introduction about research report

How to Write a Research Paper Introduction (with Examples)

The research paper introduction section, along with the Title and Abstract, can be considered the face of any research paper. The following article is intended to guide you in organizing and writing the research paper introduction for a quality academic article or dissertation.

The research paper introduction aims to present the topic to the reader. A study will only be accepted for publishing if you can ascertain that the available literature cannot answer your research question. So it is important to ensure that you have read important studies on that particular topic, especially those within the last five to ten years, and that they are properly referenced in this section. 1 What should be included in the research paper introduction is decided by what you want to tell readers about the reason behind the research and how you plan to fill the knowledge gap. The best research paper introduction provides a systemic review of existing work and demonstrates additional work that needs to be done. It needs to be brief, captivating, and well-referenced; a well-drafted research paper introduction will help the researcher win half the battle.

The introduction for a research paper is where you set up your topic and approach for the reader. It has several key goals:

• Present your research topic
• Capture reader interest
• Summarize existing research
• Position your own approach
• Define your specific research problem and problem statement
• Highlight the novelty and contributions of the study
• Give an overview of the paper’s structure

The research paper introduction can vary in size and structure depending on whether your paper presents the results of original empirical research or is a review paper. Some research paper introduction examples are only half a page while others are a few pages long. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper; its length depends on the size of your paper as a whole.

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Table of Contents

What is the introduction for a research paper, why is the introduction important in a research paper, craft a compelling introduction section with paperpal. try now, 1. introduce the research topic:, 2. determine a research niche:, 3. place your research within the research niche:, craft accurate research paper introductions with paperpal. start writing now, frequently asked questions on research paper introduction, key points to remember.

The introduction in a research paper is placed at the beginning to guide the reader from a broad subject area to the specific topic that your research addresses. They present the following information to the reader

• Scope: The topic covered in the research paper
• Context: Background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in that particular area of research and the industry problem that can be targeted

The research paper introduction conveys a lot of information and can be considered an essential roadmap for the rest of your paper. A good introduction for a research paper is important for the following reasons:

• It stimulates your reader’s interest: A good introduction section can make your readers want to read your paper by capturing their interest. It informs the reader what they are going to learn and helps determine if the topic is of interest to them.
• It helps the reader understand the research background: Without a clear introduction, your readers may feel confused and even struggle when reading your paper. A good research paper introduction will prepare them for the in-depth research to come. It provides you the opportunity to engage with the readers and demonstrate your knowledge and authority on the specific topic.
• It explains why your research paper is worth reading: Your introduction can convey a lot of information to your readers. It introduces the topic, why the topic is important, and how you plan to proceed with your research.
• It helps guide the reader through the rest of the paper: The research paper introduction gives the reader a sense of the nature of the information that will support your arguments and the general organization of the paragraphs that will follow. It offers an overview of what to expect when reading the main body of your paper.

What are the parts of introduction in the research?

A good research paper introduction section should comprise three main elements: 2

• What is known: This sets the stage for your research. It informs the readers of what is known on the subject.
• What is lacking: This is aimed at justifying the reason for carrying out your research. This could involve investigating a new concept or method or building upon previous research.
• What you aim to do: This part briefly states the objectives of your research and its major contributions. Your detailed hypothesis will also form a part of this section.

How to write a research paper introduction?

The first step in writing the research paper introduction is to inform the reader what your topic is and why it’s interesting or important. This is generally accomplished with a strong opening statement. The second step involves establishing the kinds of research that have been done and ending with limitations or gaps in the research that you intend to address. Finally, the research paper introduction clarifies how your own research fits in and what problem it addresses. If your research involved testing hypotheses, these should be stated along with your research question. The hypothesis should be presented in the past tense since it will have been tested by the time you are writing the research paper introduction.

The following key points, with examples, can guide you when writing the research paper introduction section:

• Highlight the importance of the research field or topic
• Describe the background of the topic
• Present an overview of current research on the topic

Example: The inclusion of experiential and competency-based learning has benefitted electronics engineering education. Industry partnerships provide an excellent alternative for students wanting to engage in solving real-world challenges. Industry-academia participation has grown in recent years due to the need for skilled engineers with practical training and specialized expertise. However, from the educational perspective, many activities are needed to incorporate sustainable development goals into the university curricula and consolidate learning innovation in universities.

• Reveal a gap in existing research or oppose an existing assumption
• Formulate the research question

Example: There have been plausible efforts to integrate educational activities in higher education electronics engineering programs. However, very few studies have considered using educational research methods for performance evaluation of competency-based higher engineering education, with a focus on technical and or transversal skills. To remedy the current need for evaluating competencies in STEM fields and providing sustainable development goals in engineering education, in this study, a comparison was drawn between study groups without and with industry partners.

• State the purpose of your study
• Highlight the key characteristics of your study
• Describe important results
• Highlight the novelty of the study.
• Offer a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

Example: The study evaluates the main competency needed in the applied electronics course, which is a fundamental core subject for many electronics engineering undergraduate programs. We compared two groups, without and with an industrial partner, that offered real-world projects to solve during the semester. This comparison can help determine significant differences in both groups in terms of developing subject competency and achieving sustainable development goals.

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Paperpal Copilot is a generative AI-powered academic writing assistant. It’s trained on millions of published scholarly articles and over 20 years of STM experience. Paperpal Copilot helps authors write better and faster with:

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With Paperpal Copilot, create a research paper introduction effortlessly. In this step-by-step guide, we’ll walk you through how Paperpal transforms your initial ideas into a polished and publication-ready introduction.

How to use Paperpal to write the Introduction section

Step 1: Sign up on Paperpal and click on the Copilot feature, under this choose Outlines > Research Article > Introduction

Step 2: Add your unstructured notes or initial draft, whether in English or another language, to Paperpal, which is to be used as the base for your content.

Step 3: Fill in the specifics, such as your field of study, brief description or details you want to include, which will help the AI generate the outline for your Introduction.

Step 4: Use this outline and sentence suggestions to develop your content, adding citations where needed and modifying it to align with your specific research focus.

Step 5: Turn to Paperpal’s granular language checks to refine your content, tailor it to reflect your personal writing style, and ensure it effectively conveys your message.

You can use the same process to develop each section of your article, and finally your research paper in half the time and without any of the stress.

The purpose of the research paper introduction is to introduce the reader to the problem definition, justify the need for the study, and describe the main theme of the study. The aim is to gain the reader’s attention by providing them with necessary background information and establishing the main purpose and direction of the research.

The length of the research paper introduction can vary across journals and disciplines. While there are no strict word limits for writing the research paper introduction, an ideal length would be one page, with a maximum of 400 words over 1-4 paragraphs. Generally, it is one of the shorter sections of the paper as the reader is assumed to have at least a reasonable knowledge about the topic. 2 For example, for a study evaluating the role of building design in ensuring fire safety, there is no need to discuss definitions and nature of fire in the introduction; you could start by commenting upon the existing practices for fire safety and how your study will add to the existing knowledge and practice.

When deciding what to include in the research paper introduction, the rest of the paper should also be considered. The aim is to introduce the reader smoothly to the topic and facilitate an easy read without much dependency on external sources. 3 Below is a list of elements you can include to prepare a research paper introduction outline and follow it when you are writing the research paper introduction. Topic introduction: This can include key definitions and a brief history of the topic. Research context and background: Offer the readers some general information and then narrow it down to specific aspects. Details of the research you conducted: A brief literature review can be included to support your arguments or line of thought. Rationale for the study: This establishes the relevance of your study and establishes its importance. Importance of your research: The main contributions are highlighted to help establish the novelty of your study Research hypothesis: Introduce your research question and propose an expected outcome. Organization of the paper: Include a short paragraph of 3-4 sentences that highlights your plan for the entire paper

Cite only works that are most relevant to your topic; as a general rule, you can include one to three. Note that readers want to see evidence of original thinking. So it is better to avoid using too many references as it does not leave much room for your personal standpoint to shine through. Citations in your research paper introduction support the key points, and the number of citations depend on the subject matter and the point discussed. If the research paper introduction is too long or overflowing with citations, it is better to cite a few review articles rather than the individual articles summarized in the review. A good point to remember when citing research papers in the introduction section is to include at least one-third of the references in the introduction.

The literature review plays a significant role in the research paper introduction section. A good literature review accomplishes the following: Introduces the topic – Establishes the study’s significance – Provides an overview of the relevant literature – Provides context for the study using literature – Identifies knowledge gaps However, remember to avoid making the following mistakes when writing a research paper introduction: Do not use studies from the literature review to aggressively support your research Avoid direct quoting Do not allow literature review to be the focus of this section. Instead, the literature review should only aid in setting a foundation for the manuscript.

Remember the following key points for writing a good research paper introduction: 4

• Avoid stuffing too much general information: Avoid including what an average reader would know and include only that information related to the problem being addressed in the research paper introduction. For example, when describing a comparative study of non-traditional methods for mechanical design optimization, information related to the traditional methods and differences between traditional and non-traditional methods would not be relevant. In this case, the introduction for the research paper should begin with the state-of-the-art non-traditional methods and methods to evaluate the efficiency of newly developed algorithms.
• Avoid packing too many references: Cite only the required works in your research paper introduction. The other works can be included in the discussion section to strengthen your findings.
• Avoid extensive criticism of previous studies: Avoid being overly critical of earlier studies while setting the rationale for your study. A better place for this would be the Discussion section, where you can highlight the advantages of your method.
• Avoid describing conclusions of the study: When writing a research paper introduction remember not to include the findings of your study. The aim is to let the readers know what question is being answered. The actual answer should only be given in the Results and Discussion section.

To summarize, the research paper introduction section should be brief yet informative. It should convince the reader the need to conduct the study and motivate him to read further. If you’re feeling stuck or unsure, choose trusted AI academic writing assistants like Paperpal to effortlessly craft your research paper introduction and other sections of your research article.

1. Jawaid, S. A., & Jawaid, M. (2019). How to write introduction and discussion. Saudi Journal of Anaesthesia, 13(Suppl 1), S18.

2. Dewan, P., & Gupta, P. (2016). Writing the title, abstract and introduction: Looks matter!. Indian pediatrics, 53, 235-241.

3. Cetin, S., & Hackam, D. J. (2005). An approach to the writing of a scientific Manuscript1. Journal of Surgical Research, 128(2), 165-167.

4. Bavdekar, S. B. (2015). Writing introduction: Laying the foundations of a research paper. Journal of the Association of Physicians of India, 63(7), 44-6.

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Get accurate academic translations, rewriting support, grammar checks, vocabulary suggestions, and generative AI assistance that delivers human precision at machine speed. Try for free or upgrade to Paperpal Prime starting at US$19 a month to access premium features, including consistency, plagiarism, and 30+ submission readiness checks to help you succeed.  

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How to write an effective introduction for your research paper

Last updated

20 January 2024

Reviewed by

However, the introduction is a vital element of your research paper. It helps the reader decide whether your paper is worth their time. As such, it's worth taking your time to get it right.

In this article, we'll tell you everything you need to know about writing an effective introduction for your research paper.

• The importance of an introduction in research papers

The primary purpose of an introduction is to provide an overview of your paper. This lets readers gauge whether they want to continue reading or not. The introduction should provide a meaningful roadmap of your research to help them make this decision. It should let readers know whether the information they're interested in is likely to be found in the pages that follow.

Aside from providing readers with information about the content of your paper, the introduction also sets the tone. It shows readers the style of language they can expect, which can further help them to decide how far to read.

When you take into account both of these roles that an introduction plays, it becomes clear that crafting an engaging introduction is the best way to get your paper read more widely. First impressions count, and the introduction provides that impression to readers.

• The optimum length for a research paper introduction

While there's no magic formula to determine exactly how long a research paper introduction should be, there are a few guidelines. Some variables that impact the ideal introduction length include:

Field of study

Complexity of the topic

Specific requirements of the course or publication

A commonly recommended length of a research paper introduction is around 10% of the total paper’s length. So, a ten-page paper has a one-page introduction. If the topic is complex, it may require more background to craft a compelling intro. Humanities papers tend to have longer introductions than those of the hard sciences.

The best way to craft an introduction of the right length is to focus on clarity and conciseness. Tell the reader only what is necessary to set up your research. An introduction edited down with this goal in mind should end up at an acceptable length.

• Evaluating successful research paper introductions

A good way to gauge how to create a great introduction is by looking at examples from across your field. The most influential and well-regarded papers should provide some insights into what makes a good introduction.

Dissecting examples: what works and why

We can make some general assumptions by looking at common elements of a good introduction, regardless of the field of research.

A common structure is to start with a broad context, and then narrow that down to specific research questions or hypotheses. This creates a funnel that establishes the scope and relevance.

The most effective introductions are careful about the assumptions they make regarding reader knowledge. By clearly defining key terms and concepts instead of assuming the reader is familiar with them, these introductions set a more solid foundation for understanding.

To pull in the reader and make that all-important good first impression, excellent research paper introductions will often incorporate a compelling narrative or some striking fact that grabs the reader's attention.

Finally, good introductions provide clear citations from past research to back up the claims they're making. In the case of argumentative papers or essays (those that take a stance on a topic or issue), a strong thesis statement compels the reader to continue reading.

Common pitfalls to avoid in research paper introductions

You can also learn what not to do by looking at other research papers. Many authors have made mistakes you can learn from.

We've talked about the need to be clear and concise. Many introductions fail at this; they're verbose, vague, or otherwise fail to convey the research problem or hypothesis efficiently. This often comes in the form of an overemphasis on background information, which obscures the main research focus.

Ensure your introduction provides the proper emphasis and excitement around your research and its significance. Otherwise, fewer people will want to read more about it.

• Crafting a compelling introduction for a research paper

Let’s take a look at the steps required to craft an introduction that pulls readers in and compels them to learn more about your research.

Step 1: Capturing interest and setting the scene

To capture the reader's interest immediately, begin your introduction with a compelling question, a surprising fact, a provocative quote, or some other mechanism that will hook readers and pull them further into the paper.

As they continue reading, the introduction should contextualize your research within the current field, showing readers its relevance and importance. Clarify any essential terms that will help them better understand what you're saying. This keeps the fundamentals of your research accessible to all readers from all backgrounds.

Step 2: Building a solid foundation with background information

Including background information in your introduction serves two major purposes:

It helps to clarify the topic for the reader

It establishes the depth of your research

The approach you take when conveying this information depends on the type of paper.

For argumentative papers, you'll want to develop engaging background narratives. These should provide context for the argument you'll be presenting.

For empirical papers, highlighting past research is the key. Often, there will be some questions that weren't answered in those past papers. If your paper is focused on those areas, those papers make ideal candidates for you to discuss and critique in your introduction.

Step 3: Pinpointing the research challenge

To capture the attention of the reader, you need to explain what research challenges you'll be discussing.

For argumentative papers, this involves articulating why the argument you'll be making is important. What is its relevance to current discussions or problems? What is the potential impact of people accepting or rejecting your argument?

For empirical papers, explain how your research is addressing a gap in existing knowledge. What new insights or contributions will your research bring to your field?

Step 4: Clarifying your research aims and objectives

We mentioned earlier that the introduction to a research paper can serve as a roadmap for what's within. We've also frequently discussed the need for clarity. This step addresses both of these.

When writing an argumentative paper, craft a thesis statement with impact. Clearly articulate what your position is and the main points you intend to present. This will map out for the reader exactly what they'll get from reading the rest.

For empirical papers, focus on formulating precise research questions and hypotheses. Directly link them to the gaps or issues you've identified in existing research to show the reader the precise direction your research paper will take.

Step 5: Sketching the blueprint of your study

Continue building a roadmap for your readers by designing a structured outline for the paper. Guide the reader through your research journey, explaining what the different sections will contain and their relationship to one another.

This outline should flow seamlessly as you move from section to section. Creating this outline early can also help guide the creation of the paper itself, resulting in a final product that's better organized. In doing so, you'll craft a paper where each section flows intuitively from the next.

Step 6: Integrating your research question

To avoid letting your research question get lost in background information or clarifications, craft your introduction in such a way that the research question resonates throughout. The research question should clearly address a gap in existing knowledge or offer a new perspective on an existing problem.

Tell users your research question explicitly but also remember to frequently come back to it. When providing context or clarification, point out how it relates to the research question. This keeps your focus where it needs to be and prevents the topic of the paper from becoming under-emphasized.

Step 7: Establishing the scope and limitations

So far, we've talked mostly about what's in the paper and how to convey that information to readers. The opposite is also important. Information that's outside the scope of your paper should be made clear to the reader in the introduction so their expectations for what is to follow are set appropriately.

Similarly, be honest and upfront about the limitations of the study. Any constraints in methodology, data, or how far your findings can be generalized should be fully communicated in the introduction.

Step 8: Concluding the introduction with a promise

The final few lines of the introduction are your last chance to convince people to continue reading the rest of the paper. Here is where you should make it very clear what benefit they'll get from doing so. What topics will be covered? What questions will be answered? Make it clear what they will get for continuing.

By providing a quick recap of the key points contained in the introduction in its final lines and properly setting the stage for what follows in the rest of the paper, you refocus the reader's attention on the topic of your research and guide them to read more.

• Research paper introduction best practices

Following the steps above will give you a compelling introduction that hits on all the key points an introduction should have. Some more tips and tricks can make an introduction even more polished.

As you follow the steps above, keep the following tips in mind.

Set the right tone and style

Like every piece of writing, a research paper should be written for the audience. That is to say, it should match the tone and style that your academic discipline and target audience expect. This is typically a formal and academic tone, though the degree of formality varies by field.

Kno w the audience

The perfect introduction balances clarity with conciseness. The amount of clarification required for a given topic depends greatly on the target audience. Knowing who will be reading your paper will guide you in determining how much background information is required.

Adopt the CARS (create a research space) model

The CARS model is a helpful tool for structuring introductions. This structure has three parts. The beginning of the introduction establishes the general research area. Next, relevant literature is reviewed and critiqued. The final section outlines the purpose of your study as it relates to the previous parts.

Master the art of funneling

The CARS method is one example of a well-funneled introduction. These start broadly and then slowly narrow down to your specific research problem. It provides a nice narrative flow that provides the right information at the right time. If you stray from the CARS model, try to retain this same type of funneling.

