace) Review
  • EasyBib vs CitationMachine
  • Easybib Coupons
  • Citation Guides
  • Paraphrasing Guides
  • Summary Writing Guides
  • Plagiarism Guides
  • AI Writing Guides
  • AI Detection Guides
  • Python Homework Help Websites
  • AllAssignmentHelp Review
  • Assignmentcore Review
  • AssignmentOverflow Review
  • CallTutors Review
  • CodersArts Review
  • CodingHomeworkHelp Review
  • CodingZap Review
  • CWassignments Review
  • DoMyAssignments Review
  • DoMyCoding Review
  • DoMyHomework123 Review
  • FavTutor Review
  • GeeksProgramming Review
  • GlobalAssignmentHelp Review
  • HomeworkforYou Review
  • HomeworkHelpOnline Review
  • MyCodingPal Review
  • MyHomeworkDone Review
  • ProgrammingAssignment Review
  • Tutorbin Review
  • Python Guides
  • Javascript Guides
  • HTML Guides
  • Java Guides
  • Matlab Guides
  • Machine Learning Guides
  • Bug Tracking Tools
  • Best Free Coding Bootcamps
  • Statistics Homework Help Sites
  • Best Coding Challenge Websites
  • CameraMath Review

Most Popular

10 days ago

Kristen Stewart Embraces Androgyny in Bold Rolling Stone Cover Shoot – Explore Style Essay Topics

Most written responses on staar exams will be graded by a computer.

11 days ago

Works Cited

  • Colten, Harvey R. “Extent and Health Consequences of Chronic Sleep Loss and Sleep Disorders—Sleep Disorders and Sleep Deprivation.” National Center for Biotechnology Information . U.S. National Library of Medicine, 01 Jan. 1970. Web. 03 Nov. 2016. .
  • “Dangers of Getting Too Little Sleep.” HealthCommunities . N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Nov. 2016. .
  • “Chronic Insomnia’s Dangerous Side-Effects.” Newsweek . Newsweek, 23 Aug. 2009. Web. 03 Nov. 2016. .
  • “Chronic Insomnia Linked to Increased Risk of Death.” Mercola.com . N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Nov. 2016. .

Follow us on Reddit for more insights and updates.

Comments (0)

Welcome to A*Help comments!

We’re all about debate and discussion at A*Help.

We value the diverse opinions of users, so you may find points of view that you don’t agree with. And that’s cool. However, there are certain things we’re not OK with: attempts to manipulate our data in any way, for example, or the posting of discriminative, offensive, hateful, or disparaging material.

Cancel reply

Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *

Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment.

More from Cause and Effect Essay Examples and Samples 2024

How Your Childhood Affects Your Love Style

Jul 18 2023

How Your Childhood Affects Your Love Style Essay Sample Example

Harry Potter Series

Apr 15 2019

How the Harry Potter Series Became So Popular Essay Sample, Example

Why Our Ancestors Started to Walk on Two Feet

Apr 05 2019

Why Our Ancestors Started to Walk on Two Feet Essay Sample, Example

Related writing guides, writing a cause and effect essay.

Remember Me

Is English your native language ? Yes No

What is your profession ? Student Teacher Writer Other

Forgotten Password?

Username or Email

Home — Essay Samples — Nursing & Health — Neurology & Nervous System Diseases — Insomnia

one px

Essays About Insomnia

The effects of sleep deprivation, depression, anxiety, and poor sleeping habits as chronic causes of insomnia, made-to-order essay as fast as you need it.

Each essay is customized to cater to your unique preferences

+ experts online

Insomnia: It's Causes, Symptoms and Effects

Sleep disorders: report on insomnia , causes, effects, and treatments of insomnia and other sleep disorders, relationship between anxiety, depression and insomnia, let us write you an essay from scratch.

  • 450+ experts on 30 subjects ready to help
  • Custom essay delivered in as few as 3 hours

Reasons and Solutions to Sleep Difficulties

The impact of alcoholism on insomnia and other sleep disturbances, sleepless nights: hypersomnia and insomnia, the effects of milk collected at night in treating anxiety and insomnia, relevant topics.

  • Post Traumatic Stress Disorder
  • Postpartum Depression
  • Sleep Deprivation
  • Cerebral Palsy
  • Sleep Disorders
  • Psychological Disorders

By clicking “Check Writers’ Offers”, you agree to our terms of service and privacy policy . We’ll occasionally send you promo and account related email

No need to pay just yet!

We use cookies to personalyze your web-site experience. By continuing we’ll assume you board with our cookie policy .

  • Instructions Followed To The Letter
  • Deadlines Met At Every Stage
  • Unique And Plagiarism Free

insomnia speech essay

U.S. flag

An official website of the United States government

The .gov means it’s official. Federal government websites often end in .gov or .mil. Before sharing sensitive information, make sure you’re on a federal government site.

The site is secure. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the official website and that any information you provide is encrypted and transmitted securely.

  • Publications
  • Account settings
  • Advanced Search
  • Journal List
  • HHS Author Manuscripts

Logo of nihpa

Insomnia and Its Impact on Physical and Mental Health

In contrast to the association of insomnia with mental health, its association with physical health has remained largely unexplored until recently. Based on findings that insomnia with objective short sleep duration is associated with activation of both limbs of the stress system and other indices of physiological hyperarousal, which should affect adversely physical and mental health, we have recently demonstrated that this insomnia phenotype is associated with a significant risk of cardiometabolic and neurocognitive morbidity and mortality. In contrast, insomnia with normal sleep duration is associated with sleep misperception and cognitive-emotional arousal but not with signs of physiological hyperarousal or cardiometabolic or neurocognitive morbidity. Interestingly, both insomnia phenotypes are associated with mental health, although most likely through different pathophysiological mechanisms. We propose that objective measures of sleep duration may become part of the routine evaluation and diagnosis of insomnia and that these two insomnia phenotypes may respond differentially to biological vs. psychological treatments.

Introduction

The prevalence of insomnia in the general population ranges between 8-40%, depending on the definition used. While 20-30% of the general population has poor sleep (i.e., insomnia symptoms of difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep, early morning awakening, or non-restorative sleep at any given time), another 8-10% of the population suffers from chronic insomnia. 1 , 2 Also, about 4% of the population use sleeping pills in a regular basis. 3 However, the connection of insomnia with significant medical morbidity has not been examined until very recently. This has led to view insomnia and its associated mental and physical health complaints as a minor problem from a public health perspective.

A factor that may have contributed to this lack of firm association between insomnia and significant medical morbidity is the definitions used for this disorder and the lack of validated objective/biological markers. Sleep disorders were included for the first time in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)-III-R 4 in 1987 and provided overall diagnostic criteria for “insomnia disorders” based on the subjective complaints of difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep or of non-restorative sleep, occurring at least 3 times a week for at least 1 month, and associated daytime functioning complaints. The DSM-IV-TR eliminated the overall diagnostic criteria for “insomnia disorders” as well as the frequency criterion, maintained the diagnoses of “primary insomnia”, “dysomnia NOS”, insomnia “related to another mental disorder”, “due to a general medical condition”, and introduced “substance-induced insomnia”. 5 The DSM-5 has eliminated the different insomnia diagnoses in DSM-IV-TR to reintroduce overall diagnostic criteria for “insomnia disorder” with specification of comorbid mental and/or physical conditions, so that no causal attributions between insomnia and the physical/mental condition are made, and has extended the duration criterion from 1 month to 3 months. 6 The latter change is an acknowledgement that chronicity is what differentiates insomnia as a disorder vs. insomnia symptoms, i.e., poor sleep due to underlying, identifiable physical, emotional, or drug-related factors.