Incorporate narrative element

People read research papers largely to be informed. But to inform the reader, you have to hold their attention. A narrative style, particularly in the introduction, is a great way to do that. This can be a compelling story, an intriguing question, or a description of a real-world problem.

Write the introduction last

By writing the introduction after the rest of the paper, you'll have a better idea of what your research entails and how the paper is structured. This prevents the common problem of writing something in the introduction and then forgetting to include it in the paper. It also means anything particularly exciting in the paper isn’t neglected in the intro.

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How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper

Table of Contents

Writing an introduction for a research paper is a critical element of your paper, but it can seem challenging to encapsulate enormous amount of information into a concise form. The introduction of your research paper sets the tone for your research and provides the context for your study. In this article, we will guide you through the process of writing an effective introduction that grabs the reader's attention and captures the essence of your research paper.

Understanding the Purpose of a Research Paper Introduction

The introduction acts as a road map for your research paper, guiding the reader through the main ideas and arguments. The purpose of the introduction is to present your research topic to the readers and provide a rationale for why your study is relevant. It helps the reader locate your research and its relevance in the broader field of related scientific explorations. Additionally, the introduction should inform the reader about the objectives and scope of your study, giving them an overview of what to expect in the paper. By including a comprehensive introduction, you establish your credibility as an author and convince the reader that your research is worth their time and attention.

Key Elements to Include in Your Introduction

When writing your research paper introduction, there are several key elements you should include to ensure it is comprehensive and informative.

• A hook or attention-grabbing statement to capture the reader's interest.  It can be a thought-provoking question, a surprising statistic, or a compelling anecdote that relates to your research topic.
• A brief overview of the research topic and its significance. By highlighting the gap in existing knowledge or the problem your research aims to address, you create a compelling case for the relevance of your study.
• A clear research question or problem statement. This serves as the foundation of your research and guides the reader in understanding the unique focus of your study. It should be concise, specific, and clearly articulated.
• An outline of the paper's structure and main arguments, to help the readers navigate through the paper with ease.

Preparing to Write Your Introduction

Before diving into writing your introduction, it is essential to prepare adequately. This involves 3 important steps:

• Conducting Preliminary Research: Immerse yourself in the existing literature to develop a clear research question and position your study within the academic discourse.
• Identifying Your Thesis Statement: Define a specific, focused, and debatable thesis statement, serving as a roadmap for your paper.
• Considering Broader Context: Reflect on the significance of your research within your field, understanding its potential impact and contribution.

By engaging in these preparatory steps, you can ensure that your introduction is well-informed, focused, and sets the stage for a compelling research paper.

Structuring Your Introduction

Now that you have prepared yourself to tackle the introduction, it's time to structure it effectively. A well-structured introduction will engage the reader from the beginning and provide a logical flow to your research paper.

Starting with a Hook

Begin your introduction with an attention-grabbing hook that captivates the reader's interest. This hook serves as a way to make your introduction more engaging and compelling. For example, if you are writing a research paper on the impact of climate change on biodiversity, you could start your introduction with a statistic about the number of species that have gone extinct due to climate change. This will immediately grab the reader's attention and make them realize the urgency and importance of the topic.

Introducing Your Topic

Provide a brief overview, which should give the reader a general understanding of the subject matter and its significance. Explain the importance of the topic and its relevance to the field. This will help the reader understand why your research is significant and why they should continue reading. Continuing with the example of climate change and biodiversity, you could explain how climate change is one of the greatest threats to global biodiversity, how it affects ecosystems, and the potential consequences for both wildlife and human populations. By providing this context, you are setting the stage for the rest of your research paper and helping the reader understand the importance of your study.

Presenting Your Thesis Statement

The thesis statement should directly address your research question and provide a preview of the main arguments or findings discussed in your paper. Make sure your thesis statement is clear, concise, and well-supported by the evidence you will present in your research paper. By presenting a strong and focused thesis statement, you are providing the reader with the information they could anticipate in your research paper. This will help them understand the purpose and scope of your study and will make them more inclined to continue reading.

Writing Techniques for an Effective Introduction

When crafting an introduction, it is crucial to pay attention to the finer details that can elevate your writing to the next level. By utilizing specific writing techniques, you can captivate your readers and draw them into your research journey.

Using Clear and Concise Language

One of the most important writing techniques to employ in your introduction is the use of clear and concise language. By choosing your words carefully, you can effectively convey your ideas to the reader. It is essential to avoid using jargon or complex terminology that may confuse or alienate your audience. Instead, focus on communicating your research in a straightforward manner to ensure that your introduction is accessible to both experts in your field and those who may be new to the topic. This approach allows you to engage a broader audience and make your research more inclusive.

Establishing the Relevance of Your Research

One way to establish the relevance of your research is by highlighting how it fills a gap in the existing literature. Explain how your study addresses a significant research question that has not been adequately explored. By doing this, you demonstrate that your research is not only unique but also contributes to the broader knowledge in your field. Furthermore, it is important to emphasize the potential impact of your research. Whether it is advancing scientific understanding, informing policy decisions, or improving practical applications, make it clear to the reader how your study can make a difference.

By employing these two writing techniques in your introduction, you can effectively engage your readers. Take your time to craft an introduction that is both informative and captivating, leaving your readers eager to delve deeper into your research.

Revising and Polishing Your Introduction

Once you have written your introduction, it is crucial to revise and polish it to ensure that it effectively sets the stage for your research paper.

Self-Editing Techniques

Review your introduction for clarity, coherence, and logical flow. Ensure each paragraph introduces a new idea or argument with smooth transitions.

Check for grammatical errors, spelling mistakes, and awkward sentence structures.

Ensure that your introduction aligns with the overall tone and style of your research paper.

Seeking Feedback for Improvement

Consider seeking feedback from peers, colleagues, or your instructor. They can provide valuable insights and suggestions for improving your introduction. Be open to constructive criticism and use it to refine your introduction and make it more compelling for the reader.

Writing an introduction for a research paper requires careful thought and planning. By understanding the purpose of the introduction, preparing adequately, structuring effectively, and employing writing techniques, you can create an engaging and informative introduction for your research. Remember to revise and polish your introduction to ensure that it accurately represents the main ideas and arguments in your research paper. With a well-crafted introduction, you will capture the reader's attention and keep them inclined to your paper.

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How to Write a Research Paper Introduction

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Last updated on Mar 13th, 2024

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Table of Contents

We write different types of papers for academic and professional reasons. Research paper is one of the most important papers and it is different from other papers. There are different types of rules for writing a research paper , the first part is the introduction. Through this article, we will try to tell you how to write an introduction for a research paper beautifully.

Introduction

Before starting to write any papers, especially research papers one should know how to write a research paper introduction. The introduction is intended to guide the reader from a general subject to a specific area of study. It establishes the context of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information on the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of a thesis, question, or research problem, Briefly explaining your rationale, your methodological approach, highlight the potential findings your research may reveal, and describe the remaining structure of the paper.

A well-written introduction is imperative since, essentially, you never get a second chance to form a great first impression. The opening passage of your paper will give your audience their introductory impression, almost the rationale of your contention, your composing style, the general quality of your investigation, and, eventually, the legitimacy of your discoveries and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression on the readers. While a brief, engaging, and well-written introduction will begin your readers off considering profoundly your expository abilities, your writing style, and your research approach. 

Tips for Writng an Introduction in Research Paper

Introduce your topic

This is a significant part of how to write an introduction for a research paper. The first task of the introduction is to tell the reader what your topic is and why it is interesting or important. This is usually done with a strong opening hook.

A hook is a strong opening sentence that conveys relevance to your topic. Think of an interesting fact or statistic, a powerful statement, a question, or a brief anecdote that will make readers wonder about your topic.

Describe the context

This introduction varies depending on your approach to your writing. In a more argumentative article, you will explore the general context here. In a more empirical paper, this is a great place to review previous research and determine how your research fits together.

Start briefly, and narrow down

The first thing of a research paper introduction is, to briefly describe your broad parts of research, then narrow in on your specific focus. This will help position your research topic within a broader field, making the work accessible to a wider audience than just experts in your field.

A common mistake when writing a research paper introduction is trying to fit everything in at once. Instead, pace yourself and present each piece of information in the most logical order the reader can understand. Typically, this means starting with the big picture and then gradually getting more specific with the details.

For your research paper introduction, you should first present an overview of the topic and then focus on your specific paper. This “funnel” structure naturally includes all the necessary parts of what should be included in a research paper introduction, from context to appropriate or research gaps and finally to relevance.

State Objective and Importance

Papers abandoned because they “do not demonstrate the importance of the topic” or “lack a clear motivation” often miss this point. Say what you want to achieve and why your readers should want to know whether you achieved it or not.

Quote generously

Once you have focused on the specific topic of your research, you should detail the latest and most relevant literature related to your research. Your literature review should be comprehensive but not too long. Remember, you are not writing a review. If you find your introduction is too long or has too many citations, a possible solution is to cite journal articles, rather than cite all of the individual articles that have been summarised in the journal.

Do not Keep it broad

Try to avoid lengthy introductions. A good target is between 500 and 1,000 words, although checking the magazine’s guidelines and back issues will provide the clearest guidance.

The introduction is not lengthy or detailed; rather, they are initiating actions. Introductions are best when they get to the point: save the details in the body of the document, where they belong.

The most important point of a research paper introduction is that they are clear and easy to understand. Writing at length can be distracting and even make your point harder to understand, so cut out unnecessary words and try to express things in simple terms that everyone understands. understandable.

Check journal condition

Many journals have specific assertions in their author instructions. For example, a maximum of one word may be stated, or instructions may require specific content, such as a supposition statement or a summary of your key findings.

Write the introduction to your research paper at the last moment

Your introduction may appear first in a research paper, but the general advice is to wait to write it until everything else has been written. This makes it easier for you to summarize your article because at this point you know everything you’re going to say. This also eliminates the urge to include everything in the introduction because you don’t want to forget anything.

Additionally, it is especially helpful to write an introduction after your research paper is finished. The introduction and conclusion of a research paper have similar topics and often reflect the structure of each topic. Writing the conclusion is also generally easier thanks to the pace created by writing the rest of the paper, and the conclusion can guide you in writing the introduction.

Make your introduction narrative style

Although not always appropriate for formal writing, using a narrative style in the introduction of your research paper can do a lot to engage readers and engage them emotionally. A 2016 study found that in some articles, using narrative strategies improved how often they were cited in other articles. Narrative style involves making the paper more personal to appeal to the reader’s emotions.

• Use first-person pronouns (I, we, my, our) to show that you are the narrator expressing emotions and feelings in the text setting up the scene. 
• Describe the times and locations of important events to help readers visualize them. 
• Appeal to the reader’s morality, sympathy, or urgency as a persuasive tactic. Again, this style will not be appropriate for all research paper introductions, especially those devoted to scientific research. 

However, for more informal research papers and especially essays, this style can make your writing more interesting or at least interesting, perfect for making readers excited right from the beginning of the article.

Use the CARS model

British scientist John Swales developed a method called the CARS model to “generate a search space” in the introduction. Although intended for scientific papers, this simple three-step structure can be used to outline the introduction to any research paper.

Explain the background of your topic, including previous research. Explain that information is lacking in your topic area or that current research is incomplete.

Explain how your research “fills in” missing information about your topic. 

the research findings and providing an overview of the structure of the rest of the paper, although this does not apply to all research papers, especially those Unofficial documents.

Six Essential Elements of How to Write a Research Paper Introduction

1. topic overview.

Start with a general overview of your topic. Refine your outline until you address the specific topic of your article. Next, mention any questions or concerns you have about the case. Note that you will address these in the article.

2. Previous research

Your introduction is the perfect place to review other findings about your topic. Includes both old and modern scholars. This general information shows that you are aware of previous research. It also presents previous findings to those who may not have that expertise.

3. A justification for your article

Explain why your topic needs to be discussed now. If possible, connect it to current issues. Additionally, you can point out problems with old theories or reveal gaps in current research. No matter how you do it, a good reason will keep readers interested and demonstrate why they should read the rest of your article.

4. Describe the method you used

Tell about your processes to make your writing more trustworthy. Identify your goals and the questions you will answer. Reveal how you conducted the research and describe how you measured the results. Also, explain why you made the important choices.

5. A thesis statement

Your main introduction should end with a thesis statement. This statement summarises the ideas that will run throughout your entire research paper. It must be simple and clear.

6. An outline

It is an adequate idea of how to write an introduction for a research paper. 

The introduction usually ends with an overview. Your layout should quickly present what you plan to cover in the following sections. Think of it as a road map, guiding readers to the end of your article.

What is the purpose of the introduction in a research paper, and why is it considered crucial?

The purpose of the introduction in a research paper is to guide the reader from a general subject to a specific area of study. It establishes the context of the research by summarizing current understanding, stating the purpose of the work, explaining the rationale and methodological approach, highlighting potential findings, and describing the paper’s structure. It’s considered crucial because it forms the reader’s first impression and sets the tone for the rest of the paper.

How can I effectively use a hook to engage readers in my research paper introduction?

Using a hook, such as an interesting fact, a powerful statement, a question, or a brief anecdote, can effectively engage readers in your research paper introduction. A hook captures the reader’s attention and makes them curious about your topic, encouraging them to continue reading.

How long the introduction should be in a research paper?

While there’s no strict word count, a good target for a research paper introduction is between 500 and 1,000 words, although you should check the specific guidelines provided by the journal you’re submitting to. It’s recommended to write the introduction after the rest of the paper has been completed. This way, you have a comprehensive understanding of your research, making it easier to summarize and guide your readers effectively.

Conclusion 

These are the important tips and tricks on how to write an introduction for a research paper properly. If you maintain these rules we believe that you will be able to write an excellent introduction in your research paper. 

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How to Write an Introduction for a Research Paper

How to write an introduction for a research paper? Eventually (and with practice) all writers will develop their own strategy for writing the perfect introduction for a research paper. Once you are comfortable with writing, you will probably find your own, but coming up with a good strategy can be tough for beginning writers.

The Purpose of an Introduction

Your opening paragraphs, phrases for introducing thesis statements, research paper introduction examples, using the introduction to map out your research paper.

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• First write your thesis.Your thesis should state the main idea in specific terms.
• After you have a working thesis, tackle the body of your paper before you write the rest of the introduction. Each paragraph in the body should explore one specific topic that proves, or summarizes your thesis. Writing is a thinking process. Once you have worked your way through that process by writing the body of the paper, you will have an intimate understanding of how you are supporting your thesis. After you have written the body paragraphs, go back and rewrite your thesis to make it more specific and to connect it to the topics you addressed in the body paragraph.
• Revise your introduction several times, saving each revision. Be sure your introduction previews the topics you are presenting in your paper. One way of doing this is to use keywords from the topic sentences in each paragraph to introduce, or preview, the topics in your introduction.This “preview” will give your reader a context for understanding how you will make your case.
• Experiment by taking different approaches to your thesis with every revision you make. Play with the language in the introduction. Strike a new tone. Go back and compare versions. Then pick the one that works most effectively with the body of your research paper.
• Do not try to pack everything you want to say into your introduction. Just as your introduction should not be too short, it should also not be too long. Your introduction should be about the same length as any other paragraph in your research paper. Let the content—what you have to say—dictate the length.

The first page of your research paper should draw the reader into the text. It is the paper’s most important page and, alas, often the worst written. There are two culprits here and effective ways to cope with both of them.

First, the writer is usually straining too hard to say something terribly BIG and IMPORTANT about the thesis topic. The goal is worthy, but the aim is unrealistically high. The result is often a muddle of vague platitudes rather than a crisp, compelling introduction to the thesis. Want a familiar example? Listen to most graduation speakers. Their goal couldn’t be loftier: to say what education means and to tell an entire football stadium how to live the rest of their lives. The results are usually an avalanche of clichés and sodden prose.

The second culprit is bad timing. The opening and concluding paragraphs are usually written late in the game, after the rest of the thesis is finished and polished. There’s nothing wrong with writing these sections last. It’s usually the right approach since you need to know exactly what you are saying in the substantive middle sections of the thesis before you can introduce them effectively or draw together your findings. But having waited to write the opening and closing sections, you need to review and edit them several times to catch up. Otherwise, you’ll putting the most jagged prose in the most tender spots. Edit and polish your opening paragraphs with extra care. They should draw readers into the paper.

After you’ve done some extra polishing, I suggest a simple test for the introductory section. As an experiment, chop off the first few paragraphs. Let the paper begin on, say, paragraph 2 or even page 2. If you don’t lose much, or actually gain in clarity and pace, then you’ve got a problem.

There are two solutions. One is to start at this new spot, further into the text. After all, that’s where you finally gain traction on your subject. That works best in some cases, and we occasionally suggest it. The alternative, of course, is to write a new opening that doesn’t flop around, saying nothing.

What makes a good opening? Actually, they come in several flavors. One is an intriguing story about your topic. Another is a brief, compelling quote. When you run across them during your reading, set them aside for later use. Don’t be deterred from using them because they “don’t seem academic enough.” They’re fine as long as the rest of the paper doesn’t sound like you did your research in People magazine. The third, and most common, way to begin is by stating your main questions, followed by a brief comment about why they matter.

Whichever opening you choose, it should engage your readers and coax them to continue. Having done that, you should give them a general overview of the project—the main issues you will cover, the material you will use, and your thesis statement (that is, your basic approach to the topic). Finally, at the end of the introductory section, give your readers a brief road map, showing how the paper will unfold. How you do that depends on your topic but here are some general suggestions for phrase choice that may help:

• This analysis will provide …
• This paper analyzes the relationship between …
• This paper presents an analysis of …
• This paper will argue that …
• This topic supports the argument that…
• Research supports the opinion that …
• This paper supports the opinion that …
• An interpretation of the facts indicates …
• The results of this experiment show …
• The results of this research show …

Comparisons/Contrasts

• A comparison will show that …
• By contrasting the results,we see that …
• This paper examines the advantages and disadvantages of …

Definitions/Classifications

• This paper will provide a guide for categorizing the following:…
• This paper provides a definition of …
• This paper explores the meaning of …
• This paper will discuss the implications of …
• A discussion of this topic reveals …
• The following discussion will focus on …

Description

• This report describes…
• This report will illustrate…
• This paper provides an illustration of …

Process/Experimentation

• This paper will identify the reasons behind…
• The results of the experiment show …
• The process revealed that …
• This paper theorizes…
• This paper presents the theory that …
• In theory, this indicates that …

Quotes, anecdotes, questions, examples, and broad statements—all of them can used successfully to write an introduction for a research paper. It’s instructive to see them in action, in the hands of skilled academic writers.

Let’s begin with David M. Kennedy’s superb history, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . Kennedy begins each chapter with a quote, followed by his text. The quote above chapter 1 shows President Hoover speaking in 1928 about America’s golden future. The text below it begins with the stock market collapse of 1929. It is a riveting account of just how wrong Hoover was. The text about the Depression is stronger because it contrasts so starkly with the optimistic quotation.

“We in America today are nearer the final triumph over poverty than ever before in the history of any land.”—Herbert Hoover, August 11, 1928 Like an earthquake, the stock market crash of October 1929 cracked startlingly across the United States, the herald of a crisis that was to shake the American way of life to its foundations. The events of the ensuing decade opened a fissure across the landscape of American history no less gaping than that opened by the volley on Lexington Common in April 1775 or by the bombardment of Sumter on another April four score and six years later. The ratcheting ticker machines in the autumn of 1929 did not merely record avalanching stock prices. In time they came also to symbolize the end of an era. (David M. Kennedy, Freedom from Fear: The American People in Depression and War, 1929–1945 . New York: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 10)

Kennedy has exciting, wrenching material to work with. John Mueller faces the exact opposite problem. In Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War , he is trying to explain why Great Powers have suddenly stopped fighting each other. For centuries they made war on each other with devastating regularity, killing millions in the process. But now, Mueller thinks, they have not just paused; they have stopped permanently. He is literally trying to explain why “nothing is happening now.” That may be an exciting topic intellectually, it may have great practical significance, but “nothing happened” is not a very promising subject for an exciting opening paragraph. Mueller manages to make it exciting and, at the same time, shows why it matters so much. Here’s his opening, aptly entitled “History’s Greatest Nonevent”:

On May 15, 1984, the major countries of the developed world had managed to remain at peace with each other for the longest continuous stretch of time since the days of the Roman Empire. If a significant battle in a war had been fought on that day, the press would have bristled with it. As usual, however, a landmark crossing in the history of peace caused no stir: the most prominent story in the New York Times that day concerned the saga of a manicurist, a machinist, and a cleaning woman who had just won a big Lotto contest. This book seeks to develop an explanation for what is probably the greatest nonevent in human history. (John Mueller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War . New York: Basic Books, 1989, p. 3)

In the space of a few sentences, Mueller sets up his puzzle and reveals its profound human significance. At the same time, he shows just how easy it is to miss this milestone in the buzz of daily events. Notice how concretely he does that. He doesn’t just say that the New York Times ignored this record setting peace. He offers telling details about what they covered instead: “a manicurist, a machinist, and a cleaning woman who had just won a big Lotto contest.” Likewise, David Kennedy immediately entangles us in concrete events: the stunning stock market crash of 1929. These are powerful openings that capture readers’ interests, establish puzzles, and launch narratives.

Sociologist James Coleman begins in a completely different way, by posing the basic questions he will study. His ambitious book, Foundations of Social Theory , develops a comprehensive theory of social life, so it is entirely appropriate for him to begin with some major questions. But he could just as easily have begun with a compelling story or anecdote. He includes many of them elsewhere in his book. His choice for the opening, though, is to state his major themes plainly and frame them as a paradox. Sociologists, he says, are interested in aggregate behavior—how people act in groups, organizations, or large numbers—yet they mostly examine individuals:

A central problem in social science is that of accounting for the function of some kind of social system. Yet in most social research, observations are not made on the system as a whole, but on some part of it. In fact, the natural unit of observation is the individual person…  This has led to a widening gap between theory and research… (James S. Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990, pp. 1–2)

After expanding on this point, Coleman explains that he will not try to remedy the problem by looking solely at groups or aggregate-level data. That’s a false solution, he says, because aggregates don’t act; individuals do. So the real problem is to show the links between individual actions and aggregate outcomes, between the micro and the macro.

The major problem for explanations of system behavior based on actions and orientations at a level below that of the system [in this case, on individual-level actions] is that of moving from the lower level to the system level. This has been called the micro-to-macro problem, and it is pervasive throughout the social sciences. (Coleman, Foundations of Social Theory , p. 6)

Explaining how to deal with this “micro-to-macro problem” is the central issue of Coleman’s book, and he announces it at the beginning.

Coleman’s theory-driven opening stands at the opposite end of the spectrum from engaging stories or anecdotes, which are designed to lure the reader into the narrative and ease the path to a more analytic treatment later in the text. Take, for example, the opening sentences of Robert L. Herbert’s sweeping study Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society : “When Henry Tuckerman came to Paris in 1867, one of the thousands of Americans attracted there by the huge international exposition, he was bowled over by the extraordinary changes since his previous visit twenty years before.” (Robert L. Herbert, Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1988, p. 1.) Herbert fills in the evocative details to set the stage for his analysis of the emerging Impressionist art movement and its connection to Parisian society and leisure in this period.

David Bromwich writes about Wordsworth, a poet so familiar to students of English literature that it is hard to see him afresh, before his great achievements, when he was just a young outsider starting to write. To draw us into Wordsworth’s early work, Bromwich wants us to set aside our entrenched images of the famous mature poet and see him as he was in the 1790s, as a beginning writer on the margins of society. He accomplishes this ambitious task in the opening sentences of Disowned by Memory: Wordsworth’s Poetry of the 1790s :

Wordsworth turned to poetry after the revolution to remind himself that he was still a human being. It was a curious solution, to a difficulty many would not have felt. The whole interest of his predicament is that he did feel it. Yet Wordsworth is now so established an eminence—his name so firmly fixed with readers as a moralist of self-trust emanating from complete self-security—that it may seem perverse to imagine him as a criminal seeking expiation. Still, that is a picture we get from The Borderers and, at a longer distance, from “Tintern Abbey.” (David Bromwich, Disowned by Memory: Wordsworth’s Poetry of the 1790s . Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998, p. 1)

That’s a wonderful opening! Look at how much Bromwich accomplishes in just a few words. He not only prepares the way for analyzing Wordsworth’s early poetry; he juxtaposes the anguished young man who wrote it to the self-confident, distinguished figure he became—the eminent man we can’t help remembering as we read his early poetry.

Let us highlight a couple of other points in this passage because they illustrate some intelligent writing choices. First, look at the odd comma in this sentence: “It was a curious solution, to a difficulty many would not have felt.” Any standard grammar book would say that comma is wrong and should be omitted. Why did Bromwich insert it? Because he’s a fine writer, thinking of his sentence rhythm and the point he wants to make. The comma does exactly what it should. It makes us pause, breaking the sentence into two parts, each with an interesting point. One is that Wordsworth felt a difficulty others would not have; the other is that he solved it in a distinctive way. It would be easy for readers to glide over this double message, so Bromwich has inserted a speed bump to slow us down. Most of the time, you should follow grammatical rules, like those about commas, but you should bend them when it serves a good purpose. That’s what the writer does here.

The second small point is the phrase “after the revolution” in the first sentence: “Wordsworth turned to poetry after the revolution to remind himself that he was still a human being.” Why doesn’t Bromwich say “after the French Revolution”? Because he has judged his book’s audience. He is writing for specialists who already know which revolution is reverberating through English life in the 1790s. It is the French Revolution, not the earlier loss of the American colonies. If Bromwich were writing for a much broader audience—say, the New York Times Book Review—he would probably insert the extra word to avoid confusion.

The message “Know your audience” applies to all writers. Don’t talk down to them by assuming they can’t get dressed in the morning. Don’t strut around showing off your book learnin’ by tossing in arcane facts and esoteric language for its own sake. Neither will win over readers.

Bromwich, Herbert, and Coleman open their works in different ways, but their choices work well for their different texts. Your task is to decide what kind of opening will work best for yours. Don’t let that happen by default, by grabbing the first idea you happen upon. Consider a couple of different ways of opening your thesis and then choose the one you prefer. Give yourself some options, think them over, then make an informed choice.

Whether you begin with a story, puzzle, or broad statement, the next part of the introduction should pose your main questions and establish your argument. This is your thesis statement—your viewpoint along with the supporting reasons and evidence. It should be articulated plainly so readers understand full well what your paper is about and what it will argue.

After that, give your readers a road map of what’s to come. That’s normally done at the end of the introductory section (or, in a book, at the end of the introductory chapter). Here’s John J. Mearsheimer presenting such a road map in The Tragedy of Great Power Politics . He not only tells us the order of upcoming chapters, he explains why he’s chosen that order and which chapters are most important:

The Plan of the Book The rest of the chapters in this book are concerned mainly with answering the six big questions about power which I identified earlier. Chapter 2, which is probably the most important chapter in the book, lays out my theory of why states compete for power and why they pursue hegemony. In Chapters 3 and 4, I define power and explain how to measure it. I do this in order to lay the groundwork for testing my theory… (John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics . New York: W. W. Norton, 2001, p. 27)

As this excerpt makes clear, Mearsheimer has already laid out his “six big questions” in the introduction. Now he’s showing us the path ahead, the path to answering those questions.

At the end of the introduction, give your readers a road map of what’s to come. Tell them what the upcoming sections will be and why they are arranged in this particular order.

After having written your introduction it’s time to move to the biggest part: body of a research paper.

Back to How To Write A Research Paper .

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Organizing Your Social Sciences Research Paper

• 4. The Introduction
• Purpose of Guide
• Design Flaws to Avoid
• Independent and Dependent Variables
• Glossary of Research Terms
• Reading Research Effectively
• Narrowing a Topic Idea
• Broadening a Topic Idea
• Extending the Timeliness of a Topic Idea
• Academic Writing Style
• Choosing a Title
• Making an Outline
• Paragraph Development
• Research Process Video Series
• Executive Summary
• The C.A.R.S. Model
• Background Information
• The Research Problem/Question
• Theoretical Framework
• Citation Tracking
• Content Alert Services
• Evaluating Sources
• Primary Sources
• Secondary Sources
• Tiertiary Sources
• Scholarly vs. Popular Publications
• Qualitative Methods
• Quantitative Methods
• Insiderness
• Using Non-Textual Elements
• Limitations of the Study
• Common Grammar Mistakes
• Writing Concisely
• Avoiding Plagiarism
• Footnotes or Endnotes?
• Further Readings
• Generative AI and Writing
• USC Libraries Tutorials and Other Guides
• Bibliography

The introduction leads the reader from a general subject area to a particular topic of inquiry. It establishes the scope, context, and significance of the research being conducted by summarizing current understanding and background information about the topic, stating the purpose of the work in the form of the research problem supported by a hypothesis or a set of questions, explaining briefly the methodological approach used to examine the research problem, highlighting the potential outcomes your study can reveal, and outlining the remaining structure and organization of the paper.

Key Elements of the Research Proposal. Prepared under the direction of the Superintendent and by the 2010 Curriculum Design and Writing Team. Baltimore County Public Schools.

Importance of a Good Introduction

Think of the introduction as a mental road map that must answer for the reader these four questions:

• What was I studying?
• Why was this topic important to investigate?
• What did we know about this topic before I did this study?
• How will this study advance new knowledge or new ways of understanding?

According to Reyes, there are three overarching goals of a good introduction: 1) ensure that you summarize prior studies about the topic in a manner that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem; 2) explain how your study specifically addresses gaps in the literature, insufficient consideration of the topic, or other deficiency in the literature; and, 3) note the broader theoretical, empirical, and/or policy contributions and implications of your research.

A well-written introduction is important because, quite simply, you never get a second chance to make a good first impression. The opening paragraphs of your paper will provide your readers with their initial impressions about the logic of your argument, your writing style, the overall quality of your research, and, ultimately, the validity of your findings and conclusions. A vague, disorganized, or error-filled introduction will create a negative impression, whereas, a concise, engaging, and well-written introduction will lead your readers to think highly of your analytical skills, your writing style, and your research approach. All introductions should conclude with a brief paragraph that describes the organization of the rest of the paper.

Hirano, Eliana. “Research Article Introductions in English for Specific Purposes: A Comparison between Brazilian, Portuguese, and English.” English for Specific Purposes 28 (October 2009): 240-250; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide. Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Reyes, Victoria. Demystifying the Journal Article. Inside Higher Education.

Structure and Writing Style

I.  Structure and Approach

The introduction is the broad beginning of the paper that answers three important questions for the reader:

• What is this?
• Why should I read it?
• What do you want me to think about / consider doing / react to?

Think of the structure of the introduction as an inverted triangle of information that lays a foundation for understanding the research problem. Organize the information so as to present the more general aspects of the topic early in the introduction, then narrow your analysis to more specific topical information that provides context, finally arriving at your research problem and the rationale for studying it [often written as a series of key questions to be addressed or framed as a hypothesis or set of assumptions to be tested] and, whenever possible, a description of the potential outcomes your study can reveal.

These are general phases associated with writing an introduction: 1.  Establish an area to research by:

• Highlighting the importance of the topic, and/or
• Making general statements about the topic, and/or
• Presenting an overview on current research on the subject.

2.  Identify a research niche by:

• Opposing an existing assumption, and/or
• Revealing a gap in existing research, and/or
• Formulating a research question or problem, and/or
• Continuing a disciplinary tradition.

3.  Place your research within the research niche by:

• Stating the intent of your study,
• Outlining the key characteristics of your study,
• Describing important results, and
• Giving a brief overview of the structure of the paper.

NOTE:   It is often useful to review the introduction late in the writing process. This is appropriate because outcomes are unknown until you've completed the study. After you complete writing the body of the paper, go back and review introductory descriptions of the structure of the paper, the method of data gathering, the reporting and analysis of results, and the conclusion. Reviewing and, if necessary, rewriting the introduction ensures that it correctly matches the overall structure of your final paper.

II.  Delimitations of the Study

Delimitations refer to those characteristics that limit the scope and define the conceptual boundaries of your research . This is determined by the conscious exclusionary and inclusionary decisions you make about how to investigate the research problem. In other words, not only should you tell the reader what it is you are studying and why, but you must also acknowledge why you rejected alternative approaches that could have been used to examine the topic.

Obviously, the first limiting step was the choice of research problem itself. However, implicit are other, related problems that could have been chosen but were rejected. These should be noted in the conclusion of your introduction. For example, a delimitating statement could read, "Although many factors can be understood to impact the likelihood young people will vote, this study will focus on socioeconomic factors related to the need to work full-time while in school." The point is not to document every possible delimiting factor, but to highlight why previously researched issues related to the topic were not addressed.

Examples of delimitating choices would be:

• The key aims and objectives of your study,
• The research questions that you address,
• The variables of interest [i.e., the various factors and features of the phenomenon being studied],
• The method(s) of investigation,
• The time period your study covers, and
• Any relevant alternative theoretical frameworks that could have been adopted.

Review each of these decisions. Not only do you clearly establish what you intend to accomplish in your research, but you should also include a declaration of what the study does not intend to cover. In the latter case, your exclusionary decisions should be based upon criteria understood as, "not interesting"; "not directly relevant"; “too problematic because..."; "not feasible," and the like. Make this reasoning explicit!

NOTE:   Delimitations refer to the initial choices made about the broader, overall design of your study and should not be confused with documenting the limitations of your study discovered after the research has been completed.

ANOTHER NOTE : Do not view delimitating statements as admitting to an inherent failing or shortcoming in your research. They are an accepted element of academic writing intended to keep the reader focused on the research problem by explicitly defining the conceptual boundaries and scope of your study. It addresses any critical questions in the reader's mind of, "Why the hell didn't the author examine this?"

III.  The Narrative Flow

Issues to keep in mind that will help the narrative flow in your introduction :

• Your introduction should clearly identify the subject area of interest . A simple strategy to follow is to use key words from your title in the first few sentences of the introduction. This will help focus the introduction on the topic at the appropriate level and ensures that you get to the subject matter quickly without losing focus, or discussing information that is too general.
• Establish context by providing a brief and balanced review of the pertinent published literature that is available on the subject. The key is to summarize for the reader what is known about the specific research problem before you did your analysis. This part of your introduction should not represent a comprehensive literature review--that comes next. It consists of a general review of the important, foundational research literature [with citations] that establishes a foundation for understanding key elements of the research problem. See the drop-down menu under this tab for " Background Information " regarding types of contexts.
• Clearly state the hypothesis that you investigated . When you are first learning to write in this format it is okay, and actually preferable, to use a past statement like, "The purpose of this study was to...." or "We investigated three possible mechanisms to explain the...."
• Why did you choose this kind of research study or design? Provide a clear statement of the rationale for your approach to the problem studied. This will usually follow your statement of purpose in the last paragraph of the introduction.

IV.  Engaging the Reader

A research problem in the social sciences can come across as dry and uninteresting to anyone unfamiliar with the topic . Therefore, one of the goals of your introduction is to make readers want to read your paper. Here are several strategies you can use to grab the reader's attention:

• Open with a compelling story . Almost all research problems in the social sciences, no matter how obscure or esoteric , are really about the lives of people. Telling a story that humanizes an issue can help illuminate the significance of the problem and help the reader empathize with those affected by the condition being studied.
• Include a strong quotation or a vivid, perhaps unexpected, anecdote . During your review of the literature, make note of any quotes or anecdotes that grab your attention because they can used in your introduction to highlight the research problem in a captivating way.
• Pose a provocative or thought-provoking question . Your research problem should be framed by a set of questions to be addressed or hypotheses to be tested. However, a provocative question can be presented in the beginning of your introduction that challenges an existing assumption or compels the reader to consider an alternative viewpoint that helps establish the significance of your study. 
• Describe a puzzling scenario or incongruity . This involves highlighting an interesting quandary concerning the research problem or describing contradictory findings from prior studies about a topic. Posing what is essentially an unresolved intellectual riddle about the problem can engage the reader's interest in the study.
• Cite a stirring example or case study that illustrates why the research problem is important . Draw upon the findings of others to demonstrate the significance of the problem and to describe how your study builds upon or offers alternatives ways of investigating this prior research.