The International Classification of Sleep Disorders (ICSD), and its revised form ICSD-R (1997), also defined insomnia based on subjective sleep and daytime functioning complaints but, in contrast, attempted to identify subtypes based on “intrinsic” factors such as etiology (i.e., “psychophysiological”), age of onset (i.e., “idiopathic insomnia”), degree of discrepancy between objective sleep findings and subjective perception of sleep (i.e., “sleep state misperception”) or “extrinsic” environmental factors such as “inadequate sleep hygiene”, “food-allergy” or “altitude insomnia”. However, these subtypes, even when refined in the ICSD-2, 7 have not proven to be clinically useful and the reliability and validity of DSM and ICSD diagnoses is at best modest. 8

Although the objective sleep of insomniacs is different than that of normal sleepers, PSG variables are not required or recommended for the diagnosis of the disorder. In fact, PSG criteria have not proven to be useful in terms of differential diagnosis or severity assessment and are not currently used in clinical practice. The sleep laboratory is useful for the evaluation of patients with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), the diagnosis of narcolepsy, and the differential diagnosis of idiopathic vs. psychogenic hypersomnia, 9 , 10 as well as the study of the initial effectiveness, continued efficacy or tolerance, and potential withdrawal effects of a hypnotic drugs. The validity and clinical utility of sleep lab testing for diagnosing insomnia has been evaluated in large studies 11 , 12 that have shown that PSG measures such as latency to sleep onset, total sleep time, number of arousals and awakenings, sleep efficiency, or sleep stages, are not useful in the diagnosis or differential diagnosis including subtyping of insomnia, except to confirm or exclude other sleep pathologies when there is reasonable evidence from clinical history (e.g., SDB or periodic limb movements). The current consensus is, therefore, that PSG is not recommended for routine, differential diagnosis, or severity assessment of insomnia in clinical practice. 13

In this review paper, we present evidence that objective measures of sleep are useful in predicting the medical severity of insomnia (i.e., cardiometabolic and neurocognitive morbidity and mortality) and that should be considered in the new classification of insomnia.

Insomnia and the Stress System

In the last two decades, several models have been proposed to understand the etiology and pathophysiology of insomnia and most of them have emphasized the importance of the joint effect of stress and psychological factors in the pathogenesis of insomnia. 14 The characteristic psychological profile of patients with insomnia, consisting of cognitive-emotional hyperarousal (i.e., obsessive, anxious, ruminative, and dysthymic personality traits) and emotion-oriented coping strategies, 14 - 16 is thought to be present pre-morbidly and play a key role in the etiology of the disorder. 14 , 17 - 20 Insomnia is associated with precipitating life events 21 and cognitive-emotional arousal14 and is perceived by the patient as stressful on its own. Thus, insomnia should be expected to be associated with activation of the stress system.

Stress has been associated with the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) and the sympatho-adrenal-medullary axes, whereas corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and cortisol (products of the hypothalamus and adrenals, respectively), and catecholamines (products of the sympathetic system) are known to cause arousal and sleeplessness to humans and animals. On the other hand, sleep and particularly deep sleep appears to have an “anti-stress” effect as it is associated with an inhibitory effect on the stress system including its main two components, the HPA axis and the sympathetic system.

While the majority of early studies reported no difference between subjectively defined “poor sleepers” and controls in the levels of cortisol secretion, 22 - 24 later studies found that 24-h urinary free cortisol, norepinephrine, and catecholamine metabolites levels were either increased in patients with insomnia with objective sleep disturbances as compared to controls or were correlated with PSG indices of sleep disturbance in insomnia patients. 25 - 31 The few exceptions might be related to the fact that the objective sleep of patients with insomnia was very similar to that of controls 32 or to lack of statistical power and controls not being carefully selected. 33 , 34 In addition, it was shown that middle-aged healthy individuals were more vulnerable to the sleep disturbing effects of the stimulating hormones of the HPA axis, i.e., CRH, which may explain physiologically the increased prevalence of insomnia in older subjects. 35 Furthermore, other studies have demonstrated that this type of insomnia is associated with increased nocturnal heart rate and impaired heart rate variability, 36 , 37 increased overall oxygen consumption (VO2), a measure of whole-body metabolic rate, 38 , 39 and increased pupil size, indicative of sympathetic system activation, 40 but not in insomnia defined only on subjective measures. 41 , 42

Another paradox with patients with insomnia who typically complain that they are fatigued and sleepy during the day is that during the Multiple Sleep Latency Test (MSLT) they have either similar or increased daytime sleep latencies when compared to controls. 42 - 45 In fact, several studies have shown that, within patients with insomnia, those with shorter objective sleep duration show longer sleep latencies in the MSLT 44 , 46 - 48 and are more alert in vigilance tests. 38 , 39 , 46 This is in contrast to normal individuals who after sleep deprivation experience significantly reduced sleep latencies on the MSLT and decreased alertness in vigilance tests, i.e., physiological sleepiness. 49 , 50 Thus, long latencies in the MSLT may represent a reliable marker of physiological hyperarousal in insomnia patients.

Finally, evidence about the presence of central nervous system hyperarousal in insomnia comes from studies in human subjects using neuroimaging, 51 , 52 and spectral, 53 , 54 arousal, 55 and event-related 56 electroencephalography analyses as well as from studies on the neural circuitry of stress-induced insomnia in rats. 57 Increased cortical arousal during sleep is present to a variable degree in all patients with insomnia 53 - 56 and may explain why they perceive their sleep as wake and as non-restorative. 58 , 59

Insomnia and Cardiometabolic Morbidity

Until recently, chronic insomnia has not been linked firmly with significant medical morbidity, such as cardiovascular disease. Several surveys have shown a significant relationship between difficulty falling asleep or poor sleep with cardiometabolic outcomes such as hypertension 60 - 62 and diabetes. 63 - 66 For example, persistent complaints of difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep were associated with an increased risk of hypertension,61 acute myocardial infarction, 62 and incident type 2 diabetes. 63 - 66 However, these studies showed relatively small effect sizes and did not include a PSG evaluation so as to control for SDB or other sleep pathology. The findings of these early studies were dismissed as methodologically flawed by many clinicians and researchers alike. 67 , 68 In fact, at least one report showed a reduced mortality rate for those individuals complaining of sleep difficulties after 6 years of follow-up. 69

Given the well-established association of hypercortisolemia with significant medical morbidity, (i.e., hypertension, diabetes, metabolic syndrome, osteoporosis, and others), 25 - 31 we hypothesized that insomnia with objective short sleep duration is associated with significant cardiometabolic morbidity and mortality. A series of recent epidemiological studies from the Penn State Adult Cohort,1 that used in-lab PSG, have shown that insomnia with objective short sleep duration is associated with a high risk of hypertension, 70 , 71 diabetes, 72 and mortality. 73 For example, compared to normal sleepers who slept ≥ 6h per night, the highest odds of hypertension or diabetes was in patients with insomnia who slept ≤5h (OR = 5.1 and OR = 2.95, respectively) and the second highest in patients with insomnia who slept 5-6 h (OR = 3.5 and OR = 2.07, respectively), while patients with insomnia who slept ≥ 6h were not at significantly increased risk of hypertension or diabetes (OR = 1.3 and OR = 1.1, respectively). Recent longitudinal data from the same cohort has shown that patients with insomnia who slept < 6h were at a significantly higher risk of incident hypertension (OR = 3.75),71 suggesting that insomnia precedes the onset of hypertension. Interestingly, in a recent longitudinal study we found that non-obese chronic insomniacs, despite sleeping objectively shorter than controls or poor sleepers, did not have a significantly increased risk of incident obesity; in fact, they were less likely to become obese than controls or poor sleepers. 74 These data indicate that insomnia with objective short sleep duration may be linked to medical morbidity such as hypertension and diabetes through mechanisms other than weight gain and obesity (i.e., activation of the stress system and inflammation process). Furthermore, other longitudinal research showed that mortality risk in men was significantly increased in patients with insomnia who slept < 6 h compared to normal sleepers (OR = 4.00), and that there was a marginally significant trend toward higher mortality from insomnia with short sleep duration in men with diabetes or hypertension (OR = 7.17) than in those without these comorbid conditions (OR = 1.45). Thus, the impact of insomnia with short sleep duration was much stronger in those with diabetes and hypertension at baseline versus those who were healthy. 73 In women, mortality was not associated with insomnia with short sleep duration, most likely related to the fact that women were followed-up for a shorter time period.