NOTE:   It is important that you choose only one of the suggested strategies for engaging your readers. This avoids giving an impression that your paper is more flash than substance and does not distract from the substance of your study.

Freedman, Leora  and Jerry Plotnick. Introductions and Conclusions. University College Writing Centre. University of Toronto; Introduction. The Structure, Format, Content, and Style of a Journal-Style Scientific Paper. Department of Biology. Bates College; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; Introductions. The Writer’s Handbook. Writing Center. University of Wisconsin, Madison; Introductions, Body Paragraphs, and Conclusions for an Argument Paper. The Writing Lab and The OWL. Purdue University; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70; Resources for Writers: Introduction Strategies. Program in Writing and Humanistic Studies. Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Sharpling, Gerald. Writing an Introduction. Centre for Applied Linguistics, University of Warwick; Samraj, B. “Introductions in Research Articles: Variations Across Disciplines.” English for Specific Purposes 21 (2002): 1–17; Swales, John and Christine B. Feak. Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Skills and Tasks . 2nd edition. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2004 ; Writing Your Introduction. Department of English Writing Guide. George Mason University.

Writing Tip

Avoid the "Dictionary" Introduction

Giving the dictionary definition of words related to the research problem may appear appropriate because it is important to define specific terminology that readers may be unfamiliar with. However, anyone can look a word up in the dictionary and a general dictionary is not a particularly authoritative source because it doesn't take into account the context of your topic and doesn't offer particularly detailed information. Also, placed in the context of a particular discipline, a term or concept may have a different meaning than what is found in a general dictionary. If you feel that you must seek out an authoritative definition, use a subject specific dictionary or encyclopedia [e.g., if you are a sociology student, search for dictionaries of sociology]. A good database for obtaining definitive definitions of concepts or terms is Credo Reference .

Saba, Robert. The College Research Paper. Florida International University; Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina.

Another Writing Tip

When Do I Begin?

A common question asked at the start of any paper is, "Where should I begin?" An equally important question to ask yourself is, "When do I begin?" Research problems in the social sciences rarely rest in isolation from history. Therefore, it is important to lay a foundation for understanding the historical context underpinning the research problem. However, this information should be brief and succinct and begin at a point in time that illustrates the study's overall importance. For example, a study that investigates coffee cultivation and export in West Africa as a key stimulus for local economic growth needs to describe the beginning of exporting coffee in the region and establishing why economic growth is important. You do not need to give a long historical explanation about coffee exports in Africa. If a research problem requires a substantial exploration of the historical context, do this in the literature review section. In your introduction, make note of this as part of the "roadmap" [see below] that you use to describe the organization of your paper.

Introductions. The Writing Center. University of North Carolina; “Writing Introductions.” In Good Essay Writing: A Social Sciences Guide . Peter Redman. 4th edition. (London: Sage, 2011), pp. 63-70.

Yet Another Writing Tip

Always End with a Roadmap

The final paragraph or sentences of your introduction should forecast your main arguments and conclusions and provide a brief description of the rest of the paper [the "roadmap"] that let's the reader know where you are going and what to expect. A roadmap is important because it helps the reader place the research problem within the context of their own perspectives about the topic. In addition, concluding your introduction with an explicit roadmap tells the reader that you have a clear understanding of the structural purpose of your paper. In this way, the roadmap acts as a type of promise to yourself and to your readers that you will follow a consistent and coherent approach to addressing the topic of inquiry. Refer to it often to help keep your writing focused and organized.

Cassuto, Leonard. “On the Dissertation: How to Write the Introduction.” The Chronicle of Higher Education , May 28, 2018; Radich, Michael. A Student's Guide to Writing in East Asian Studies . (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Writing n. d.), pp. 35-37.

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Home » Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Research Report – Example, Writing Guide and Types

Table of Contents

Research Report

Definition:

Research Report is a written document that presents the results of a research project or study, including the research question, methodology, results, and conclusions, in a clear and objective manner.

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the findings of the research to the intended audience, which could be other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public.

Components of Research Report

Components of Research Report are as follows:

Introduction

The introduction sets the stage for the research report and provides a brief overview of the research question or problem being investigated. It should include a clear statement of the purpose of the study and its significance or relevance to the field of research. It may also provide background information or a literature review to help contextualize the research.

Literature Review

The literature review provides a critical analysis and synthesis of the existing research and scholarship relevant to the research question or problem. It should identify the gaps, inconsistencies, and contradictions in the literature and show how the current study addresses these issues. The literature review also establishes the theoretical framework or conceptual model that guides the research.

Methodology

The methodology section describes the research design, methods, and procedures used to collect and analyze data. It should include information on the sample or participants, data collection instruments, data collection procedures, and data analysis techniques. The methodology should be clear and detailed enough to allow other researchers to replicate the study.

The results section presents the findings of the study in a clear and objective manner. It should provide a detailed description of the data and statistics used to answer the research question or test the hypothesis. Tables, graphs, and figures may be included to help visualize the data and illustrate the key findings.

The discussion section interprets the results of the study and explains their significance or relevance to the research question or problem. It should also compare the current findings with those of previous studies and identify the implications for future research or practice. The discussion should be based on the results presented in the previous section and should avoid speculation or unfounded conclusions.

The conclusion summarizes the key findings of the study and restates the main argument or thesis presented in the introduction. It should also provide a brief overview of the contributions of the study to the field of research and the implications for practice or policy.

The references section lists all the sources cited in the research report, following a specific citation style, such as APA or MLA.

The appendices section includes any additional material, such as data tables, figures, or instruments used in the study, that could not be included in the main text due to space limitations.

Types of Research Report

Types of Research Report are as follows:

Thesis is a type of research report. A thesis is a long-form research document that presents the findings and conclusions of an original research study conducted by a student as part of a graduate or postgraduate program. It is typically written by a student pursuing a higher degree, such as a Master’s or Doctoral degree, although it can also be written by researchers or scholars in other fields.

Research Paper

Research paper is a type of research report. A research paper is a document that presents the results of a research study or investigation. Research papers can be written in a variety of fields, including science, social science, humanities, and business. They typically follow a standard format that includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion sections.

Technical Report

A technical report is a detailed report that provides information about a specific technical or scientific problem or project. Technical reports are often used in engineering, science, and other technical fields to document research and development work.

Progress Report

A progress report provides an update on the progress of a research project or program over a specific period of time. Progress reports are typically used to communicate the status of a project to stakeholders, funders, or project managers.

Feasibility Report

A feasibility report assesses the feasibility of a proposed project or plan, providing an analysis of the potential risks, benefits, and costs associated with the project. Feasibility reports are often used in business, engineering, and other fields to determine the viability of a project before it is undertaken.

Field Report

A field report documents observations and findings from fieldwork, which is research conducted in the natural environment or setting. Field reports are often used in anthropology, ecology, and other social and natural sciences.

Experimental Report

An experimental report documents the results of a scientific experiment, including the hypothesis, methods, results, and conclusions. Experimental reports are often used in biology, chemistry, and other sciences to communicate the results of laboratory experiments.

Case Study Report

A case study report provides an in-depth analysis of a specific case or situation, often used in psychology, social work, and other fields to document and understand complex cases or phenomena.

Literature Review Report

A literature review report synthesizes and summarizes existing research on a specific topic, providing an overview of the current state of knowledge on the subject. Literature review reports are often used in social sciences, education, and other fields to identify gaps in the literature and guide future research.

Research Report Example

Following is a Research Report Example sample for Students:

Title: The Impact of Social Media on Academic Performance among High School Students

This study aims to investigate the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students. The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The findings indicate that there is a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students. The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers, as they highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities.

Introduction:

Social media has become an integral part of the lives of high school students. With the widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and Snapchat, students can connect with friends, share photos and videos, and engage in discussions on a range of topics. While social media offers many benefits, concerns have been raised about its impact on academic performance. Many studies have found a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance among high school students (Kirschner & Karpinski, 2010; Paul, Baker, & Cochran, 2012).

Given the growing importance of social media in the lives of high school students, it is important to investigate its impact on academic performance. This study aims to address this gap by examining the relationship between social media use and academic performance among high school students.

Methodology:

The study utilized a quantitative research design, which involved a survey questionnaire administered to a sample of 200 high school students. The questionnaire was developed based on previous studies and was designed to measure the frequency and duration of social media use, as well as academic performance.

The participants were selected using a convenience sampling technique, and the survey questionnaire was distributed in the classroom during regular school hours. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and correlation analysis.

The findings indicate that the majority of high school students use social media platforms on a daily basis, with Facebook being the most popular platform. The results also show a negative correlation between social media use and academic performance, suggesting that excessive social media use can lead to poor academic performance among high school students.

Discussion:

The results of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. The negative correlation between social media use and academic performance suggests that strategies should be put in place to help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. For example, educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students.

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this study provides evidence of the negative impact of social media on academic performance among high school students. The findings highlight the need for strategies that can help students balance their social media use and academic responsibilities. Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms by which social media use affects academic performance and to develop effective strategies for addressing this issue.

Limitations:

One limitation of this study is the use of convenience sampling, which limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Future studies should use random sampling techniques to increase the representativeness of the sample. Another limitation is the use of self-reported measures, which may be subject to social desirability bias. Future studies could use objective measures of social media use and academic performance, such as tracking software and school records.

Implications:

The findings of this study have important implications for educators, parents, and policymakers. Educators could incorporate social media into their teaching strategies to engage students and enhance learning. For example, teachers could use social media platforms to share relevant educational resources and facilitate online discussions. Parents could limit their children’s social media use and encourage them to prioritize their academic responsibilities. They could also engage in open communication with their children to understand their social media use and its impact on their academic performance. Policymakers could develop guidelines and policies to regulate social media use among high school students. For example, schools could implement social media policies that restrict access during class time and encourage responsible use.

References:

• Kirschner, P. A., & Karpinski, A. C. (2010). Facebook® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(6), 1237-1245.
• Paul, J. A., Baker, H. M., & Cochran, J. D. (2012). Effect of online social networking on student academic performance. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 8(1), 1-19.
• Pantic, I. (2014). Online social networking and mental health. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17(10), 652-657.
• Rosen, L. D., Carrier, L. M., & Cheever, N. A. (2013). Facebook and texting made me do it: Media-induced task-switching while studying. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(3), 948-958.

Note*: Above mention, Example is just a sample for the students’ guide. Do not directly copy and paste as your College or University assignment. Kindly do some research and Write your own.

Applications of Research Report

Research reports have many applications, including:

• Communicating research findings: The primary application of a research report is to communicate the results of a study to other researchers, stakeholders, or the general public. The report serves as a way to share new knowledge, insights, and discoveries with others in the field.
• Informing policy and practice : Research reports can inform policy and practice by providing evidence-based recommendations for decision-makers. For example, a research report on the effectiveness of a new drug could inform regulatory agencies in their decision-making process.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research in a particular area. Other researchers may use the findings and methodology of a report to develop new research questions or to build on existing research.
• Evaluating programs and interventions : Research reports can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of programs and interventions in achieving their intended outcomes. For example, a research report on a new educational program could provide evidence of its impact on student performance.
• Demonstrating impact : Research reports can be used to demonstrate the impact of research funding or to evaluate the success of research projects. By presenting the findings and outcomes of a study, research reports can show the value of research to funders and stakeholders.
• Enhancing professional development : Research reports can be used to enhance professional development by providing a source of information and learning for researchers and practitioners in a particular field. For example, a research report on a new teaching methodology could provide insights and ideas for educators to incorporate into their own practice.

How to write Research Report

Here are some steps you can follow to write a research report:

• Identify the research question: The first step in writing a research report is to identify your research question. This will help you focus your research and organize your findings.
• Conduct research : Once you have identified your research question, you will need to conduct research to gather relevant data and information. This can involve conducting experiments, reviewing literature, or analyzing data.
• Organize your findings: Once you have gathered all of your data, you will need to organize your findings in a way that is clear and understandable. This can involve creating tables, graphs, or charts to illustrate your results.
• Write the report: Once you have organized your findings, you can begin writing the report. Start with an introduction that provides background information and explains the purpose of your research. Next, provide a detailed description of your research methods and findings. Finally, summarize your results and draw conclusions based on your findings.
• Proofread and edit: After you have written your report, be sure to proofread and edit it carefully. Check for grammar and spelling errors, and make sure that your report is well-organized and easy to read.
• Include a reference list: Be sure to include a list of references that you used in your research. This will give credit to your sources and allow readers to further explore the topic if they choose.
• Format your report: Finally, format your report according to the guidelines provided by your instructor or organization. This may include formatting requirements for headings, margins, fonts, and spacing.

Purpose of Research Report

The purpose of a research report is to communicate the results of a research study to a specific audience, such as peers in the same field, stakeholders, or the general public. The report provides a detailed description of the research methods, findings, and conclusions.

Some common purposes of a research report include:

• Sharing knowledge: A research report allows researchers to share their findings and knowledge with others in their field. This helps to advance the field and improve the understanding of a particular topic.
• Identifying trends: A research report can identify trends and patterns in data, which can help guide future research and inform decision-making.
• Addressing problems: A research report can provide insights into problems or issues and suggest solutions or recommendations for addressing them.
• Evaluating programs or interventions : A research report can evaluate the effectiveness of programs or interventions, which can inform decision-making about whether to continue, modify, or discontinue them.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies.

When to Write Research Report

A research report should be written after completing the research study. This includes collecting data, analyzing the results, and drawing conclusions based on the findings. Once the research is complete, the report should be written in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

In academic settings, research reports are often required as part of coursework or as part of a thesis or dissertation. In this case, the report should be written according to the guidelines provided by the instructor or institution.

In other settings, such as in industry or government, research reports may be required to inform decision-making or to comply with regulatory requirements. In these cases, the report should be written as soon as possible after the research is completed in order to inform decision-making in a timely manner.

Overall, the timing of when to write a research report depends on the purpose of the research, the expectations of the audience, and any regulatory requirements that need to be met. However, it is important to complete the report in a timely manner while the information is still fresh in the researcher’s mind.

Characteristics of Research Report

There are several characteristics of a research report that distinguish it from other types of writing. These characteristics include:

• Objective: A research report should be written in an objective and unbiased manner. It should present the facts and findings of the research study without any personal opinions or biases.
• Systematic: A research report should be written in a systematic manner. It should follow a clear and logical structure, and the information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand and follow.
• Detailed: A research report should be detailed and comprehensive. It should provide a thorough description of the research methods, results, and conclusions.
• Accurate : A research report should be accurate and based on sound research methods. The findings and conclusions should be supported by data and evidence.
• Organized: A research report should be well-organized. It should include headings and subheadings to help the reader navigate the report and understand the main points.
• Clear and concise: A research report should be written in clear and concise language. The information should be presented in a way that is easy to understand, and unnecessary jargon should be avoided.
• Citations and references: A research report should include citations and references to support the findings and conclusions. This helps to give credit to other researchers and to provide readers with the opportunity to further explore the topic.

Advantages of Research Report

Research reports have several advantages, including:

• Communicating research findings: Research reports allow researchers to communicate their findings to a wider audience, including other researchers, stakeholders, and the general public. This helps to disseminate knowledge and advance the understanding of a particular topic.
• Providing evidence for decision-making : Research reports can provide evidence to inform decision-making, such as in the case of policy-making, program planning, or product development. The findings and conclusions can help guide decisions and improve outcomes.
• Supporting further research: Research reports can provide a foundation for further research on a particular topic. Other researchers can build on the findings and conclusions of the report, which can lead to further discoveries and advancements in the field.
• Demonstrating expertise: Research reports can demonstrate the expertise of the researchers and their ability to conduct rigorous and high-quality research. This can be important for securing funding, promotions, and other professional opportunities.
• Meeting regulatory requirements: In some fields, research reports are required to meet regulatory requirements, such as in the case of drug trials or environmental impact studies. Producing a high-quality research report can help ensure compliance with these requirements.

Limitations of Research Report

Despite their advantages, research reports also have some limitations, including:

• Time-consuming: Conducting research and writing a report can be a time-consuming process, particularly for large-scale studies. This can limit the frequency and speed of producing research reports.
• Expensive: Conducting research and producing a report can be expensive, particularly for studies that require specialized equipment, personnel, or data. This can limit the scope and feasibility of some research studies.
• Limited generalizability: Research studies often focus on a specific population or context, which can limit the generalizability of the findings to other populations or contexts.
• Potential bias : Researchers may have biases or conflicts of interest that can influence the findings and conclusions of the research study. Additionally, participants may also have biases or may not be representative of the larger population, which can limit the validity and reliability of the findings.
• Accessibility: Research reports may be written in technical or academic language, which can limit their accessibility to a wider audience. Additionally, some research may be behind paywalls or require specialized access, which can limit the ability of others to read and use the findings.

About the author

Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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Microsoft 365 Life Hacks > Writing > How to write an introduction for a research paper

How to write an introduction for a research paper

Beginnings are hard. Beginning a research paper is no exception. Many students—and pros—struggle with how to write an introduction for a research paper.

This short guide will describe the purpose of a research paper introduction and how to create a good one.

What is an introduction for a research paper?

Introductions to research papers do a lot of work.

It may seem obvious, but introductions are always placed at the beginning of a paper. They guide your reader from a general subject area to the narrow topic that your paper covers. They also explain your paper’s:

• Scope: The topic you’ll be covering
• Context: The background of your topic
• Importance: Why your research matters in the context of an industry or the world

Your introduction will cover a lot of ground. However, it will only be half of a page to a few pages long. The length depends on the size of your paper as a whole. In many cases, the introduction will be shorter than all of the other sections of your paper.

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Why is an introduction vital to a research paper?

The introduction to your research paper isn’t just important. It’s critical.

Your readers don’t know what your research paper is about from the title. That’s where your introduction comes in. A good introduction will:

• Help your reader understand your topic’s background
• Explain why your research paper is worth reading
• Offer a guide for navigating the rest of the piece
• Pique your reader’s interest

Without a clear introduction, your readers will struggle. They may feel confused when they start reading your paper. They might even give up entirely. Your introduction will ground them and prepare them for the in-depth research to come.