Consistent with the findings of these population-based studies, other recent studies have shown (1) higher nighttime systolic blood pressure and reduced day-to-night systolic blood pressure dipping, 75 (2) impaired heart rate variability, 76 (3) lower cardiac pre-ejection period, 77 and (4) poorer indices of glucose metabolism 78 in patients with insomnia. Cumulatively, these data suggest that objective short sleep duration may predict the medical severity of chronic insomnia. 59

Insomnia and Neurocognitive Morbidity

Patients with insomnia typically complain of difficulty concentrating, memory problems, and difficulty focusing attention. However, studies using objective neuropsychological testing have produced inconsistent findings. This has led some researchers to question the existence of true cognitive impairments in insomnia 79 and attribute the daytime complaints to excessive attention to the expected consequences of poor sleep. 14

The role of objective sleep measures in the association of insomnia with cognitive impairment has been addressed in a recent study from the Penn State Adult Cohort. 80 This study showed that patients with insomnia, based solely on a subjective complaint, did not differ significantly from controls on either PSG variables or neurocognitive performance. However, significant interactions between insomnia and objective short sleep duration (i.e., < 6h) on specific neurocognitive tests were found. Specifically, patients with insomnia with objective short sleep duration showed poorer neuropsychological performance on tests of processing speed, switching attention, and number of short-term visual memory errors and omissions compared to control groups with normal or short sleep duration. In contrast, patients with insomnia with normal sleep duration group showed no significant deficits when compared to controls. Based on these findings, it seems that insomnia with objective short sleep duration is associated with deficits in switching attention, a key component of the “executive control of attention”. 80 Importantly, the presence of a group of good sleepers with short sleep duration allowed to demonstrate that deficits in executive attention were associated with underlying physiological hyperarousal, a characteristic of chronic insomnia, rather than to short sleep per se. 80 Another recent study by Edinger et al, 81 examined the association between physiological hyperarousal, as measured by the MSLT, and response accuracy on reaction time tasks among 89 individuals with primary insomnia as compared to 95 well-screened normal sleepers. Interestingly, the authors found that individuals with MSLT mean onset latency > 8 min showed lower nighttime sleep efficiencies and increased wake after sleep onset, suggesting 24-h physiological hyperarousal particularly in the primary insomnia group. Importantly, they found a significant interaction between insomnia and increased MSLT mean onset latency so that individuals with primary insomnia and with MSLT mean onset latency > 8 min showed greater error rates in switching attention tasks than normal sleepers with MSLT mean onset latency > 8 min, who showed no significant deficits. The authors concluded that physiological hyperarousal in insomnia may lead to increased daytime alertness yet dispose these individuals to higher error rates on tasks of switching attention, 81 a finding consistent with those of a study by Fernandez-Mendoza et al., in which physiological hyperarousal was ascertained by objective short sleep duration. 80

A recent meta-analysis has shown that individuals with insomnia exhibit performance impairments of small to moderate magnitude in several cognitive functions, including working memory, episodic memory, and some aspects of executive functioning. 82 However, an important factor that has been neglected in meta-analytic research of the neurocognitive literature is the role of the degree of objective sleep disturbance in this association. As we have recently reviewed, 59 most studies have shown that cognitive performance is impaired in patients with insomnia with objective sleep disturbances or that it correlates with objective markers of sleep disturbance in patients with insomnia, whereas those studies in which performance was not significantly impaired established insomnia diagnoses using solely subjective criteria. 59

Cumulatively, the data from these studies indicate that objective short sleep duration may predict its effect on cognitive functions. Future studies should examine whether insomnia with objective short sleep duration may be a premorbid risk factor for mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia.

Insomnia and Psychiatric Morbidity

Many studies have established that insomnia is highly comorbid with psychiatric disorders and is a risk factor for the development of depression, anxiety, and suicide. 83 However, the mechanisms by which insomnia precedes the development of psychiatric disorders, e.g., depression, are unknown. In a recent study from the Penn State Adult Cohort, insomnia with objective short sleep duration was associated with a psychological profile consistent with depressed mood, fatigue, concerns about health and physical functioning, somatically focused anxiety, and poor health status, which is typical of medical outpatients. 58 In contrast, insomnia with normal sleep duration was associated with sleep misperception (i.e., the underestimation of time asleep and overestimation of time awake during the night) and a psychological profile consistent with depressed mood, rumination, anxiety, intrusive thoughts, and poor coping resources. 58 These data have led us to suggest that both insomnia subtypes are associated with (or are at risk of developing) psychiatric disorders but that different pathophysiological mechanisms may account for such an association. 59 For example, it is possible that biological mechanisms, i.e., hyperactivity of the HPA axis, may play a role in the development of depression in insomniacs with objective short sleep duration, while psychological mechanisms, i.e., poor coping resources and ruminative traits, may play such a role in insomniacs with normal sleep duration. However, these hypotheses need yet to be tested.

Natural History of Insomnia: Chronic Insomnia vs. Poor Sleep

As mentioned in the introduction, about 20% of the general population has poor sleep (i.e., insomnia symptoms at any given time) and about another 10% has chronic insomnia. Natural history studies have shown that chronic insomnia is a highly persistent condition, whereas the course of poor sleep is more variable and has a higher remission rate. 17 , 19 , 20 , 84 , 85 This suggests that insomnia is a disorder while poor sleep is a symptom of underlying mental and physical health problems. 19 , 20 , 85 Furthermore, objective short sleep duration has been shown to be a risk factor for poor sleep evolving into the more severe form of chronic insomnia 20 as well as of chronic insomnia becoming persistent.85 These latter findings suggest that objective short sleep duration may be a biologic marker of genetic predisposition to chronic insomnia 20 and of the severity and chronicity of the disorder. 85

As a result of the above-reviewed literature we have suggested two phenotypes of chronic insomnia. The first phenotype is primarily associated with physiological hyperarousal (i.e., short sleep duration and activation of both limbs of the stress system), significant medical sequelae (e.g., hypertension, diabetes, cognitive impairment, increased mortality), and a persistent course. The second phenotype is associated with cognitive-emotional and cortical arousal, but not with physiological hyperarousal (i.e., normal sleep duration and normal activity of the stress system) or significant medical sequelae, and is more likely to remit over time. Furthermore, the first phenotype is associated with a psychological profile typical of medical outpatients, whereas the second phenotype is associated with sleep misperception, anxious-ruminative traits, and poor coping resources. 59 Table 1 summarizes the findings of key studies, while Figure 1 depicts a heuristic model of the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms and clinical characteristics of the two insomnia phenotypes.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is nihms-537826-f0001.jpg

The common characteristics of the two phenotypes are presented in the overlapping area, while their unique characteristics are presented in the areas of each phenotype that do not overlap. Reprinted from Sleep Medicine Reviews, 17(4), Vgontzas AN, Fernandez-Mendoza J, Liao D, Bixler EO [59], Insomnia with objective short sleep duration: The most biologically severe phenotype of the disorder, 241-54, 2013, with permission from Elsevier.

Insomnia with short sleep duration: association with physiological hyperarousal, cardiometabolic morbidity, neurocognitive impairment, and a persistent course

Our proposed model for the two insomnia phenotypes may have an impact on how we diagnose and treat chronic insomnia. As we have stated earlier, previously proposed subtypes of insomnia are based on subjective tools such as clinical interviews, questionnaires, and specific scales and their diagnostic reliability is, at best, modest. The data reviewed here suggest that objective measures of sleep can be useful in detecting the most severe form of insomnia. Thus, we propose the inclusion of objective sleep duration as a criterion in future diagnostic manuals for insomnia in order to differentiate these two clearly different and clinically relevant subtypes of insomnia.

Further, our data suggest that objective measures of sleep, in addition to a thorough clinical evaluation, should become part of the standard diagnostic procedures for insomnia. 59 Although our studies have focused on the utility of sleep duration, other studies suggest that other variables of sleep efficiency and continuity or of physiological hyperarousal (i.e., MSLT) may also serve as markers of the biological severity of the disorder. 20 , 26 , 81 , 86 - 88 However, a potential disadvantage of biomarkers such as stage 1, SWS, or MSLT is that they require a full PSG study or daytime laboratory assessment, whereas sleep duration perhaps could be obtained with simpler methods, e.g., actigraphy. In this regard, several studies suggest the potential usefulness of actigraphy to assess sleep patterns for a period of days or weeks in the “habitual home environment”, to characterize the severity of the insomnia disorder. 88 A similar amount of home sleep monitoring with PSG would be difficult and impractical for clinical venues. However, several problems associated with the use of actigraphy, such as lack of an industry standard for the sleep algorithms used in different actigraphic devices and the propensity to over- or underestimate sleep time, make its current use limited. Future studies using cost-effective methods should examine which variables, i.e., sleep duration vs. night-to-night variability, and which methods, i.e., actigraphy, salivary cortisol, peripheral measures of sympathetic activation, are better predictors of cardiometabolic and neurocognitive morbidity.