What should you include in an introduction for a research paper?

Research paper introductions are always unique. After all, research is original by definition. However, they often contain six essential items. These are:

• An overview of the topic. Start with a general overview of your topic. Narrow the overview until you address your paper’s specific subject. Then, mention questions or concerns you had about the case. Note that you will address them in the publication.
• Prior research. Your introduction is the place to review other conclusions on your topic. Include both older scholars and modern scholars. This background information shows that you are aware of prior research. It also introduces past findings to those who might not have that expertise.
• A rationale for your paper. Explain why your topic needs to be addressed right now. If applicable, connect it to current issues. Additionally, you can show a problem with former theories or reveal a gap in current research. No matter how you do it, a good rationale will interest your readers and demonstrate why they must read the rest of your paper.
• Describe the methodology you used. Recount your processes to make your paper more credible. Lay out your goal and the questions you will address. Reveal how you conducted research and describe how you measured results. Moreover, explain why you made key choices.
• A thesis statement. Your main introduction should end with a thesis statement. This statement summarizes the ideas that will run through your entire research article. It should be straightforward and clear.
• An outline. Introductions often conclude with an outline. Your layout should quickly review what you intend to cover in the following sections. Think of it as a roadmap, guiding your reader to the end of your paper.

These six items are emphasized more or less, depending on your field. For example, a physics research paper might emphasize methodology. An English journal article might highlight the overview.

Three tips for writing your introduction

We don’t just want you to learn how to write an introduction for a research paper. We want you to learn how to make it shine.

There are three things you can do that will make it easier to write a great introduction. You can:

• Write your introduction last. An introduction summarizes all of the things you’ve learned from your research. While it can feel good to get your preface done quickly, you should write the rest of your paper first. Then, you’ll find it easy to create a clear overview.
• Include a strong quotation or story upfront. You want your paper to be full of substance. But that doesn’t mean it should feel boring or flat. Add a relevant quotation or surprising anecdote to the beginning of your introduction. This technique will pique the interest of your reader and leave them wanting more.
• Be concise. Research papers cover complex topics. To help your readers, try to write as clearly as possible. Use concise sentences. Check for confusing grammar or syntax . Read your introduction out loud to catch awkward phrases. Before you finish your paper, be sure to proofread, too. Mistakes can seem unprofessional.

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Review Introduction in Complete Dissertation Examples Here

In this step-by-step guide, we'll teach you how to write a report introduction that will get your readers excited about what's to come. It is a skill; mastering it can be the difference between a good and bad report.

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A report is an academic document that contains data or findings from an investigation. Reports are usually used to communicate the results of a business project, scientific study, or research effort. Reports typically include a section of the executive summary, followed by sections that provide more detailed information.

Explore What is the Goal of Report Writing Here

The length and format of a report vary depending on its purpose and audience. For example, an annual report for shareholders will be very different from a scientific one. Ultimately, the goal of any report is to provide clear and concise information about a particular subject.

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Structure of a Report

The structure of a report is very important in report writing conventions. The structure of a report is as follows.

1. Introduction

The introduction is the first section of a report and sets the tone for the rest of the document. The main objective of an introduction is to introduce your topic and get your readers interested in what you have to say.

2. Executive Summary

The executive summary is a short, concise overview of the findings or conclusions presented in a report. It's typically one or two paragraphs long and should be written last.

The body of a report contains all the detailed information about your topic. It can be divided into subsections if needed.

4. Conclusion

The conclusion wraps up the information presented in the body of the report and offers some final thoughts on the subject matter.

5. Appendices

Appendices are optional sections that contain additional information related to your topics, such as charts, graphs, tables, images, or data sets.

Role of Introduction in a Report

The purpose of an introduction in an academic report is to offer a clear, concise overview of the main points the report will address.

The introduction of a report is critical as it sets the stage for the rest of the report and provides your readers with a framework to understand your findings.

Learn More about What should Keep in Mind While Writing Introduction

It is important to remember that the introduction is not meant to be exhaustive; instead, its goal is to give the reader a basic understanding of what the report will cover.

It should state the overall purpose or goals of the report. It must provide a brief overview of the methods used to gather information and data for the report. Finally, the introduction should briefly touch on the key findings or takeaways from the report. By including these elements, you can ensure that your readers clearly understand your report's core.

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Characteristics of a well-written report introduction.

• The introduction should convey the purpose of the report.
• The introduction should provide an overview of the report's key points.
• The introduction should clarify why the topic is necessary or relevant.
• The introduction should define any key terms used in the report.
• The introduction's purpose is to set the tone for the rest of the report.
• The introduction should clarify what the reader can expect to find in the report.
• The introduction should be well-organized and easy to follow.
• The introduction should be no more than one or two paragraphs long.
• The introduction must end with a clear statement of the report's thesis or main argument.

Components of a Well-Written Introduction

There are three parts to a well-written introduction:

• The transition

The hook grabs the reader's attention with a brief report overview. The transition briefly explains how the hook relates to the rest of the report. The scope statement clearly and concisely states the report's leading authority.

Here's how to craft various parts of the introduction:

1. The Hook

The first part of a well-written introduction is the hook. The hook grabs the reader's attention and gives them a reason to keep reading. It can be a crucial statistic, important background information, and an overview of the topic in consideration.

2. The Transition

The second part of a well-written introduction is the transition. The transition connects the hook to the purpose of the report. In this part, write about what to expect from the report.

3. The Scope

A well-written introduction's third and final part describes the report's scope. You should briefly discuss the data collection methods, analysis, and results of the report.

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Steps of writing a report introduction, 1: introduce the topic of the report.

Present your report's topic and explain it briefly to familiarize the reader with the topic of the report. The concise way to introduce it is by explaining the background of the title and elaborating on the outcome.

 2. Summarize the Main Points Covered in the Report

In the second step, provide a summary of your key points, sections, results, and discussions of the report.

3. State the Purpose of the Report

Step 3 should describe the aim and purpose of your report. Use concise language and expressive verbs. Avoid jargon, ambiguities, and technical complexities early in your report.

4. Preview the Main Findings of the Report

In the final step of your report introduction, tell your readers what results you gained and what are the report's primary findings.

Template of the Report Introduction

You can follow this template to craft a concise and crisp introduction to your report.

"The purpose of this report is to (explain what the report will be about). This report will (give an overview of what the report will cover). The methodology used in this report is (explain how the report was created). The findings of this report are based on (describe what the report found). This report concludes with (give a summary of the report's conclusions)."

To conclude, writing a report introduction can make or break your complete report analysis. Therefore, the said recommendations must be followed to stand out in your report writing. 

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How to Write the Introduction to a Scientific Paper?

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• First Online: 24 October 2021

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• Samiran Nundy 4 ,
• Atul Kakar 5 &
• Zulfiqar A. Bhutta 6  

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An Introduction to a scientific paper familiarizes the reader with the background of the issue at hand. It must reflect why the issue is topical and its current importance in the vast sea of research being done globally. It lays the foundation of biomedical writing and is the first portion of an article according to the IMRAD pattern ( I ntroduction, M ethodology, R esults, a nd D iscussion) [1].

I once had a professor tell a class that he sifted through our pile of essays, glancing at the titles and introductions, looking for something that grabbed his attention. Everything else went to the bottom of the pile to be read last, when he was tired and probably grumpy from all the marking. Don’t get put at the bottom of the pile, he said. Anonymous

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The Introduction Section

Abstract and Keywords

Writing and publishing a scientific paper

Fritz Scholz

1 What is the Importance of an Introduction?

An Introduction to a scientific paper familiarizes the reader with the background of the issue at hand. It must reflect why the issue is topical and its current importance in the vast sea of research being done globally. It lays the foundation of biomedical writing and is the first portion of an article according to the IMRAD pattern ( I ntroduction, M ethodology, R esults, a nd D iscussion) [ 1 ].

It provides the flavour of the article and many authors have used phrases to describe it for example—'like a gate of the city’ [ 2 ], ‘the beginning is half of the whole’ [ 3 ], ‘an introduction is not just wrestling with words to fit the facts, but it also strongly modulated by perception of the anticipated reactions of peer colleagues’, [ 4 ] and ‘an introduction is like the trailer to a movie’. A good introduction helps captivate the reader early.

2 What Are the Principles of Writing a Good Introduction?

A good introduction will ‘sell’ an article to a journal editor, reviewer, and finally to a reader [ 3 ]. It should contain the following information [ 5 , 6 ]:

The known—The background scientific data

The unknown—Gaps in the current knowledge

Research hypothesis or question

Methodologies used for the study

The known consist of citations from a review of the literature whereas the unknown is the new work to be undertaken. This part should address how your work is the required missing piece of the puzzle.

3 What Are the Models of Writing an Introduction?

The Problem-solving model

First described by Swales et al. in 1979, in this model the writer should identify the ‘problem’ in the research, address the ‘solution’ and also write about ‘the criteria for evaluating the problem’ [ 7 , 8 ].

The CARS model that stands for C reating A R esearch S pace [ 9 , 10 ].

The two important components of this model are:

Establishing a territory (situation)

Establishing a niche (problem)

Occupying a niche (the solution)

In this popular model, one can add a fourth point, i.e., a conclusion [ 10 ].

4 What Is Establishing a Territory?

This includes: [ 9 ]

Stating the general topic and providing some background about it.

Providing a brief and relevant review of the literature related to the topic.

Adding a paragraph on the scope of the topic including the need for your study.

5 What Is Establishing a Niche?

Establishing a niche includes:

Stating the importance of the problem.

Outlining the current situation regarding the problem citing both global and national data.

Evaluating the current situation (advantages/ disadvantages).

Identifying the gaps.

Emphasizing the importance of the proposed research and how the gaps will be addressed.

Stating the research problem/ questions.

Stating the hypotheses briefly.

Figure 17.1 depicts how the introduction needs to be written. A scientific paper should have an introduction in the form of an inverted pyramid. The writer should start with the general information about the topic and subsequently narrow it down to the specific topic-related introduction.

Flow of ideas from the general to the specific

6 What Does Occupying a Niche Mean?

This is the third portion of the introduction and defines the rationale of the research and states the research question. If this is missing the reviewers will not understand the logic for publication and is a common reason for rejection [ 11 , 12 ]. An example of this is given below:

Till date, no study has been done to see the effectiveness of a mesh alone or the effectiveness of double suturing along with a mesh in the closure of an umbilical hernia regarding the incidence of failure. So, the present study is aimed at comparing the effectiveness of a mesh alone versus the double suturing technique along with a mesh.

7 How Long Should the Introduction Be?

For a project protocol, the introduction should be about 1–2 pages long and for a thesis it should be 3–5 pages in a double-spaced typed setting. For a scientific paper it should be less than 10–15% of the total length of the manuscript [ 13 , 14 ].

8 How Many References Should an Introduction Have?

All sections in a scientific manuscript except the conclusion should contain references. It has been suggested that an introduction should have four or five or at the most one-third of the references in the whole paper [ 15 ].

9 What Are the Important Points Which Should be not Missed in an Introduction?

An introduction paves the way forward for the subsequent sections of the article. Frequently well-planned studies are rejected by journals during review because of the simple reason that the authors failed to clarify the data in this section to justify the study [ 16 , 17 ]. Thus, the existing gap in knowledge should be clearly brought out in this section (Fig. 17.2 ).

How should the abstract, introduction, and discussion look

The following points are important to consider:

The introduction should be written in simple sentences and in the present tense.

Many of the terms will be introduced in this section for the first time and these will require abbreviations to be used later.

The references in this section should be to papers published in quality journals (e.g., having a high impact factor).

The aims, problems, and hypotheses should be clearly mentioned.

Start with a generalization on the topic and go on to specific information relevant to your research.

10 Example of an Introduction

11 Conclusions

An Introduction is a brief account of what the study is about. It should be short, crisp, and complete.

It has to move from a general to a specific research topic and must include the need for the present study.

The Introduction should include data from a literature search, i.e., what is already known about this subject and progress to what we hope to add to this knowledge.

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Nundy, S., Kakar, A., Bhutta, Z.A. (2022). How to Write the Introduction to a Scientific Paper?. In: How to Practice Academic Medicine and Publish from Developing Countries?. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5248-6_17

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How To Write A Report Introduction: An Academic Guide

By Laura Brown on 27th July 2023

You are definitely here to learn how to write an introduction to a report. So let’s answer it directly!

Well, an effective introduction of a report should succinctly introduce the topic, state the purpose and scope of the report, and provide a brief overview of the key points to be discussed . A report introduction should capture the reader’s interest and set the tone for the rest of the document.

This could be the summary of what should be included in a report introduction and how you can write it. But this summary is not enough to understand completely how you are going to start your report.

Since you are here, you must have got an academic report to tackle. Well, let’s start by talking about something that’s often overlooked but absolutely crucial – the introduction! Trust us, nailing the introduction can make a world of difference to your entire report.

Your report introduction is like the friendly handshake you offer to your readers. It sets the tone, gives an overview of what’s to come, and entices them to stick around for the good stuff. A well-crafted intro not only impresses your readers but also shows off your writing chops and analytical skills.

So, let’s dive into the world of introductions and make your reports shine right from the very start! Get ready to captivate your audience and make your mark in the educational realm. Let’s go!

1. First, Understand The Purpose Of Your Report

To embark on successful academic writing , it’s crucial to grasp the essence of your report’s purpose. Reports come in various types, including essays, research papers, case studies, and many more! Each type requires a tailored approach to crafting a report introduction that captivates your readers.

Once you have identified the type of report you have got to prepare, the second most important thing is to understand why you have been given this report. What is the purpose, and what could be the possible outcome of completing this report.

2. Analyse The Target Audience

Audience engagement is a critical aspect of your report! Let’s shine a spotlight on your readers, who are the real heroes, and explore the art of tailoring your report introduction to captivate them.

It is really essential to consider the readers’ background and knowledge. Are they seasoned professors, fellow students, or professionals in a specific field? Understanding their perspectives helps you strike the perfect balance of technicality and simplicity in your introduction.

Crafting an introduction that speaks directly to your audience is the key. Inject enthusiasm, sprinkle relatable examples, and address their pain points . Use audience-savvy techniques, ensuring your introduction resonates with readers and leaves them eager to explore your entire report.

So, let’s dive in and charm your audience with an introduction they won’t forget! Let’s get started with how to write a report introduction!

3. Elements of a Strong Introduction

Before we head directly into how to start a report introduction, we need to understand some basic elements of the introduction of a report. A well-crafted introduction not only piques the interest of the readers but also sets the tone for the entire document. To achieve this, it should incorporate the following essential elements:

• Opening Hook or Attention-Grabber

The first few sentences of your introduction should captivate the reader’s attention and compel them to delve further into your report. An opening hook can take various forms, such as a thought-provoking question, a compelling statistic, a vivid anecdote, or a relevant and surprising fact.

• Contextualising the Report’s Topic

Following the attention-grabber, it is essential to provide the necessary context for your report’s topic. This contextualisation allows readers to grasp the background, relevance, and significance of the subject under investigation. Incorporate relevant historical, theoretical, or practical information to situate the report within its broader academic or real-world context.

• Thesis Statement or Main Objective

The thesis statement, often positioned at the end of the opening paragraph of the report introduction, concisely articulates the main objective or central argument of your report. It should be clear, specific, and focused, guiding readers on what they can expect to explore further in the document. A strong thesis statement sets the direction for the entire report, providing a roadmap for readers to navigate the subsequent sections with a clear understanding of the primary purpose.

• Overview of Report Structure and Sections

To facilitate navigation and comprehension, it is crucial to provide readers with an overview of the report’s structure and its key sections. This section-by-section outline acts as a guide, giving readers a glimpse of the organisation and flow of the report.

By skillfully incorporating these elements, your introduction will establish a strong groundwork for your report, fostering engagement and understanding throughout its entirety. Now we can move on with your actual question, how to write an introduction for an academic report! After reading this guide, if you still find anything difficult, you can always contact our report writing service for 24/7 assistance.

4. Crafting the Opening Hook

The art of crafting an engaging opening hook lies in its ability to seize the reader’s attention from the outset. Anecdotes and real-life examples breathe life into the report , making complex topics relatable and captivating for your readers. As you go on to illustrate the practical implications of the subject matter, your readers can immediately connect with the content. It will allow you to foster a sense of curiosity to explore further.

In addition to anecdotes, you should incorporate relevant statistics or data. It infuses credibility and significance into the introduction. Numbers possess a persuasive power, shedding light on the magnitude of an issue and underscoring the urgency of the report’s focus. Thought-provoking questions, on the other hand, spark introspection and stimulate critical thinking. Coupled with compelling quotes, they entice readers to contemplate the broader implications of the subject matter.

An effective opening hook in the report introduction, whether through anecdotes, statistics, or questions, sets the stage for an intellectually stimulating journey through the report’s core ideas. By capturing your reader’s imagination, the introduction paves the way for a rewarding exploration of the report’s findings and insights.

Since, students often search for how to write an introduction for a report example, here is one for you. The opening of the introduction could be like this:

In the age of digital interconnectedness, social media platforms have revolutionised the way we communicate, share information, and interact with others. The allure of virtual networks, however, comes hand in hand with growing concerns about their impact on mental health. As these platforms become an integral part of our daily lives, it is crucial to examine the intricate relationship between social media usage and its potential consequences on individuals’ psychological well-being, a pressing issue that forms the focal point of this academic report.

5. Providing Context for the Report

A well-contextualised introduction is paramount to the comprehension of the matter of the report. You should first delve into the background and history of the topic to provide readers with a comprehensive understanding of its evolution over time. This historical perspective lays the groundwork for appreciating the report’s relevance in the present context.

Moreover, describing the current relevance and significance of the topic bridges the gap between theory and practice. It highlights the practical implications and real-world applications, enticing readers to explore further. In addition to how to write a report introduction, it is essential to address the previous research or related studies to showcase the existing body of knowledge and identify gaps that the current report aims to fill.

By combining historical context, present-day relevance, and existing research, the introduction forges a clear pathway for readers to navigate through the report’s findings, enriching their understanding and appreciation of the subject matter.

Let’s have a look at an example from the sample report introduction:

The exponential rise of social media has transformed the dynamics of social interactions, communication, and information dissemination, transcending geographical boundaries. With billions of users actively engaging on platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, and TikTok, the implications on mental health have garnered significant attention from researchers, health professionals, and society at large. This report endeavours to delve into the multifaceted impacts of social media on mental health, analysing its effects on emotional well-being, self-esteem, and psychological distress.

6. Formulating a Clear Thesis Statement

As we go on to learn how to write an introduction of a report, we should know about the thesis statement. A strong thesis statement is like the backbone of your whole work. It’s the core purpose and focus of what you are doing. When you define the main objective and scope in your thesis, it gives your readers a sneak peek into what you are trying to achieve.

To make it effective, keep the thesis concise and specific. Avoid any vagueness or ambiguity . This will help sharpen the direction of the report and guide your readers to understand the main argument better.

When your thesis aligns with the objectives of your report, everything flows more smoothly. It acts as a navigational tool, guiding you and your readers through all the details and helping everyone grasp the subject matter better. So, get ready to make your report shine with a killer thesis statement!

Let’s have an example of a thesis statement from the introduction of a report:

This report aims to explore the complexities of the relationship between social media usage and mental health, considering both positive and negative aspects. By synthesising existing research, psychological theories, and empirical evidence, we seek to shed light on the various mechanisms through which social media can influence mental health outcomes. Ultimately, this examination underscores the importance of promoting digital well-being and fostering responsible social media use for individuals of all ages.

7. Outlining the Report Structure

An effectively outlined report structure serves as a roadmap for readers. It gives readers a clear and organised overview of what’s inside. First off, listing the major sections or points give them a quick glimpse of how it’s all laid out.

And here’s the trick: a brief description of each section helps readers know what to expect. That way, they can read with focus and easily find what they need later.

When you highlight the logical progression of the report, it keeps everything flowing smoothly. Each section builds upon the previous ones, creating a cohesive narrative. This way, readers can get a comprehensive understanding of the topic.

Putting it all together, a well-structured report becomes a valuable guide for your readers. It leads them through all the details and ensures a rewarding and informed reading experience.

Do’s & Don’ts of How to Make a Report Introduction

Concluding on how to write a good introduction for a report.

A strong introduction forms the backbone of your report, as it plays a pivotal role in engaging readers and guiding their journey through the study’s contents. By recapitulating the significance of a well-crafted introduction, we underscore how it captivates readers from the outset, fostering their interest and curiosity.

The introduction sets the tone for the entire report, shaping readers’ perceptions and expectations. As this guide highlights the key elements for creating an effective introduction and how to start writing a report introduction, we encourage students to apply these principles to their own reports. By doing so, they can elevate the impact of their work, leaving a lasting impression on their readers.

We hope that this guide will help you through the introduction process. You can further go on to read how to write a conclusion for a report , so that you can create an excellent report for you.

Laura Brown, a senior content writer who writes actionable blogs at Crowd Writer.

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Abstract: In 2020, I designed the course CMSC 20630/30630 Human-Robot Interaction: Research and Practice as a hands-on introduction to human-robot interaction (HRI) research for both undergraduate and graduate students at the University of Chicago. Since 2020, I have taught and refined this course each academic year. Human-Robot Interaction: Research and Practice focuses on the core concepts and cutting-edge research in the field of human-robot interaction (HRI), covering topics that include: nonverbal robot behavior, verbal robot behavior, social dynamics, norms & ethics, collaboration & learning, group interactions, applications, and future challenges of HRI. Course meetings involve students in the class leading discussions about cutting-edge peer-reviewed research HRI publications. Students also participate in a quarter-long collaborative research project, where they pursue an HRI research question that often involves conducing their own human-subjects research study where they recruit human subjects to interact with a robot. In this paper, I detail the structure of the course and its learning goals as well as my reflections and student feedback on the course.

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The perception and appreciation of food flavor depends on many interacting chemical compounds and external factors, and therefore proves challenging to understand and predict. Here, we combine extensive chemical and sensory analyses of 250 different beers to train machine learning models that allow predicting flavor and consumer appreciation. For each beer, we measure over 200 chemical properties, perform quantitative descriptive sensory analysis with a trained tasting panel and map data from over 180,000 consumer reviews to train 10 different machine learning models. The best-performing algorithm, Gradient Boosting, yields models that significantly outperform predictions based on conventional statistics and accurately predict complex food features and consumer appreciation from chemical profiles. Model dissection allows identifying specific and unexpected compounds as drivers of beer flavor and appreciation. Adding these compounds results in variants of commercial alcoholic and non-alcoholic beers with improved consumer appreciation. Together, our study reveals how big data and machine learning uncover complex links between food chemistry, flavor and consumer perception, and lays the foundation to develop novel, tailored foods with superior flavors.

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Rudraksh Tuwani, Somin Wadhwa & Ganesh Bagler

Sensory lexicon and aroma volatiles analysis of brewing malt

Xiaoxia Su, Miao Yu, … Tianyi Du

Predicting odor from molecular structure: a multi-label classification approach

Kushagra Saini & Venkatnarayan Ramanathan

Introduction

Predicting and understanding food perception and appreciation is one of the major challenges in food science. Accurate modeling of food flavor and appreciation could yield important opportunities for both producers and consumers, including quality control, product fingerprinting, counterfeit detection, spoilage detection, and the development of new products and product combinations (food pairing) 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 . Accurate models for flavor and consumer appreciation would contribute greatly to our scientific understanding of how humans perceive and appreciate flavor. Moreover, accurate predictive models would also facilitate and standardize existing food assessment methods and could supplement or replace assessments by trained and consumer tasting panels, which are variable, expensive and time-consuming 7 , 8 , 9 . Lastly, apart from providing objective, quantitative, accurate and contextual information that can help producers, models can also guide consumers in understanding their personal preferences 10 .

Despite the myriad of applications, predicting food flavor and appreciation from its chemical properties remains a largely elusive goal in sensory science, especially for complex food and beverages 11 , 12 . A key obstacle is the immense number of flavor-active chemicals underlying food flavor. Flavor compounds can vary widely in chemical structure and concentration, making them technically challenging and labor-intensive to quantify, even in the face of innovations in metabolomics, such as non-targeted metabolic fingerprinting 13 , 14 . Moreover, sensory analysis is perhaps even more complicated. Flavor perception is highly complex, resulting from hundreds of different molecules interacting at the physiochemical and sensorial level. Sensory perception is often non-linear, characterized by complex and concentration-dependent synergistic and antagonistic effects 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 19 , 20 , 21 that are further convoluted by the genetics, environment, culture and psychology of consumers 22 , 23 , 24 . Perceived flavor is therefore difficult to measure, with problems of sensitivity, accuracy, and reproducibility that can only be resolved by gathering sufficiently large datasets 25 . Trained tasting panels are considered the prime source of quality sensory data, but require meticulous training, are low throughput and high cost. Public databases containing consumer reviews of food products could provide a valuable alternative, especially for studying appreciation scores, which do not require formal training 25 . Public databases offer the advantage of amassing large amounts of data, increasing the statistical power to identify potential drivers of appreciation. However, public datasets suffer from biases, including a bias in the volunteers that contribute to the database, as well as confounding factors such as price, cult status and psychological conformity towards previous ratings of the product.

Classical multivariate statistics and machine learning methods have been used to predict flavor of specific compounds by, for example, linking structural properties of a compound to its potential biological activities or linking concentrations of specific compounds to sensory profiles 1 , 26 . Importantly, most previous studies focused on predicting organoleptic properties of single compounds (often based on their chemical structure) 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 , 32 , 33 , thus ignoring the fact that these compounds are present in a complex matrix in food or beverages and excluding complex interactions between compounds. Moreover, the classical statistics commonly used in sensory science 34 , 35 , 36 , 37 , 38 , 39 require a large sample size and sufficient variance amongst predictors to create accurate models. They are not fit for studying an extensive set of hundreds of interacting flavor compounds, since they are sensitive to outliers, have a high tendency to overfit and are less suited for non-linear and discontinuous relationships 40 .

In this study, we combine extensive chemical analyses and sensory data of a set of different commercial beers with machine learning approaches to develop models that predict taste, smell, mouthfeel and appreciation from compound concentrations. Beer is particularly suited to model the relationship between chemistry, flavor and appreciation. First, beer is a complex product, consisting of thousands of flavor compounds that partake in complex sensory interactions 41 , 42 , 43 . This chemical diversity arises from the raw materials (malt, yeast, hops, water and spices) and biochemical conversions during the brewing process (kilning, mashing, boiling, fermentation, maturation and aging) 44 , 45 . Second, the advent of the internet saw beer consumers embrace online review platforms, such as RateBeer (ZX Ventures, Anheuser-Busch InBev SA/NV) and BeerAdvocate (Next Glass, inc.). In this way, the beer community provides massive data sets of beer flavor and appreciation scores, creating extraordinarily large sensory databases to complement the analyses of our professional sensory panel. Specifically, we characterize over 200 chemical properties of 250 commercial beers, spread across 22 beer styles, and link these to the descriptive sensory profiling data of a 16-person in-house trained tasting panel and data acquired from over 180,000 public consumer reviews. These unique and extensive datasets enable us to train a suite of machine learning models to predict flavor and appreciation from a beer’s chemical profile. Dissection of the best-performing models allows us to pinpoint specific compounds as potential drivers of beer flavor and appreciation. Follow-up experiments confirm the importance of these compounds and ultimately allow us to significantly improve the flavor and appreciation of selected commercial beers. Together, our study represents a significant step towards understanding complex flavors and reinforces the value of machine learning to develop and refine complex foods. In this way, it represents a stepping stone for further computer-aided food engineering applications 46 .

To generate a comprehensive dataset on beer flavor, we selected 250 commercial Belgian beers across 22 different beer styles (Supplementary Fig.  S1 ). Beers with ≤ 4.2% alcohol by volume (ABV) were classified as non-alcoholic and low-alcoholic. Blonds and Tripels constitute a significant portion of the dataset (12.4% and 11.2%, respectively) reflecting their presence on the Belgian beer market and the heterogeneity of beers within these styles. By contrast, lager beers are less diverse and dominated by a handful of brands. Rare styles such as Brut or Faro make up only a small fraction of the dataset (2% and 1%, respectively) because fewer of these beers are produced and because they are dominated by distinct characteristics in terms of flavor and chemical composition.

Extensive analysis identifies relationships between chemical compounds in beer

For each beer, we measured 226 different chemical properties, including common brewing parameters such as alcohol content, iso-alpha acids, pH, sugar concentration 47 , and over 200 flavor compounds (Methods, Supplementary Table  S1 ). A large portion (37.2%) are terpenoids arising from hopping, responsible for herbal and fruity flavors 16 , 48 . A second major category are yeast metabolites, such as esters and alcohols, that result in fruity and solvent notes 48 , 49 , 50 . Other measured compounds are primarily derived from malt, or other microbes such as non- Saccharomyces yeasts and bacteria (‘wild flora’). Compounds that arise from spices or staling are labeled under ‘Others’. Five attributes (caloric value, total acids and total ester, hop aroma and sulfur compounds) are calculated from multiple individually measured compounds.

As a first step in identifying relationships between chemical properties, we determined correlations between the concentrations of the compounds (Fig.  1 , upper panel, Supplementary Data  1 and 2 , and Supplementary Fig.  S2 . For the sake of clarity, only a subset of the measured compounds is shown in Fig.  1 ). Compounds of the same origin typically show a positive correlation, while absence of correlation hints at parameters varying independently. For example, the hop aroma compounds citronellol, and alpha-terpineol show moderate correlations with each other (Spearman’s rho=0.39 and 0.57), but not with the bittering hop component iso-alpha acids (Spearman’s rho=0.16 and −0.07). This illustrates how brewers can independently modify hop aroma and bitterness by selecting hop varieties and dosage time. If hops are added early in the boiling phase, chemical conversions increase bitterness while aromas evaporate, conversely, late addition of hops preserves aroma but limits bitterness 51 . Similarly, hop-derived iso-alpha acids show a strong anti-correlation with lactic acid and acetic acid, likely reflecting growth inhibition of lactic acid and acetic acid bacteria, or the consequent use of fewer hops in sour beer styles, such as West Flanders ales and Fruit beers, that rely on these bacteria for their distinct flavors 52 . Finally, yeast-derived esters (ethyl acetate, ethyl decanoate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl octanoate) and alcohols (ethanol, isoamyl alcohol, isobutanol, and glycerol), correlate with Spearman coefficients above 0.5, suggesting that these secondary metabolites are correlated with the yeast genetic background and/or fermentation parameters and may be difficult to influence individually, although the choice of yeast strain may offer some control 53 .

Spearman rank correlations are shown. Descriptors are grouped according to their origin (malt (blue), hops (green), yeast (red), wild flora (yellow), Others (black)), and sensory aspect (aroma, taste, palate, and overall appreciation). Please note that for the chemical compounds, for the sake of clarity, only a subset of the total number of measured compounds is shown, with an emphasis on the key compounds for each source. For more details, see the main text and Methods section. Chemical data can be found in Supplementary Data  1 , correlations between all chemical compounds are depicted in Supplementary Fig.  S2 and correlation values can be found in Supplementary Data  2 . See Supplementary Data  4 for sensory panel assessments and Supplementary Data  5 for correlation values between all sensory descriptors.

Interestingly, different beer styles show distinct patterns for some flavor compounds (Supplementary Fig.  S3 ). These observations agree with expectations for key beer styles, and serve as a control for our measurements. For instance, Stouts generally show high values for color (darker), while hoppy beers contain elevated levels of iso-alpha acids, compounds associated with bitter hop taste. Acetic and lactic acid are not prevalent in most beers, with notable exceptions such as Kriek, Lambic, Faro, West Flanders ales and Flanders Old Brown, which use acid-producing bacteria ( Lactobacillus and Pediococcus ) or unconventional yeast ( Brettanomyces ) 54 , 55 . Glycerol, ethanol and esters show similar distributions across all beer styles, reflecting their common origin as products of yeast metabolism during fermentation 45 , 53 . Finally, low/no-alcohol beers contain low concentrations of glycerol and esters. This is in line with the production process for most of the low/no-alcohol beers in our dataset, which are produced through limiting fermentation or by stripping away alcohol via evaporation or dialysis, with both methods having the unintended side-effect of reducing the amount of flavor compounds in the final beer 56 , 57 .

Besides expected associations, our data also reveals less trivial associations between beer styles and specific parameters. For example, geraniol and citronellol, two monoterpenoids responsible for citrus, floral and rose flavors and characteristic of Citra hops, are found in relatively high amounts in Christmas, Saison, and Brett/co-fermented beers, where they may originate from terpenoid-rich spices such as coriander seeds instead of hops 58 .

Tasting panel assessments reveal sensorial relationships in beer

To assess the sensory profile of each beer, a trained tasting panel evaluated each of the 250 beers for 50 sensory attributes, including different hop, malt and yeast flavors, off-flavors and spices. Panelists used a tasting sheet (Supplementary Data  3 ) to score the different attributes. Panel consistency was evaluated by repeating 12 samples across different sessions and performing ANOVA. In 95% of cases no significant difference was found across sessions ( p  > 0.05), indicating good panel consistency (Supplementary Table  S2 ).

Aroma and taste perception reported by the trained panel are often linked (Fig.  1 , bottom left panel and Supplementary Data  4 and 5 ), with high correlations between hops aroma and taste (Spearman’s rho=0.83). Bitter taste was found to correlate with hop aroma and taste in general (Spearman’s rho=0.80 and 0.69), and particularly with “grassy” noble hops (Spearman’s rho=0.75). Barnyard flavor, most often associated with sour beers, is identified together with stale hops (Spearman’s rho=0.97) that are used in these beers. Lactic and acetic acid, which often co-occur, are correlated (Spearman’s rho=0.66). Interestingly, sweetness and bitterness are anti-correlated (Spearman’s rho = −0.48), confirming the hypothesis that they mask each other 59 , 60 . Beer body is highly correlated with alcohol (Spearman’s rho = 0.79), and overall appreciation is found to correlate with multiple aspects that describe beer mouthfeel (alcohol, carbonation; Spearman’s rho= 0.32, 0.39), as well as with hop and ester aroma intensity (Spearman’s rho=0.39 and 0.35).

Similar to the chemical analyses, sensorial analyses confirmed typical features of specific beer styles (Supplementary Fig.  S4 ). For example, sour beers (Faro, Flanders Old Brown, Fruit beer, Kriek, Lambic, West Flanders ale) were rated acidic, with flavors of both acetic and lactic acid. Hoppy beers were found to be bitter and showed hop-associated aromas like citrus and tropical fruit. Malt taste is most detected among scotch, stout/porters, and strong ales, while low/no-alcohol beers, which often have a reputation for being ‘worty’ (reminiscent of unfermented, sweet malt extract) appear in the middle. Unsurprisingly, hop aromas are most strongly detected among hoppy beers. Like its chemical counterpart (Supplementary Fig.  S3 ), acidity shows a right-skewed distribution, with the most acidic beers being Krieks, Lambics, and West Flanders ales.

Tasting panel assessments of specific flavors correlate with chemical composition

We find that the concentrations of several chemical compounds strongly correlate with specific aroma or taste, as evaluated by the tasting panel (Fig.  2 , Supplementary Fig.  S5 , Supplementary Data  6 ). In some cases, these correlations confirm expectations and serve as a useful control for data quality. For example, iso-alpha acids, the bittering compounds in hops, strongly correlate with bitterness (Spearman’s rho=0.68), while ethanol and glycerol correlate with tasters’ perceptions of alcohol and body, the mouthfeel sensation of fullness (Spearman’s rho=0.82/0.62 and 0.72/0.57 respectively) and darker color from roasted malts is a good indication of malt perception (Spearman’s rho=0.54).

Heatmap colors indicate Spearman’s Rho. Axes are organized according to sensory categories (aroma, taste, mouthfeel, overall), chemical categories and chemical sources in beer (malt (blue), hops (green), yeast (red), wild flora (yellow), Others (black)). See Supplementary Data  6 for all correlation values.