Finally, our findings may affect the way we treat chronic insomnia. The insomnia phenotype with short sleep duration may respond better to treatments that primarily aim at decreasing physiological hyperarousal and increasing sleep duration, such as medication or other biological treatments. 30 Previous studies have shown that sedative antidepressants such as trazodone or doxepin, used at low dosages, down-regulate the activity of the HPA axis, decrease cortisol levels, and increase sleep duration. 30 , 89 , 90 Needless to state that biological treatments should be part of a multidimensional approach that combines behavioral changes, i.e., sleep hygiene, and psychological interventions, i.e., cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), when indicated. The second phenotype, i.e., insomnia with normal sleep duration, may respond better to treatments that primarily aim at decreasing cognitive-emotional arousal, changing sleep-related beliefs and behaviors, and altering sleep misperception, such as CBT. 91 Psychotherapeutic medication may be indicated based on the presence of comorbid psychiatric conditions, i.e., anxiety or depressive disorders. The differential treatment response of these two phenotypes should be tested in future placebo-controlled clinical trials. In any event, the treatment of insomnia with objective short sleep duration should become a priority given its severity and its effects on physical health. Finally, in the prevention of chronic insomnia, our strategies should focus on (1) those with premorbid cognitive-emotional hyperarousal and short sleep duration, (2) stress-related poor sleep with short objective sleep duration, and (3) a family history of sleep problems. 18 - 20

Acknowledgment

This paper was supported by National Institutes of Health grants R01 51931, R01 33 40916, and R01 64415 to Alexandros N. Vgontzas.

Compliance with Ethics Guidelines

Conflict of Interest

Julio Fernandez-Mendoza and Alexandros N. Vgontzas declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects performed by any of the authors.

Recently published papers of particular interest have been highlighted as:

• Of importance

•• Of major importance

121 Sleep Essay Topics and Essay Examples

🏆 best sleep topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good sleep topics to write about, 💡 interesting sleep topics, ⭐ simple & easy sleep disorders research topics, ❓ research questions about sleep.

  • Sleep Improves Memory It is possible to replace a traumatic memory with a pleasant one then take a brief moment of sleep to reinforce the pleasant memory.
  • Using Depressants During Sleep Time The paper also holds up the notion that, today it is important to control the sleeping patterns, to conform to the lifestyle demands. The drugs are mainly used generally to reduce the sleep delays, thus […] We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
  • A Day in the Sleep Clinic: Culture and Health The third aspect of the PEN-3 Model looks at the cultural issues and health beliefs. For instance, the Sudanese family belief in superstition may not affect the health outcome in the hands of the doctor.
  • Effects of Sleeping Disorders on Human On the other hand, Dyssomnia relates to sleep disorders that develop as a result of lack of adequate sleep. In some cases, antidepressants have been used to cure sleep disorders that are as a result […]
  • Sleep Process Research There are said to have five sleep stages, which are divided in to two: the rapid eye movement and the non rapid eye movement during which the dreams occur.
  • Sleep Stages and Disorders A more elaborate look into understanding sleep take a look at the two aspects of sleep which is the behavior observed during sleeping periods as well as the scientific explanation of the physiological processes involved […]
  • Sleep and Its Implication on Animals This paper is set to synthesize the evolution sleep in animals, its benefits and the recent knowledge that is linked to this natural phenomenon of near unconsciousness.”A Third of Life” addressed what is sleep and […]
  • Psychology of Sleep: Article Study The field of sleep and sleep disorders has been an integral part of psychological investigations: a number of scientists find it necessary to contribute sleep education and offer the ideas which help people improve their […]
  • Sleepwalking Through Life In this case, there is a large context of life that people can be part of which should be understood. All in all, there is a lot that can be done to ensure that people […]
  • Sleep Disorders with Children and Adolescences This study is important in terms of understanding of the effectives of empirical and theoretical research in the field and attracting the scientist’s attention to the problem so that appropriate and effective treatment to be […]
  • Sleep and Dreams: How Do They Work? During sleep, the brain is at rest while the rest of the body system is in active state. Thus, to prevent most of the body disorders in human both psychiatrists and health experts recommend sleep.
  • The Biological Basis of Sleep The authors suggest that it needs more accurate measurement of sleep and wake pattern by the use of the electrooculogram, the recording of the movement of the eye, EEG and electromyogram, the recording of the […]
  • The Phantom Menace of Sleep-Deprived Doctors This is one of the problems that should be addressed by hospital administrators. Therefore, it is vital to develop strategies that can improve the work of medical institutions.
  • The Role of Melatonin in Determining the Sleep-Wake Cycle Melatonin plays a significant role in the circadian control of sleep as well as in restraining the development of malignant cells.
  • Effects of Sleep Deprivation While scientists are at a loss explaining the varying sleeping habits of different animals, they do concede that sleep is crucial and a sleeping disorder may be detrimental to the health and productivity of a […]
  • Sleep Habits and Its Impact on Human Mind Activity The researchers paid attention to the quality of sleep and mentioned such characteristics as the time of going to bed and waking up, the duration, and quality of sleep.
  • The Consequences of Poor Sleep Conducting a research devoted to human sleep habits in children and feeling the affect on their confidence as adults, the existing data should be evaluated and the conclusions are to be drawn in the sphere […]
  • Underlying Issues Associated with Sleep Disorders and Stress Of fundamental importance to this research paper is the realization that the amount of sleep that an individual gets is one of the internal factors that influence his or her own capacity to handle stress.
  • Infant Sleep Disturbance (ISD) The uniqueness of this study stems from the fact that it would provide a clear understanding of the most effective intervention/basis for physicians and parents to pursue in the management of sleep disorders among infants […]
  • The Eight Hour Dilemma: Sleeping Time Reduction. When a Single Hour Makes a Difference While reducing the amount of sleeping hours to seven and less can possibly lead to sleep deprivation and the further changes for the worse in a human body, eight hours are no longer the borderline […]
  • Insomnia: A Sleeping Disorder Type Causes of insomnia can be classified into two; factors contributing to acute insomnia and chronic insomnia. Chronic insomnia can be as a result of emotional stress.
  • Problem of Sleep Deprivation This is due to disruption of the sleep cycle. Based on the negative effects of sleep deprivation, there is need to manage this disorder among Americans.
  • How Sleep Deprivation Affects College Students’ Academic Performance The study seeks to confirm the position of the hypothesis that sleep deprivation leads to poor academic performance in college students.
  • Ethical Issues in Treating Obstructive Sleep Apnea with Exercise Independently The approaches should ensure that necessary preventive and curative measures are put in place to facilitate the process of eradicating the disease that is causing immense sleep related complications.
  • Relationship Between Sleep and Depression in Adolescence Using SPSS for data analysis, the results indicate the presence of a correlation between elements of depression and sleep duration and quality.
  • Sleep Deprivation Impacts on College Students Additional research in this field should involve the use of diverse categories of students to determine the effects that sleep deprivation would have on them.
  • Changes of Sleep in the Course of One Night Furthermore, voltage generated by eye rotation in their sockets and electrical activities of the muscles all help in the study of the cycles of sleep in the course of one night.
  • Dream and Sleep Cycle Dreams occur in any of the phases of sleep, nonetheless, the most concise, clear, vivid and memorable dreams are observed in the last phase of sleep (known as the rapid eye movement REM sleep.
  • Importance of Sleep – Psychology Precisely, most of the organs of the body are at rest during sleep. It is during sleep that the body encodes the information it obtains during the day into the memory.
  • Sleep Disorder Consequences on the Immune System Consequently, the research question for this paper is: what are the consequences of sleep disorder on the immune system? The primary goal of the study is to determine the effects of sleep disorder on the […]
  • Sleep and Psychopathology Relationships – Psychology Generally, available evidence shows that feelings of negative emotions such as anxiety are characterized by the dysfunction in cognitive and interpersonal spheres.
  • Relationship Between Depression and Sleep Disturbance It was emphasized that persistent disturbance, its severity, and the intermittent nature of the sleep were not associated with depression and its recurrence in the following years. The sleeping disturbance is a risk factor that […]
  • Sleep Disturbance, Depression, Anxiety Correlation The above imply that many questions are still unanswered with respect to the kinds of sleep complaints affecting undergraduates and the impact on their psychological health.
  • Sleep Deprivation and Specific Emotions The purpose of this study is to develop an understanding of the relationship between sleep deprivation and emotional behaviors. The study looks to create a link between the findings of past researches on the emotional […]
  • Emotions Clusters and Sleep Failure Earlier critics had argued that PANAS was not suitable for children, and this led to the development of specific PANAS-C for children.
  • Prevalence of Sleep Disorders among Medical Students Nightmares and dreams arise in the course of REM sleep as it is linked to desynchronized and quick brain waves, deferral of homeostasis, and failure of muscular tonus.
  • Sleep Patterns’ Impact on Academic Performance Because some university classes begin as early as 7 o’clock in the morning and finish in the evening, the only option for such students is to reduce the length of night-time sleep in order to […]
  • Insomnia and Narcolepsy: Sleeping Disorders Besides, it was established that people with insomnia are inclined to overestimate the negative effect of sleeping disorder and underestimate the total time of sleep.
  • Sleep-Disordered Breathing and Acute Ischemic Stroke In this case study, the investigator focused on ischemic stroke, one of the most common types of stroke in the world.
  • Physical Activity and Sleep Health in Adults In the introduction to the analysed study, a substantial scientific background for the problem of improving physical activity and sleep in adults is presented.
  • Sleep May Be Nature’s Time Management Tool by Carey The author states that no one knows why sleep exists therefore setting the context for the article in which she advances the numerous theories that are advanced as to the role that sleep plays.
  • Sleep Disruptions in Healthcare Professionals First of all, the sleep disruption may lead to a lack of coordination in the team because some members would be fatigued during the working hours, which would interfere with their functioning and concentration in […]
  • Coffee Effects on Sleeping Patterns: Experiment Consumption of coffee before going to bed will cause individuals to have difficulty falling asleep The amount of coffee the subjects drink before going to bed The time after going to bed that subjects fall […]
  • Sleep Deprivation: Research Methods The purpose of the research will be to determine sleep deprivation, what causes it, the effect, and why sleep is important.
  • Sleeping Patterns Within Infants Infant A is put to sleep in the bassinet, and the parents use the sleeping bag in order to make the infant’s sleep more comfortable.
  • Adolescent Sleep and the Impact of Technology Use Particularly, the authors of the study explain why there is the need to know the answer to the question by providing a profound background to the case and stating that innovative technology has a profound […]
  • Co-Sleeping Impact on Child Development At the same time, it is crucial to pay attention to the phases of sleep and the cycles of awakening. It will help to facilitate the process of sleep in the future and eliminate any […]
  • Sleep Helps to Repair Damaged DNA in Neurons The researchers found that the chromosomes in the fish’s neurons would often change shape while their owners slept, enabling the repair of the damage accumulated in periods of activity.
  • The Role of Sleep in Humans’ Well-Being Each of the speakers in the videos focuses on a different characteristic of sleep, but all of them agree that without enough sleep, one does not perform to the fullest potential.
  • Electronic Devices Use and Sleep in US Adolescents During the process of data collection, the authors discovered that most of the participants tended to go to bed very late, which affected the quality of their sleep and their ability to normally function over […]
  • Blue Light Effect on Human Sleep The introduction is comprised of a thesis statement and a description of the critical thoughts of the paper. At the end of the paper, recommendations on how to reduce the adversarial effect of the blue […]
  • Sleeping Sickness Transmission and Control Measures Most of the cases of sleeping sickness are usually recorded in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Central African Republic, northern parts of Uganda, Sudan, Angola, Zambia, Uganda, Tanzania, and Malawi.
  • Sleep Disorders: Narcolepsy, Obstructive Sleep Apnea, Insomnia An important aspect of the pathogenesis is the autoimmune lesion of the orexin neurons of the hypothalamus, which leads to a decrease in the level of hypocretin-1.
  • Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation After Sleep The memory consolidation of the visual skill tasks is related to the REM sleep and the short wave component of the NREM.
  • Main Information about Sleeping Disorders In the introduction part the paper provides an overview of sleep and sleep disorders. This led to the conclusion that instead of being a quite and peaceful period of rest and resuscitation as everyone would […]
  • Non- and Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Non REM sleep represents 75% of sleep duration and occurs in four stages and REM sleep represents stage 5 of sleep.
  • Biology. Adolescent Sleep Pattern The habit of sleep is very individual specific therefore a study of the pattern of sleep of a group needs to be evaluated to get an understating of the pattern of sleep.
  • Recuperative Versus Circadian Theory of Sleep The Recuperative theory of sleep is based on the premise that humans require sleep to rejuvenate and recoup spent energy during the waking period.
  • Sleep Patterns and Memory Performance of Children The article presents the essence, the methods and the results of the experiment which had to show the influence of TV and computer games on German children’s sleep.
  • Sleep Deprivation: Personal Experiment As I had been perplexed, I did not take a step of reporting the matter to the police neither did I inform my neighbors.
  • Cross-Cultural Sleeping Arrangements in Children The aim of this paper is to study the different sleep patterns such as solitary or co sleeping in the United States of America and different cultures around the world.
  • Sleep Versus Social Demands in Students The effects of has been exhibited more greatly in animals through studies and all animals have been shown to sleep in different forms.
  • Sleep, Satisfaction With Life and Cognitive Function Sleep is the state of the mind involving temporary loss of consciousness leading to the resting of the mind. Sleep is one of the most important requirements in individuals so as to ensure the well-being […]
  • Sleep Disorders: Sleep Deprivation of the Public Safety Officers The effects of sleep disorders and fatigue on public safety officers is a social issue that needs to be addressed with more vigor and urgency so that the key issues and factors that are salient […]
  • Study of the Sleeping Process The paper entails a comprehensive analysis of the sleeping process in addition to evaluating the factors that affect the sleeping process.
  • Sleep Deprivation: Biopsychology and Health Psychology Another theory that has been proposed in relation to sleep is the Circadian theory which suggests that sleep evolved as a mechanism to fit organisms into the light dark cycle of the world.
  • “The Effect of Nursing Quality Improvement and Mobile Health Interventions on Infant Sleep Practices” by Moon The following analysis is related to the article, “The effect of nursing quality improvement and mobile health interventions on infant sleep practices” by Moon et al.
  • Sleep is a Vital Stage of a Day Cycle in Humans During the first stage of sleep, the EEG shifts to theta waves, with a frequency of 4 7 Hz. There are numerous sleep disorders, which can affect the well-being of a person.
  • Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Heart Diseases In children with Down syndrome, incidence rates of hypertension and sleepiness are high, and the problem is compounded in the presence of OSA.
  • Communication Between Sleep, Behavior and Obesity The purpose of the study seeks to evaluate the association between nighttime media use with sleep behaviors and variation in weight status for first-semester college students.
  • Sleep Deprivation and Learning at University It is a widely known fact that numerous people face the problem of lack of sleep. Second, sleeping is essential for increasing the productivity of students in the context of learning.
  • The Use of Sleephormone in Children With Neuro-Developmental Disorders For the better management of the data that are planned to be retrieved from the clinical trial procedures, the following list of the definitions and acronyms used in the trial process is given.
  • African Sleeping Sickness Using the various forms of detection and diagnosis it was discovered that African sleeping sickness is a major problem in Sub-Saharan Africa.
  • “Childbirth Fear and Sleep Deprivation in Pregnant Women” by Hall To further show that the information used is current, the authors have used the APA style of referencing which demand the naming of the author as well as the year of publication of the article/book […]
  • Evolutionary Biology: Sleep Patterns in Mammals This synthesis addresses the question of the origin of sleep in mammals and traces this phenomenon by studying the evolution of the mammalian brain and suggesting possible external factors that affect sleep patterns.
  • Sleepiness Level and Degree: Research Instruments A sum ranging from 0 to 24 of the score on the eight items makes the total score of the ESS.
  • Sleep Apnea, the Heart and the Brain in the Elderly They should get the necessary treatment of heart diseases and neuromuscular disorders Be attentive to yourself and live a full life!
  • Neurocognitive Consequences of Sleep Deprivation The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord while the PNS consists of all the endings of the nerve extensions in all organs forming the web that extends throughout the entire organ.
  • Sleep Hygiene Intervention Plan for Young Adults The main goals of this plan are to develop a list of guidelines for nurses on how they can offer a kind of educational program to their patients based on which young adults can understand […]
  • Excessive Sleepiness May Be Cause of Learning, Attention, and School Problems The information in the article “Excessive Sleepiness May Be Cause of Learning, Attention, and School Problems” by Calhoun and Fernandez-Mendoza is used to show that heavy daytime sleeping may be a cause of attention, learning, […]
  • Sleep Problems Among Student-Athletes Despite the importance of the topic under study and the conclusions reached, the work raised additional questions and had some limitations.
  • Sleep Deprivation and Insomnia: Study Sources The topic of this audio record is a variety of problems with sleep and their impact on an organism. They proved the aforementioned conclusion and also paid attention to the impact of sleep deprivation on […]
  • Sleeping Habits & Physical Health: Students’ Perception Using the survey as the data collection tool, the investigators state that most students do not have appropriate sleep habits, although they agree that their academic success and physical health suffer because of the lack […]
  • Programs in Family Sleep Institute She explained to me the sleep cycle of the child and the adult, how many hours my child is supposed to sleep, the bedtime routine, and the method that we had to adopt during the […]
  • The Influence of Sleep Deprivation on Human Body It contradicts living in harmony with God, as when the person is irritated and moody, it is more difficult to be virtuous and to be a source of joy for others.
  • Hippocampus-Dependent Memories During Sleep The smell was chosen because it was not necessary to interrupt the integrity of the subjects’ sleep to introduce it into the experiment.
  • The Importance of Sleeping and Dreaming Finally, I would not take this pill since I love seeing dreams and realize that this “miracle medicine” will cause too many negative consequences.
  • Eat, Sleep, and Console: Narcotic Abstinence Syndrome in Infants The choice of the quantitative design is justified by the necessity to prove the superiority of the proposed solution to the one that is currently deployed as the alternative way of managing the needs of […]
  • Effects of Lullaby Music on Quality of Sleep in Adults with Insomnia Insomnia consists of deprivation of the duration and quality of sleep, which affects the psychological and physical condition of people. In addition, the main limitation may be the unreliability of the information provided by the […]
  • Solving the Sleep Problem through TQM Principles The initiative to address the lack of sleep among employees and consequently improve their performance and the quality of services requires teamwork optimization.
  • ADHD and Problems With Sleep This is because of the activity of a person in the middle of the day and the condition around them. The downside of the study is that the study group included 52 adults with ADHD […]
  • Sleep Disturbance in Children Any disorder that alters the craniofacial or pharyngeal anatomy predisposes the child to obstructive narcolepsy is considered a medical problem associated with sleep disturbances in children. Central Sleep Apnea is the repeated cessation or decrease […]
  • How Technology Affects Sleep in Adolescents The critique will focus on the various sections of the article, where the strengths and weaknesses of each are outlined and discussed. The title of the article excellently reflects the essence of the research.
  • Depression Associated With Sleep Disorders Y, Chang, C. Consequently, it directly affects the manifestation of obstructive sleep apnea, restless leg syndrome, and periodic limb movement disorder in people with depression.
  • Water Consumption and Sleep Hygiene Practices First, I will discuss that safe and sufficient water facilitates the practice of hygiene and well-being and is a critical determining factor for health.
  • Sleep and Meditation Can Predict an Individual’s Satisfaction With Life This aim of this study is to investigate the effects of quality sleep and mindfulness on life satisfaction. In a nutshell, life satisfaction depends on the quality of sleep and meditation.
  • How Much Sleep Do You Need by Age?
  • What Is an Sleep?
  • What Is the Purpose of Sleep?
  • What Is Good Sleep?
  • Why Is Sleep Important for Health?
  • What Happens if We Don’t Sleep?
  • Why Is It Called Sleep?
  • What Causes Lack of Sleep?
  • What Age Gets the Most Sleep?
  • What Is the Most Healthy Time to Wake Up?
  • Why Do Older People Need Less Sleep?
  • How Much Sleep Is Healthy?
  • What Are Interesting Facts About Sleep?
  • What Happens During Sleep?
  • Why Should We Drink Water Before Sleeping?
  • How to Fall Asleep Fast Within 5 Minutes?
  • Which Foods Make Sleepy?
  • What to Drink to Sleep Faster?
  • What Are the Sleep Tricks?
  • What Part of the Brain Causes Sleep?
  • How Can I Get Better Sleep?
  • Which Oil Helps You Sleep?
  • Does Warm Milk Help You Sleep?
  • How Can I Relax When I Can’t Sleep?
  • At What Time Is the Body Ready for Sleep?
  • Chicago (A-D)
  • Chicago (N-B)