Interestingly, for some relationships between chemical compounds and perceived flavor, correlations are weaker than expected. For example, the rose-smelling phenethyl acetate only weakly correlates with floral aroma. This hints at more complex relationships and interactions between compounds and suggests a need for a more complex model than simple correlations. Lastly, we uncovered unexpected correlations. For instance, the esters ethyl decanoate and ethyl octanoate appear to correlate slightly with hop perception and bitterness, possibly due to their fruity flavor. Iron is anti-correlated with hop aromas and bitterness, most likely because it is also anti-correlated with iso-alpha acids. This could be a sign of metal chelation of hop acids 61 , given that our analyses measure unbound hop acids and total iron content, or could result from the higher iron content in dark and Fruit beers, which typically have less hoppy and bitter flavors 62 .

Public consumer reviews complement expert panel data

To complement and expand the sensory data of our trained tasting panel, we collected 180,000 reviews of our 250 beers from the online consumer review platform RateBeer. This provided numerical scores for beer appearance, aroma, taste, palate, overall quality as well as the average overall score.

Public datasets are known to suffer from biases, such as price, cult status and psychological conformity towards previous ratings of a product. For example, prices correlate with appreciation scores for these online consumer reviews (rho=0.49, Supplementary Fig.  S6 ), but not for our trained tasting panel (rho=0.19). This suggests that prices affect consumer appreciation, which has been reported in wine 63 , while blind tastings are unaffected. Moreover, we observe that some beer styles, like lagers and non-alcoholic beers, generally receive lower scores, reflecting that online reviewers are mostly beer aficionados with a preference for specialty beers over lager beers. In general, we find a modest correlation between our trained panel’s overall appreciation score and the online consumer appreciation scores (Fig.  3 , rho=0.29). Apart from the aforementioned biases in the online datasets, serving temperature, sample freshness and surroundings, which are all tightly controlled during the tasting panel sessions, can vary tremendously across online consumers and can further contribute to (among others, appreciation) differences between the two categories of tasters. Importantly, in contrast to the overall appreciation scores, for many sensory aspects the results from the professional panel correlated well with results obtained from RateBeer reviews. Correlations were highest for features that are relatively easy to recognize even for untrained tasters, like bitterness, sweetness, alcohol and malt aroma (Fig.  3 and below).

RateBeer text mining results can be found in Supplementary Data  7 . Rho values shown are Spearman correlation values, with asterisks indicating significant correlations ( p  < 0.05, two-sided). All p values were smaller than 0.001, except for Esters aroma (0.0553), Esters taste (0.3275), Esters aroma—banana (0.0019), Coriander (0.0508) and Diacetyl (0.0134).

Besides collecting consumer appreciation from these online reviews, we developed automated text analysis tools to gather additional data from review texts (Supplementary Data  7 ). Processing review texts on the RateBeer database yielded comparable results to the scores given by the trained panel for many common sensory aspects, including acidity, bitterness, sweetness, alcohol, malt, and hop tastes (Fig.  3 ). This is in line with what would be expected, since these attributes require less training for accurate assessment and are less influenced by environmental factors such as temperature, serving glass and odors in the environment. Consumer reviews also correlate well with our trained panel for 4-vinyl guaiacol, a compound associated with a very characteristic aroma. By contrast, correlations for more specific aromas like ester, coriander or diacetyl are underrepresented in the online reviews, underscoring the importance of using a trained tasting panel and standardized tasting sheets with explicit factors to be scored for evaluating specific aspects of a beer. Taken together, our results suggest that public reviews are trustworthy for some, but not all, flavor features and can complement or substitute taste panel data for these sensory aspects.

Models can predict beer sensory profiles from chemical data

The rich datasets of chemical analyses, tasting panel assessments and public reviews gathered in the first part of this study provided us with a unique opportunity to develop predictive models that link chemical data to sensorial features. Given the complexity of beer flavor, basic statistical tools such as correlations or linear regression may not always be the most suitable for making accurate predictions. Instead, we applied different machine learning models that can model both simple linear and complex interactive relationships. Specifically, we constructed a set of regression models to predict (a) trained panel scores for beer flavor and quality and (b) public reviews’ appreciation scores from beer chemical profiles. We trained and tested 10 different models (Methods), 3 linear regression-based models (simple linear regression with first-order interactions (LR), lasso regression with first-order interactions (Lasso), partial least squares regressor (PLSR)), 5 decision tree models (AdaBoost regressor (ABR), extra trees (ET), gradient boosting regressor (GBR), random forest (RF) and XGBoost regressor (XGBR)), 1 support vector regression (SVR), and 1 artificial neural network (ANN) model.

To compare the performance of our machine learning models, the dataset was randomly split into a training and test set, stratified by beer style. After a model was trained on data in the training set, its performance was evaluated on its ability to predict the test dataset obtained from multi-output models (based on the coefficient of determination, see Methods). Additionally, individual-attribute models were ranked per descriptor and the average rank was calculated, as proposed by Korneva et al. 64 . Importantly, both ways of evaluating the models’ performance agreed in general. Performance of the different models varied (Table  1 ). It should be noted that all models perform better at predicting RateBeer results than results from our trained tasting panel. One reason could be that sensory data is inherently variable, and this variability is averaged out with the large number of public reviews from RateBeer. Additionally, all tree-based models perform better at predicting taste than aroma. Linear models (LR) performed particularly poorly, with negative R 2 values, due to severe overfitting (training set R 2  = 1). Overfitting is a common issue in linear models with many parameters and limited samples, especially with interaction terms further amplifying the number of parameters. L1 regularization (Lasso) successfully overcomes this overfitting, out-competing multiple tree-based models on the RateBeer dataset. Similarly, the dimensionality reduction of PLSR avoids overfitting and improves performance, to some extent. Still, tree-based models (ABR, ET, GBR, RF and XGBR) show the best performance, out-competing the linear models (LR, Lasso, PLSR) commonly used in sensory science 65 .

GBR models showed the best overall performance in predicting sensory responses from chemical information, with R 2 values up to 0.75 depending on the predicted sensory feature (Supplementary Table  S4 ). The GBR models predict consumer appreciation (RateBeer) better than our trained panel’s appreciation (R 2 value of 0.67 compared to R 2 value of 0.09) (Supplementary Table  S3 and Supplementary Table  S4 ). ANN models showed intermediate performance, likely because neural networks typically perform best with larger datasets 66 . The SVR shows intermediate performance, mostly due to the weak predictions of specific attributes that lower the overall performance (Supplementary Table  S4 ).

Model dissection identifies specific, unexpected compounds as drivers of consumer appreciation

Next, we leveraged our models to infer important contributors to sensory perception and consumer appreciation. Consumer preference is a crucial sensory aspects, because a product that shows low consumer appreciation scores often does not succeed commercially 25 . Additionally, the requirement for a large number of representative evaluators makes consumer trials one of the more costly and time-consuming aspects of product development. Hence, a model for predicting chemical drivers of overall appreciation would be a welcome addition to the available toolbox for food development and optimization.

Since GBR models on our RateBeer dataset showed the best overall performance, we focused on these models. Specifically, we used two approaches to identify important contributors. First, rankings of the most important predictors for each sensorial trait in the GBR models were obtained based on impurity-based feature importance (mean decrease in impurity). High-ranked parameters were hypothesized to be either the true causal chemical properties underlying the trait, to correlate with the actual causal properties, or to take part in sensory interactions affecting the trait 67 (Fig.  4A ). In a second approach, we used SHAP 68 to determine which parameters contributed most to the model for making predictions of consumer appreciation (Fig.  4B ). SHAP calculates parameter contributions to model predictions on a per-sample basis, which can be aggregated into an importance score.

A The impurity-based feature importance (mean deviance in impurity, MDI) calculated from the Gradient Boosting Regression (GBR) model predicting RateBeer appreciation scores. The top 15 highest ranked chemical properties are shown. B SHAP summary plot for the top 15 parameters contributing to our GBR model. Each point on the graph represents a sample from our dataset. The color represents the concentration of that parameter, with bluer colors representing low values and redder colors representing higher values. Greater absolute values on the horizontal axis indicate a higher impact of the parameter on the prediction of the model. C Spearman correlations between the 15 most important chemical properties and consumer overall appreciation. Numbers indicate the Spearman Rho correlation coefficient, and the rank of this correlation compared to all other correlations. The top 15 important compounds were determined using SHAP (panel B).

Both approaches identified ethyl acetate as the most predictive parameter for beer appreciation (Fig.  4 ). Ethyl acetate is the most abundant ester in beer with a typical ‘fruity’, ‘solvent’ and ‘alcoholic’ flavor, but is often considered less important than other esters like isoamyl acetate. The second most important parameter identified by SHAP is ethanol, the most abundant beer compound after water. Apart from directly contributing to beer flavor and mouthfeel, ethanol drastically influences the physical properties of beer, dictating how easily volatile compounds escape the beer matrix to contribute to beer aroma 69 . Importantly, it should also be noted that the importance of ethanol for appreciation is likely inflated by the very low appreciation scores of non-alcoholic beers (Supplementary Fig.  S4 ). Despite not often being considered a driver of beer appreciation, protein level also ranks highly in both approaches, possibly due to its effect on mouthfeel and body 70 . Lactic acid, which contributes to the tart taste of sour beers, is the fourth most important parameter identified by SHAP, possibly due to the generally high appreciation of sour beers in our dataset.

Interestingly, some of the most important predictive parameters for our model are not well-established as beer flavors or are even commonly regarded as being negative for beer quality. For example, our models identify methanethiol and ethyl phenyl acetate, an ester commonly linked to beer staling 71 , as a key factor contributing to beer appreciation. Although there is no doubt that high concentrations of these compounds are considered unpleasant, the positive effects of modest concentrations are not yet known 72 , 73 .

To compare our approach to conventional statistics, we evaluated how well the 15 most important SHAP-derived parameters correlate with consumer appreciation (Fig.  4C ). Interestingly, only 6 of the properties derived by SHAP rank amongst the top 15 most correlated parameters. For some chemical compounds, the correlations are so low that they would have likely been considered unimportant. For example, lactic acid, the fourth most important parameter, shows a bimodal distribution for appreciation, with sour beers forming a separate cluster, that is missed entirely by the Spearman correlation. Additionally, the correlation plots reveal outliers, emphasizing the need for robust analysis tools. Together, this highlights the need for alternative models, like the Gradient Boosting model, that better grasp the complexity of (beer) flavor.

Finally, to observe the relationships between these chemical properties and their predicted targets, partial dependence plots were constructed for the six most important predictors of consumer appreciation 74 , 75 , 76 (Supplementary Fig.  S7 ). One-way partial dependence plots show how a change in concentration affects the predicted appreciation. These plots reveal an important limitation of our models: appreciation predictions remain constant at ever-increasing concentrations. This implies that once a threshold concentration is reached, further increasing the concentration does not affect appreciation. This is false, as it is well-documented that certain compounds become unpleasant at high concentrations, including ethyl acetate (‘nail polish’) 77 and methanethiol (‘sulfury’ and ‘rotten cabbage’) 78 . The inability of our models to grasp that flavor compounds have optimal levels, above which they become negative, is a consequence of working with commercial beer brands where (off-)flavors are rarely too high to negatively impact the product. The two-way partial dependence plots show how changing the concentration of two compounds influences predicted appreciation, visualizing their interactions (Supplementary Fig.  S7 ). In our case, the top 5 parameters are dominated by additive or synergistic interactions, with high concentrations for both compounds resulting in the highest predicted appreciation.

To assess the robustness of our best-performing models and model predictions, we performed 100 iterations of the GBR, RF and ET models. In general, all iterations of the models yielded similar performance (Supplementary Fig.  S8 ). Moreover, the main predictors (including the top predictors ethanol and ethyl acetate) remained virtually the same, especially for GBR and RF. For the iterations of the ET model, we did observe more variation in the top predictors, which is likely a consequence of the model’s inherent random architecture in combination with co-correlations between certain predictors. However, even in this case, several of the top predictors (ethanol and ethyl acetate) remain unchanged, although their rank in importance changes (Supplementary Fig.  S8 ).

Next, we investigated if a combination of RateBeer and trained panel data into one consolidated dataset would lead to stronger models, under the hypothesis that such a model would suffer less from bias in the datasets. A GBR model was trained to predict appreciation on the combined dataset. This model underperformed compared to the RateBeer model, both in the native case and when including a dataset identifier (R 2  = 0.67, 0.26 and 0.42 respectively). For the latter, the dataset identifier is the most important feature (Supplementary Fig.  S9 ), while most of the feature importance remains unchanged, with ethyl acetate and ethanol ranking highest, like in the original model trained only on RateBeer data. It seems that the large variation in the panel dataset introduces noise, weakening the models’ performances and reliability. In addition, it seems reasonable to assume that both datasets are fundamentally different, with the panel dataset obtained by blind tastings by a trained professional panel.

Lastly, we evaluated whether beer style identifiers would further enhance the model’s performance. A GBR model was trained with parameters that explicitly encoded the styles of the samples. This did not improve model performance (R2 = 0.66 with style information vs R2 = 0.67). The most important chemical features are consistent with the model trained without style information (eg. ethanol and ethyl acetate), and with the exception of the most preferred (strong ale) and least preferred (low/no-alcohol) styles, none of the styles were among the most important features (Supplementary Fig.  S9 , Supplementary Table  S5 and S6 ). This is likely due to a combination of style-specific chemical signatures, such as iso-alpha acids and lactic acid, that implicitly convey style information to the original models, as well as the low number of samples belonging to some styles, making it difficult for the model to learn style-specific patterns. Moreover, beer styles are not rigorously defined, with some styles overlapping in features and some beers being misattributed to a specific style, all of which leads to more noise in models that use style parameters.

Model validation

To test if our predictive models give insight into beer appreciation, we set up experiments aimed at improving existing commercial beers. We specifically selected overall appreciation as the trait to be examined because of its complexity and commercial relevance. Beer flavor comprises a complex bouquet rather than single aromas and tastes 53 . Hence, adding a single compound to the extent that a difference is noticeable may lead to an unbalanced, artificial flavor. Therefore, we evaluated the effect of combinations of compounds. Because Blond beers represent the most extensive style in our dataset, we selected a beer from this style as the starting material for these experiments (Beer 64 in Supplementary Data  1 ).

In the first set of experiments, we adjusted the concentrations of compounds that made up the most important predictors of overall appreciation (ethyl acetate, ethanol, lactic acid, ethyl phenyl acetate) together with correlated compounds (ethyl hexanoate, isoamyl acetate, glycerol), bringing them up to 95 th percentile ethanol-normalized concentrations (Methods) within the Blond group (‘Spiked’ concentration in Fig.  5A ). Compared to controls, the spiked beers were found to have significantly improved overall appreciation among trained panelists, with panelist noting increased intensity of ester flavors, sweetness, alcohol, and body fullness (Fig.  5B ). To disentangle the contribution of ethanol to these results, a second experiment was performed without the addition of ethanol. This resulted in a similar outcome, including increased perception of alcohol and overall appreciation.

Adding the top chemical compounds, identified as best predictors of appreciation by our model, into poorly appreciated beers results in increased appreciation from our trained panel. Results of sensory tests between base beers and those spiked with compounds identified as the best predictors by the model. A Blond and Non/Low-alcohol (0.0% ABV) base beers were brought up to 95th-percentile ethanol-normalized concentrations within each style. B For each sensory attribute, tasters indicated the more intense sample and selected the sample they preferred. The numbers above the bars correspond to the p values that indicate significant changes in perceived flavor (two-sided binomial test: alpha 0.05, n  = 20 or 13).

In a last experiment, we tested whether using the model’s predictions can boost the appreciation of a non-alcoholic beer (beer 223 in Supplementary Data  1 ). Again, the addition of a mixture of predicted compounds (omitting ethanol, in this case) resulted in a significant increase in appreciation, body, ester flavor and sweetness.

Predicting flavor and consumer appreciation from chemical composition is one of the ultimate goals of sensory science. A reliable, systematic and unbiased way to link chemical profiles to flavor and food appreciation would be a significant asset to the food and beverage industry. Such tools would substantially aid in quality control and recipe development, offer an efficient and cost-effective alternative to pilot studies and consumer trials and would ultimately allow food manufacturers to produce superior, tailor-made products that better meet the demands of specific consumer groups more efficiently.

A limited set of studies have previously tried, to varying degrees of success, to predict beer flavor and beer popularity based on (a limited set of) chemical compounds and flavors 79 , 80 . Current sensitive, high-throughput technologies allow measuring an unprecedented number of chemical compounds and properties in a large set of samples, yielding a dataset that can train models that help close the gaps between chemistry and flavor, even for a complex natural product like beer. To our knowledge, no previous research gathered data at this scale (250 samples, 226 chemical parameters, 50 sensory attributes and 5 consumer scores) to disentangle and validate the chemical aspects driving beer preference using various machine-learning techniques. We find that modern machine learning models outperform conventional statistical tools, such as correlations and linear models, and can successfully predict flavor appreciation from chemical composition. This could be attributed to the natural incorporation of interactions and non-linear or discontinuous effects in machine learning models, which are not easily grasped by the linear model architecture. While linear models and partial least squares regression represent the most widespread statistical approaches in sensory science, in part because they allow interpretation 65 , 81 , 82 , modern machine learning methods allow for building better predictive models while preserving the possibility to dissect and exploit the underlying patterns. Of the 10 different models we trained, tree-based models, such as our best performing GBR, showed the best overall performance in predicting sensory responses from chemical information, outcompeting artificial neural networks. This agrees with previous reports for models trained on tabular data 83 . Our results are in line with the findings of Colantonio et al. who also identified the gradient boosting architecture as performing best at predicting appreciation and flavor (of tomatoes and blueberries, in their specific study) 26 . Importantly, besides our larger experimental scale, we were able to directly confirm our models’ predictions in vivo.