IvyPanda. (2023, November 30). 121 Sleep Essay Topics and Essay Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/sleep-essay-topics/

"121 Sleep Essay Topics and Essay Examples." IvyPanda , 30 Nov. 2023, ivypanda.com/essays/topic/sleep-essay-topics/.

IvyPanda . (2023) '121 Sleep Essay Topics and Essay Examples'. 30 November.

IvyPanda . 2023. "121 Sleep Essay Topics and Essay Examples." November 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/sleep-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "121 Sleep Essay Topics and Essay Examples." November 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/sleep-essay-topics/.

Bibliography

IvyPanda . "121 Sleep Essay Topics and Essay Examples." November 30, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/sleep-essay-topics/.

  • Sleep Deprivation Research Ideas
  • Insomnia Questions
  • Dreaming Essay Titles
  • Sleep Disorders Research Topics
  • Hypnosis Questions
  • Caffeine Paper Topics
  • Hyperactivity Disorder Research Ideas
  • Memory Research Ideas
  • Mental Health Essay Ideas
  • Hygiene Essay Topics
  • Mind Research Ideas
  • Music Therapy Ideas
  • Nervous System Research Topics
  • Oppression Research Topics
  • Pharmacy Research Ideas

Informative Speech Insomnia Essay Example

Informative Speech Insomnia Essay Example

  • Pages: 2 (501 words)
  • Published: February 7, 2017
  • Type: Essay

Leonardo da Vinci once said, “A well-spent day brings happy sleep. ”
but what if you have insomnia, or in other terms, you just can’t sleep? People are losing sleep daily, in such a fashion that most trouble staying awake during school, work, or even driving. I’m certain somebody in this audience has had or is going through insomnia right now, because according to MedPageToday. com, 25% of teens suffer from Insomnia every night. So look around at your peers, 5 students are sleep deprived. There are plenty of methods to help relieve insomnia though.

I’m going to tell you three ways to help put your insomnia to rest. One of the ways to relieve insomnia is to reduce your stress. According to this bar graph, 50% of the people have insomnia becau

se of anxiety and depression. School can play a big factor in causing stress on students. Getting a lot of homework dumped on you, having a big test approaching, or even grading papers for your students can cause an enormous amount of stress. We have all gone through this. To reduce stress, don’t procrastinate. Holding something off to the last day will certainly increase stress.

Limit your homework hours and carefully plan out when you will actually do it. With less stress, you can have a clear mind before going to bed. Another way to help your insomnia is to stop taking naps. According to Nccam. gov, you should avoid napping during the day. Not only does it reduce your chances of sleeping a full night, it can cause bad sleeping habits. To be honest, I believe napping after school

is the best, but you have to resist the urge! If you’re tired during the day, skip the nap, so you’ll be tired enough to fall asleep peacefully.

The third way is to create an environment suitable for sleeping. This means to reduce sounds, turning off all distracting lights, and making sure the temperature in your bedroom is perfect enough so you’re not too hot or too cold. Keeping a TV on can keep you awake because of the sound and the brightness, so make sure you turn off your TV before going to bed. To conclude, insomnia is common and treatable! If you suffer from this sleeping disorder, do what I said and reduce your stress, stop taking naps during the day, and create a suitable sleeping environment.

According to EHealthMD. com, only 5% of those who have insomnia actually go to a doctor for advice because they don’t think their problem is treatable. When I had insomnia during the summer, I didn’t realize I had a problem, until school came around. I just couldn’t go to bed early enough to get my full 8 hours of sleep. I researched about this topic and found ways to treat insomnia. So if you’re having problems falling asleep at night, just follow my methods to help relieve your sleep deprivation. Send your insomnia to sleep.

  • Sleep Apnea in Children Linked to Lower I. Q. and Learning Impairments Essay Example
  • Examining Fatigue Factors in Accident Investigations Essay Example
  • Road Safety: Drowsy Driving Essay Example
  • Humans and Sleep Essay Example
  • Sleep Deprivation And Mood Disorders Essay Example
  • Sleep Deprivation Disorder and Drugs Essay Example
  • Night Terrors, Insomnia Essay Example
  • What is Insomnia Essay Example
  • Reaction Paper Essay Example
  • Children's Care Routines Essay Example
  • Sleep Disorders: Narcolepsy, Insomnia, Obstructive Sleep Apnea Essay Example
  • Television and Childhood Obesity Essay Example
  • Sleep Deprevasion Essay Example
  • Glass of Menagerie Essay Example
  • Writing with an Informative Aim Essay Example
  • Abnormal Psychology essays
  • Abraham Maslow essays
  • Attachment Theory essays
  • Authority essays
  • Behaviorism essays
  • Classical Conditioning essays
  • Cognitive Psychology essays
  • Counseling essays
  • Developmental Psychology essays
  • Educational Psychology essays
  • Erik Erikson essays
  • Family Therapy essays
  • Jean Piaget essays
  • Maslow's Hierarchy Of Needs essays
  • Mental Health essays
  • Operant Conditioning essays
  • Personality Psychology essays
  • Positive Psychology essays
  • Psychoanalysis essays
  • Psychotherapy essays
  • Sigmund Freud essays
  • Social Psychology essays
  • Stanford Prison Experiment essays
  • Supersize Me essays
  •  John Locke essays
  • 9/11 essays
  • A Good Teacher essays
  • A Healthy Diet essays
  • A Modest Proposal essays
  • A&P essays
  • Academic Achievement essays
  • Achievement essays
  • Achieving goals essays
  • Admission essays
  • Advantages And Disadvantages Of Internet essays
  • Alcoholic drinks essays
  • Ammonia essays
  • Analytical essays
  • Ancient Olympic Games essays
  • Arabian Peninsula essays
  • Argument essays
  • Argumentative essays
  • Atlantic Ocean essays
  • Auto-ethnography essays
  • Autobiography essays
  • Ballad essays
  • Batman essays
  • Binge Eating essays

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards.

  • Enter your topic/question
  • Receive an explanation
  • Ask one question at a time
  • Enter a specific assignment topic
  • Aim at least 500 characters
  • a topic sentence that states the main or controlling idea
  • supporting sentences to explain and develop the point you’re making
  • evidence from your reading or an example from the subject area that supports your point
  • analysis of the implication/significance/impact of the evidence finished off with a critical conclusion you have drawn from the evidence.

Unfortunately copying the content is not possible

Tell us your email address and we’ll send this sample there..

By continuing, you agree to our Terms and Conditions .

  • Share full article

Advertisement

Supported by

Guest Essay

The Extradition of Julian Assange Threatens Press Freedoms

A close-up of flags with slogans like “Justice for Assange” are held at a rally.

By James Kirchick

Mr. Kirchick is the author of “Secret City: The Hidden History of Gay Washington,” a contributing writer at Tablet and a senior fellow at the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression.

Fourteen years ago, at a human rights conference in Oslo, I met Julian Assange. From the moment I encountered the wraithlike WikiLeaks founder, I sensed that he might be a morally dubious character. My suspicions were confirmed upon witnessing his speech at the conference, in which he listed Israel alongside Iran and China as part of a “rogue’s gallery of states” and compared the Guantánamo Bay detention facility to a Nazi concentration camp.

Nothing Mr. Assange has said or done in the intervening 14 years has altered my initial impression of him as a man unhealthily preoccupied with the shortcomings of democracies and suspiciously uninterested in the crimes of dictatorships. In the months following our meeting, WikiLeaks published hundreds of thousands of U.S. diplomatic cables and military files, collectively constituting the largest leak of classified government documents in history.

Though Mr. Assange insisted that his purpose was to expose American abuses, the leaks were also a boon to the Taliban and other authoritarian forces around the world. According to two journalists working for The Guardian, one of the newspapers that collaborated with WikiLeaks in the initial publication of these documents, Mr. Assange had to be convinced to redact the names of Afghan civilians who had cooperated with the American military. “Well, they’re informants,” Mr. Assange defiantly told them . “So if they get killed, they’ve got it coming to them. They deserve it.”

The clearest example that Mr. Assange is something less admirable than the radical transparency activist he and his supporters purport him to be is his friendly relationship with the Russian government. In 2012, Mr. Assange hosted a talk show on RT (formerly Russia Today), the Kremlin-funded propaganda network that beams conspiracy theories and anti-Western narratives around the world. The following year, WikiLeaks played a crucial role in helping the fugitive National Security Agency leaker Edward Snowden seek asylum in Moscow. And during the 2016 U.S. presidential election, while WikiLeaks worked with Russian intelligence to publish reams of hacked materials designed to damage the campaign of the Democratic nominee, Hillary Clinton, the site refused to publish “a wide-ranging trove of documents” from the Russian government detailing Moscow’s ongoing military and intelligence activities in Ukraine.

I had no sympathy for Mr. Assange when, facing extradition to Sweden in 2012 after being accused of sex crimes, he holed up in the Ecuadorean Embassy in London. Mr. Assange denied those claims, saying that they were a pretext to extradite him onward to the United States, where a grand jury had been impaneled to determine whether his receipt and publication of leaked government documents violated U.S. law. It was not until April 2019 that the Department of Justice would finally unseal an indictment against Mr. Assange, charging him with conspiring to hack Pentagon computers. By that point, Mr. Assange had overstayed his welcome with his long-suffering Ecuadorean hosts, who forfeited him to British police.

While Mr. Assange may well have committed a crime by assisting the former U.S. soldier Chelsea Manning to break into government computer systems in 2010, a superseding indictment handed down a month after his arrest and charging him with multiple counts of violating the 1917 Espionage Act — crimes for which, if found guilty, he could face up to 175 years in prison — constitutes a serious threat to the First Amendment. With Mr. Assange set to appeal his extradition to the United States this week, it is not too late for the U.S. government to reconsider this ill-advised prosecution.

According to the government’s indictment, Mr. Assange “encouraged sources to (i) circumvent legal safeguards on information; (ii) provide that protected information to WikiLeaks for public dissemination; and (iii) continue the pattern of illegally procuring and providing protected information to WikiLeaks for distribution to the public.” These might sound like nefarious activities. But they are what journalists, particularly those covering national security affairs, do every day: surreptitiously speak with government officials who have access to classified information, persuade them to share it, and publish the fruits of their investigative labors so that citizens are better informed.

While the Espionage Act has been used rarely against those who leak classified information, never — until now — has the government cited it against someone who publishes that information. Even though senior members of the Obama administration publicly criticized WikiLeaks and privately debated whether to prosecute Mr. Assange, they ultimately refrained from doing so on the understanding that such an action would undermine the First Amendment. The government’s approach shifted dramatically during the Trump administration, which initiated the prosecution of Mr. Assange, and has unfortunately continued under the Biden administration, which is upholding the case it inherited from its predecessor.

Cognizant of how its prosecution of Mr. Assange under the Espionage Act could be used to target journalists for their everyday activities, the assistant attorney general who announced the charges against him in 2019 insisted that Mr. Assange “is no journalist.” But the Constitution does not define who qualifies as a journalist, nor does it bestow any such power upon the U.S. government. As the Supreme Court justice Byron White wrote in a 1973 decision , the “liberty of the press is the right of the lonely pamphleteer who uses carbon paper or a mimeograph just as much as of the large metropolitan publisher who utilizes the latest photocomposition methods.”

I find Mr. Assange’s ideology loathsome and his methods reckless. But the First Amendment wasn’t written to protect only those whose ideas, and means of expressing them, we find agreeable. As such, the continued prosecution of Mr. Assange under the Espionage Act constitutes a dangerous escalation in the government’s attempt to hinder free expression. In 1973, two years after the Supreme Court defended this newspaper’s right to publish the Pentagon Papers, a pair of eminent legal scholars referred to the Espionage Act as a “ loaded gun ” pointed at the media. That this legal weapon is now being aimed at an individual as unsympathetic as Julian Assange makes it no less of a threat to freedom of the press.

James Kirchick is the author of “Secret City: The Hidden History of Gay Washington,” a contributing writer at Tablet and a senior fellow at the Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected] .

Follow the New York Times Opinion section on Facebook , Instagram , TikTok , X and Threads .

Help | Advanced Search

Computer Science > Machine Learning

Title: base tts: lessons from building a billion-parameter text-to-speech model on 100k hours of data.

Abstract: We introduce a text-to-speech (TTS) model called BASE TTS, which stands for $\textbf{B}$ig $\textbf{A}$daptive $\textbf{S}$treamable TTS with $\textbf{E}$mergent abilities. BASE TTS is the largest TTS model to-date, trained on 100K hours of public domain speech data, achieving a new state-of-the-art in speech naturalness. It deploys a 1-billion-parameter autoregressive Transformer that converts raw texts into discrete codes ("speechcodes") followed by a convolution-based decoder which converts these speechcodes into waveforms in an incremental, streamable manner. Further, our speechcodes are built using a novel speech tokenization technique that features speaker ID disentanglement and compression with byte-pair encoding. Echoing the widely-reported "emergent abilities" of large language models when trained on increasing volume of data, we show that BASE TTS variants built with 10K+ hours and 500M+ parameters begin to demonstrate natural prosody on textually complex sentences. We design and share a specialized dataset to measure these emergent abilities for text-to-speech. We showcase state-of-the-art naturalness of BASE TTS by evaluating against baselines that include publicly available large-scale text-to-speech systems: YourTTS, Bark and TortoiseTTS. Audio samples generated by the model can be heard at this https URL .

Submission history

Access paper:.

  • Download PDF
  • Other Formats

References & Citations

  • Google Scholar
  • Semantic Scholar

BibTeX formatted citation

BibSonomy logo

Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Code, data and media associated with this article, recommenders and search tools.

  • Institution

arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs .

IMAGES

  1. Informative Speech Insomnia Essay Example

    insomnia speech essay

  2. Essay 7

    insomnia speech essay

  3. Article Speech

    insomnia speech essay

  4. COMMMISC

    insomnia speech essay

  5. Causes of Insomnia: Psychological, Lifestyle, and Environmental Factors

    insomnia speech essay

  6. Insomnia Jilliane Hoffman Review Free Essay Example

    insomnia speech essay

VIDEO

  1. Speech

  2. ELC590

  3. ELC509 (MOCK SPEECH) Causes of Insomnia

  4. Informative Speech- The importance of sleep

  5. ELC : INFORMATIVE SPEECH [ INSOMNIA]

  6. Informative Speech ELC590 ( CAUSES OF INSOMNIA )

COMMENTS

  1. Insomnia Informative Speech Example

    Informative Speech - Insomnia Imagine the night before you are having an important job interview or you are due to give a big presentation. You make sure to be in bed early as you want to feel rested, be alert and look good the next day... but, to your disappointment, you cannot fall asleep.

  2. Informative Speech About Insomnia

    Informative Speech About Insomnia 839 Words4 Pages INTRODUCTION I. Attention-getter: Sleep Disorder- Insomnia is the condition of being unable to sleep. People with insomnia, may have trouble falling asleep, unwanted awakenings during the night, and pitiful sleep.

  3. Informative Speech On Insomnia

    723 Words3 Pages What is insomnia? Do you have a hard time falling asleep? Do you find it difficult to stay asleep, perhaps waking up frequently during the night? Are there times you wake up earlier than usual? Do you feel unrefreshed after sleeping?

  4. Insomnia Informative Speech

    Insomnia Informative Speech 1002 Words 5 Pages Speech title (optional): Overcoming Insomnia INTRODUCTION Specific Purpose: To inform my audience about how to overcome insomnia Central Idea: Attention getting device: What is insomnia? Insomnia is the most common sleep disorder of all people.

  5. Insomnia: Cause and Effect Essay Sample

    As it can be seen, insomnia, or sleep deprivation, is a dangerous condition leading to a wide range of health problems. For instance, prolonged periods of sleep deprivation obstructs cognitive and perceptual functions. It also increases the chances of developing diabetes, cardio-vascular problems, and in general, can lead to early death.

  6. Insomnia Informative Speech

    Insomnia Informative Speech Decent Essays 599 Words 3 Pages Open Document Imagine Laying in Bed Without Being Able to Fall Asleep Could you function properly with only a few hours of sleep every night? Nearly sixty million Americans experience insomnia and wake up feeling unrefreshed. (Insomnia: Health Effects, Factors, and Diagnosis, n.d.)

  7. Informative Speech On Insomnia

    Good Essays 1516 Words 7 Pages Open Document Specific Purpose: At the end of my speech, the audience will understand what insomnia is, what the symptoms and causes are, and how it is diagnosed and treated. Preview of Main Points: I will briefly describe what insomnia is and how it is caused along with how it is diagnosed and treated. Introduction

  8. 86 Insomnia Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

    🏆 Best Insomnia Topic Ideas & Essay Examples The Definitions of Insomnia The dictionary definition of the word insomnia is the inability to sleep or stay asleep for an adequate length of time, another version of this definition is the inability to have the standard amount of [
] Insomnia: A Sleeping Disorder Type

  9. Why sleep is important

    Sleep is essential for a person's health and wellbeing, according to the National Sleep Foundation (NSF). Yet millions of people do not get enough sleep and many suffer from lack of sleep. For example, surveys conducted by the NSF (1999-2004) reveal that at least 40 million Americans suffer from over 70 different sleep disorders and 60 percent of adults report having sleep problems a few ...

  10. Informative Speech on Insomnia or Sleep Deprivation

    2892 Thesis: Sleep Deprivation also known as insomnia among all ages can have a major impact on the actions and lives of people of all ages. I. First, what insomnia is and how one gets insomnia. Second, how insomnia affects those diagnosed with it, and surprisingly many other people indirectly. Lastly, the treatments for insomnia

  11. Persuasive Speech On Overcoming Insomnia

    A person who suffers from insomnia should avoid taking naps. Napping during the day can make you more difficult to sleep at night as it can negatively affect your night time sleep. 1. If you feel like you really have to take a nap, limit it to 30 minutes and do so before 3pm.

  12. Essays About Insomnia

    1 The Effects of Sleep Deprivation 2 pages / 751 words Sleep deprivation is becoming an increasing challenge among people today. Most individuals have experienced sleep deprivation at least once, and the occurrence is becoming more widespread—especially among adults.

  13. Insomnia and Its Impact on Physical and Mental Health

    Introduction. The prevalence of insomnia in the general population ranges between 8-40%, depending on the definition used. While 20-30% of the general population has poor sleep (i.e., insomnia symptoms of difficulty initiating or maintaining sleep, early morning awakening, or non-restorative sleep at any given time), another 8-10% of the population suffers from chronic insomnia. 1,2 Also ...

  14. How Sleep Affects Your Mood: The Link Between Insomnia and Mental

    It's not just about quantity. The quality of your sleep is also important. If it takes more than 30 minutes to fall asleep, for example, or if you regularly wake up in the middle of the night ...

  15. Free Essay: Speech : How to Overcome Insomnia

    Speech : How to Overcome Insomnia View Writing Issues File Edit Tools Settings Filter Results Have you ever had a night that you woke up about three in the morning and could not go back to sleep? I have experienced those nights many of times.

  16. Informative speech outline (overcome insomnia)

    Conclusion A. Final review: All in all, there are three important things to do to overcome insomnia. 1. Firstly, look at your daily habits which distract your sleep. 2. Secondly,be creative by adopting new habits to help you sleep. 3. Lastly, the best way to overcome your insomnia is by preparing your brain for sleep.

  17. Persuasive Speech On Insomnia

    5 Pages Open Document Insomnia Not-So-Goodnight? Sleepless nights? If those are what your experiencing now that could be an insomnia. To give you a insight about what insomnia is well insomnia is a sleeping disorder known as a difficulty or having hard time to fall asleep at night. It is a commonly diagnosed with adults.

  18. 121 Sleep Topics for Research Papers and Essays

    Sleep Disorders: Narcolepsy, Obstructive Sleep Apnea, Insomnia. An important aspect of the pathogenesis is the autoimmune lesion of the orexin neurons of the hypothalamus, which leads to a decrease in the level of hypocretin-1. Memory Consolidation and Reconsolidation After Sleep.

  19. Insomnia: Types, Causes and Effects

    Sleep deprivation and chronic sleep loss can lead to heart disease, attack, and even failure. It can also lead to irregular heartbeats, high blood pressure, stroke, and diabetes. According to some recent studies, nearly 90% of people suffering from Insomnia are also suffering from another health condition.

  20. Insomnia Informative Speech

    1. Insomnia is a sleep disorder that is characterized by difficulty falling and/or staying asleep. a. Insomnia is different in both genders. Women with children wake up more easily in the night.

  21. Insomnia Informative Essay

    Insomnia Informative Essay 693 Words3 Pages In America there are over three million diagnosed with insomnia a year. Insomnia is basically the inability to sleep. One instance of this sleep depravity is Andy Gardner. When Gardner was 16, in 1964, he stayed awake for 11 days and 24 minutes.

  22. Insomnia Informative Essay

    Insomnia Informative Essay Improved Essays 1164 Words 5 Pages Open Document Essay Sample Check Writing Quality Show More What is Insomnia? Insomnia is a sleeping disorder that causes one to lose a substantial amount of sleep. It is also described in the way that people not only lose sleep but just have trouble falling asleep.

  23. Insomnia Essay examples

    Insomnia Essay examples. "Insomnia is the inability to obtain adequate amount or quality of sleep. The difficulty can be with falling asleep, remaining asleep, or both" ("Insomnia Encyclopedia"). Sleeping is a major point in physically and mentally restoring yourself for the tasks ahead.

  24. Informative Speech Insomnia Essay Example

    Informative Speech Insomnia Essay Example 🎓 Get access to high-quality and unique 50 000 college essay examples and more than 100 000 flashcards and test answers from around the world!

  25. The Extradition of Julian Assange Threatens Press Freedoms

    Guest Essay. The Extradition of Julian Assange Threatens Press Freedoms. Feb. 19, 2024. ... My suspicions were confirmed upon witnessing his speech at the conference, ...

  26. BASE TTS: Lessons from building a billion-parameter Text-to-Speech

    BASE TTS is the largest TTS model to-date, trained on 100K hours of public domain speech data, achieving a new state-of-the-art in speech naturalness. It deploys a 1-billion-parameter autoregressive Transformer that converts raw texts into discrete codes ("speechcodes") followed by a convolution-based decoder which converts these speechcodes ...