Our study confirms that flavor compound concentration does not always correlate with perception, suggesting complex interactions that are often missed by more conventional statistics and simple models. Specifically, we find that tree-based algorithms may perform best in developing models that link complex food chemistry with aroma. Furthermore, we show that massive datasets of untrained consumer reviews provide a valuable source of data, that can complement or even replace trained tasting panels, especially for appreciation and basic flavors, such as sweetness and bitterness. This holds despite biases that are known to occur in such datasets, such as price or conformity bias. Moreover, GBR models predict taste better than aroma. This is likely because taste (e.g. bitterness) often directly relates to the corresponding chemical measurements (e.g., iso-alpha acids), whereas such a link is less clear for aromas, which often result from the interplay between multiple volatile compounds. We also find that our models are best at predicting acidity and alcohol, likely because there is a direct relation between the measured chemical compounds (acids and ethanol) and the corresponding perceived sensorial attribute (acidity and alcohol), and because even untrained consumers are generally able to recognize these flavors and aromas.

The predictions of our final models, trained on review data, hold even for blind tastings with small groups of trained tasters, as demonstrated by our ability to validate specific compounds as drivers of beer flavor and appreciation. Since adding a single compound to the extent of a noticeable difference may result in an unbalanced flavor profile, we specifically tested our identified key drivers as a combination of compounds. While this approach does not allow us to validate if a particular single compound would affect flavor and/or appreciation, our experiments do show that this combination of compounds increases consumer appreciation.

It is important to stress that, while it represents an important step forward, our approach still has several major limitations. A key weakness of the GBR model architecture is that amongst co-correlating variables, the largest main effect is consistently preferred for model building. As a result, co-correlating variables often have artificially low importance scores, both for impurity and SHAP-based methods, like we observed in the comparison to the more randomized Extra Trees models. This implies that chemicals identified as key drivers of a specific sensory feature by GBR might not be the true causative compounds, but rather co-correlate with the actual causative chemical. For example, the high importance of ethyl acetate could be (partially) attributed to the total ester content, ethanol or ethyl hexanoate (rho=0.77, rho=0.72 and rho=0.68), while ethyl phenylacetate could hide the importance of prenyl isobutyrate and ethyl benzoate (rho=0.77 and rho=0.76). Expanding our GBR model to include beer style as a parameter did not yield additional power or insight. This is likely due to style-specific chemical signatures, such as iso-alpha acids and lactic acid, that implicitly convey style information to the original model, as well as the smaller sample size per style, limiting the power to uncover style-specific patterns. This can be partly attributed to the curse of dimensionality, where the high number of parameters results in the models mainly incorporating single parameter effects, rather than complex interactions such as style-dependent effects 67 . A larger number of samples may overcome some of these limitations and offer more insight into style-specific effects. On the other hand, beer style is not a rigid scientific classification, and beers within one style often differ a lot, which further complicates the analysis of style as a model factor.

Our study is limited to beers from Belgian breweries. Although these beers cover a large portion of the beer styles available globally, some beer styles and consumer patterns may be missing, while other features might be overrepresented. For example, many Belgian ales exhibit yeast-driven flavor profiles, which is reflected in the chemical drivers of appreciation discovered by this study. In future work, expanding the scope to include diverse markets and beer styles could lead to the identification of even more drivers of appreciation and better models for special niche products that were not present in our beer set.

In addition to inherent limitations of GBR models, there are also some limitations associated with studying food aroma. Even if our chemical analyses measured most of the known aroma compounds, the total number of flavor compounds in complex foods like beer is still larger than the subset we were able to measure in this study. For example, hop-derived thiols, that influence flavor at very low concentrations, are notoriously difficult to measure in a high-throughput experiment. Moreover, consumer perception remains subjective and prone to biases that are difficult to avoid. It is also important to stress that the models are still immature and that more extensive datasets will be crucial for developing more complete models in the future. Besides more samples and parameters, our dataset does not include any demographic information about the tasters. Including such data could lead to better models that grasp external factors like age and culture. Another limitation is that our set of beers consists of high-quality end-products and lacks beers that are unfit for sale, which limits the current model in accurately predicting products that are appreciated very badly. Finally, while models could be readily applied in quality control, their use in sensory science and product development is restrained by their inability to discern causal relationships. Given that the models cannot distinguish compounds that genuinely drive consumer perception from those that merely correlate, validation experiments are essential to identify true causative compounds.

Despite the inherent limitations, dissection of our models enabled us to pinpoint specific molecules as potential drivers of beer aroma and consumer appreciation, including compounds that were unexpected and would not have been identified using standard approaches. Important drivers of beer appreciation uncovered by our models include protein levels, ethyl acetate, ethyl phenyl acetate and lactic acid. Currently, many brewers already use lactic acid to acidify their brewing water and ensure optimal pH for enzymatic activity during the mashing process. Our results suggest that adding lactic acid can also improve beer appreciation, although its individual effect remains to be tested. Interestingly, ethanol appears to be unnecessary to improve beer appreciation, both for blond beer and alcohol-free beer. Given the growing consumer interest in alcohol-free beer, with a predicted annual market growth of >7% 84 , it is relevant for brewers to know what compounds can further increase consumer appreciation of these beers. Hence, our model may readily provide avenues to further improve the flavor and consumer appreciation of both alcoholic and non-alcoholic beers, which is generally considered one of the key challenges for future beer production.

Whereas we see a direct implementation of our results for the development of superior alcohol-free beverages and other food products, our study can also serve as a stepping stone for the development of novel alcohol-containing beverages. We want to echo the growing body of scientific evidence for the negative effects of alcohol consumption, both on the individual level by the mutagenic, teratogenic and carcinogenic effects of ethanol 85 , 86 , as well as the burden on society caused by alcohol abuse and addiction. We encourage the use of our results for the production of healthier, tastier products, including novel and improved beverages with lower alcohol contents. Furthermore, we strongly discourage the use of these technologies to improve the appreciation or addictive properties of harmful substances.

The present work demonstrates that despite some important remaining hurdles, combining the latest developments in chemical analyses, sensory analysis and modern machine learning methods offers exciting avenues for food chemistry and engineering. Soon, these tools may provide solutions in quality control and recipe development, as well as new approaches to sensory science and flavor research.

Beer selection

250 commercial Belgian beers were selected to cover the broad diversity of beer styles and corresponding diversity in chemical composition and aroma. See Supplementary Fig.  S1 .

Chemical dataset

Sample preparation.

Beers within their expiration date were purchased from commercial retailers. Samples were prepared in biological duplicates at room temperature, unless explicitly stated otherwise. Bottle pressure was measured with a manual pressure device (Steinfurth Mess-Systeme GmbH) and used to calculate CO 2 concentration. The beer was poured through two filter papers (Macherey-Nagel, 500713032 MN 713 ¼) to remove carbon dioxide and prevent spontaneous foaming. Samples were then prepared for measurements by targeted Headspace-Gas Chromatography-Flame Ionization Detector/Flame Photometric Detector (HS-GC-FID/FPD), Headspace-Solid Phase Microextraction-Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS), colorimetric analysis, enzymatic analysis, Near-Infrared (NIR) analysis, as described in the sections below. The mean values of biological duplicates are reported for each compound.

HS-GC-FID/FPD

HS-GC-FID/FPD (Shimadzu GC 2010 Plus) was used to measure higher alcohols, acetaldehyde, esters, 4-vinyl guaicol, and sulfur compounds. Each measurement comprised 5 ml of sample pipetted into a 20 ml glass vial containing 1.75 g NaCl (VWR, 27810.295). 100 µl of 2-heptanol (Sigma-Aldrich, H3003) (internal standard) solution in ethanol (Fisher Chemical, E/0650DF/C17) was added for a final concentration of 2.44 mg/L. Samples were flushed with nitrogen for 10 s, sealed with a silicone septum, stored at −80 °C and analyzed in batches of 20.

The GC was equipped with a DB-WAXetr column (length, 30 m; internal diameter, 0.32 mm; layer thickness, 0.50 µm; Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) to the FID and an HP-5 column (length, 30 m; internal diameter, 0.25 mm; layer thickness, 0.25 µm; Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA) to the FPD. N 2 was used as the carrier gas. Samples were incubated for 20 min at 70 °C in the headspace autosampler (Flow rate, 35 cm/s; Injection volume, 1000 µL; Injection mode, split; Combi PAL autosampler, CTC analytics, Switzerland). The injector, FID and FPD temperatures were kept at 250 °C. The GC oven temperature was first held at 50 °C for 5 min and then allowed to rise to 80 °C at a rate of 5 °C/min, followed by a second ramp of 4 °C/min until 200 °C kept for 3 min and a final ramp of (4 °C/min) until 230 °C for 1 min. Results were analyzed with the GCSolution software version 2.4 (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan). The GC was calibrated with a 5% EtOH solution (VWR International) containing the volatiles under study (Supplementary Table  S7 ).

HS-SPME-GC-MS

HS-SPME-GC-MS (Shimadzu GCMS-QP-2010 Ultra) was used to measure additional volatile compounds, mainly comprising terpenoids and esters. Samples were analyzed by HS-SPME using a triphase DVB/Carboxen/PDMS 50/30 μm SPME fiber (Supelco Co., Bellefonte, PA, USA) followed by gas chromatography (Thermo Fisher Scientific Trace 1300 series, USA) coupled to a mass spectrometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific ISQ series MS) equipped with a TriPlus RSH autosampler. 5 ml of degassed beer sample was placed in 20 ml vials containing 1.75 g NaCl (VWR, 27810.295). 5 µl internal standard mix was added, containing 2-heptanol (1 g/L) (Sigma-Aldrich, H3003), 4-fluorobenzaldehyde (1 g/L) (Sigma-Aldrich, 128376), 2,3-hexanedione (1 g/L) (Sigma-Aldrich, 144169) and guaiacol (1 g/L) (Sigma-Aldrich, W253200) in ethanol (Fisher Chemical, E/0650DF/C17). Each sample was incubated at 60 °C in the autosampler oven with constant agitation. After 5 min equilibration, the SPME fiber was exposed to the sample headspace for 30 min. The compounds trapped on the fiber were thermally desorbed in the injection port of the chromatograph by heating the fiber for 15 min at 270 °C.

The GC-MS was equipped with a low polarity RXi-5Sil MS column (length, 20 m; internal diameter, 0.18 mm; layer thickness, 0.18 µm; Restek, Bellefonte, PA, USA). Injection was performed in splitless mode at 320 °C, a split flow of 9 ml/min, a purge flow of 5 ml/min and an open valve time of 3 min. To obtain a pulsed injection, a programmed gas flow was used whereby the helium gas flow was set at 2.7 mL/min for 0.1 min, followed by a decrease in flow of 20 ml/min to the normal 0.9 mL/min. The temperature was first held at 30 °C for 3 min and then allowed to rise to 80 °C at a rate of 7 °C/min, followed by a second ramp of 2 °C/min till 125 °C and a final ramp of 8 °C/min with a final temperature of 270 °C.

Mass acquisition range was 33 to 550 amu at a scan rate of 5 scans/s. Electron impact ionization energy was 70 eV. The interface and ion source were kept at 275 °C and 250 °C, respectively. A mix of linear n-alkanes (from C7 to C40, Supelco Co.) was injected into the GC-MS under identical conditions to serve as external retention index markers. Identification and quantification of the compounds were performed using an in-house developed R script as described in Goelen et al. and Reher et al. 87 , 88 (for package information, see Supplementary Table  S8 ). Briefly, chromatograms were analyzed using AMDIS (v2.71) 89 to separate overlapping peaks and obtain pure compound spectra. The NIST MS Search software (v2.0 g) in combination with the NIST2017, FFNSC3 and Adams4 libraries were used to manually identify the empirical spectra, taking into account the expected retention time. After background subtraction and correcting for retention time shifts between samples run on different days based on alkane ladders, compound elution profiles were extracted and integrated using a file with 284 target compounds of interest, which were either recovered in our identified AMDIS list of spectra or were known to occur in beer. Compound elution profiles were estimated for every peak in every chromatogram over a time-restricted window using weighted non-negative least square analysis after which peak areas were integrated 87 , 88 . Batch effect correction was performed by normalizing against the most stable internal standard compound, 4-fluorobenzaldehyde. Out of all 284 target compounds that were analyzed, 167 were visually judged to have reliable elution profiles and were used for final analysis.

Discrete photometric and enzymatic analysis

Discrete photometric and enzymatic analysis (Thermo Scientific TM Gallery TM Plus Beermaster Discrete Analyzer) was used to measure acetic acid, ammonia, beta-glucan, iso-alpha acids, color, sugars, glycerol, iron, pH, protein, and sulfite. 2 ml of sample volume was used for the analyses. Information regarding the reagents and standard solutions used for analyses and calibrations is included in Supplementary Table  S7 and Supplementary Table  S9 .

NIR analyses

NIR analysis (Anton Paar Alcolyzer Beer ME System) was used to measure ethanol. Measurements comprised 50 ml of sample, and a 10% EtOH solution was used for calibration.

Correlation calculations

Pairwise Spearman Rank correlations were calculated between all chemical properties.

Sensory dataset

Trained panel.

Our trained tasting panel consisted of volunteers who gave prior verbal informed consent. All compounds used for the validation experiment were of food-grade quality. The tasting sessions were approved by the Social and Societal Ethics Committee of the KU Leuven (G-2022-5677-R2(MAR)). All online reviewers agreed to the Terms and Conditions of the RateBeer website.

Sensory analysis was performed according to the American Society of Brewing Chemists (ASBC) Sensory Analysis Methods 90 . 30 volunteers were screened through a series of triangle tests. The sixteen most sensitive and consistent tasters were retained as taste panel members. The resulting panel was diverse in age [22–42, mean: 29], sex [56% male] and nationality [7 different countries]. The panel developed a consensus vocabulary to describe beer aroma, taste and mouthfeel. Panelists were trained to identify and score 50 different attributes, using a 7-point scale to rate attributes’ intensity. The scoring sheet is included as Supplementary Data  3 . Sensory assessments took place between 10–12 a.m. The beers were served in black-colored glasses. Per session, between 5 and 12 beers of the same style were tasted at 12 °C to 16 °C. Two reference beers were added to each set and indicated as ‘Reference 1 & 2’, allowing panel members to calibrate their ratings. Not all panelists were present at every tasting. Scores were scaled by standard deviation and mean-centered per taster. Values are represented as z-scores and clustered by Euclidean distance. Pairwise Spearman correlations were calculated between taste and aroma sensory attributes. Panel consistency was evaluated by repeating samples on different sessions and performing ANOVA to identify differences, using the ‘stats’ package (v4.2.2) in R (for package information, see Supplementary Table  S8 ).

Online reviews from a public database

The ‘scrapy’ package in Python (v3.6) (for package information, see Supplementary Table  S8 ). was used to collect 232,288 online reviews (mean=922, min=6, max=5343) from RateBeer, an online beer review database. Each review entry comprised 5 numerical scores (appearance, aroma, taste, palate and overall quality) and an optional review text. The total number of reviews per reviewer was collected separately. Numerical scores were scaled and centered per rater, and mean scores were calculated per beer.

For the review texts, the language was estimated using the packages ‘langdetect’ and ‘langid’ in Python. Reviews that were classified as English by both packages were kept. Reviewers with fewer than 100 entries overall were discarded. 181,025 reviews from >6000 reviewers from >40 countries remained. Text processing was done using the ‘nltk’ package in Python. Texts were corrected for slang and misspellings; proper nouns and rare words that are relevant to the beer context were specified and kept as-is (‘Chimay’,’Lambic’, etc.). A dictionary of semantically similar sensorial terms, for example ‘floral’ and ‘flower’, was created and collapsed together into one term. Words were stemmed and lemmatized to avoid identifying words such as ‘acid’ and ‘acidity’ as separate terms. Numbers and punctuation were removed.

Sentences from up to 50 randomly chosen reviews per beer were manually categorized according to the aspect of beer they describe (appearance, aroma, taste, palate, overall quality—not to be confused with the 5 numerical scores described above) or flagged as irrelevant if they contained no useful information. If a beer contained fewer than 50 reviews, all reviews were manually classified. This labeled data set was used to train a model that classified the rest of the sentences for all beers 91 . Sentences describing taste and aroma were extracted, and term frequency–inverse document frequency (TFIDF) was implemented to calculate enrichment scores for sensorial words per beer.

The sex of the tasting subject was not considered when building our sensory database. Instead, results from different panelists were averaged, both for our trained panel (56% male, 44% female) and the RateBeer reviews (70% male, 30% female for RateBeer as a whole).

Beer price collection and processing

Beer prices were collected from the following stores: Colruyt, Delhaize, Total Wine, BeerHawk, The Belgian Beer Shop, The Belgian Shop, and Beer of Belgium. Where applicable, prices were converted to Euros and normalized per liter. Spearman correlations were calculated between these prices and mean overall appreciation scores from RateBeer and the taste panel, respectively.

Pairwise Spearman Rank correlations were calculated between all sensory properties.

Machine learning models

Predictive modeling of sensory profiles from chemical data.

Regression models were constructed to predict (a) trained panel scores for beer flavors and quality from beer chemical profiles and (b) public reviews’ appreciation scores from beer chemical profiles. Z-scores were used to represent sensory attributes in both data sets. Chemical properties with log-normal distributions (Shapiro-Wilk test, p  <  0.05 ) were log-transformed. Missing chemical measurements (0.1% of all data) were replaced with mean values per attribute. Observations from 250 beers were randomly separated into a training set (70%, 175 beers) and a test set (30%, 75 beers), stratified per beer style. Chemical measurements (p = 231) were normalized based on the training set average and standard deviation. In total, three linear regression-based models: linear regression with first-order interaction terms (LR), lasso regression with first-order interaction terms (Lasso) and partial least squares regression (PLSR); five decision tree models, Adaboost regressor (ABR), Extra Trees (ET), Gradient Boosting regressor (GBR), Random Forest (RF) and XGBoost regressor (XGBR); one support vector machine model (SVR) and one artificial neural network model (ANN) were trained. The models were implemented using the ‘scikit-learn’ package (v1.2.2) and ‘xgboost’ package (v1.7.3) in Python (v3.9.16). Models were trained, and hyperparameters optimized, using five-fold cross-validated grid search with the coefficient of determination (R 2 ) as the evaluation metric. The ANN (scikit-learn’s MLPRegressor) was optimized using Bayesian Tree-Structured Parzen Estimator optimization with the ‘Optuna’ Python package (v3.2.0). Individual models were trained per attribute, and a multi-output model was trained on all attributes simultaneously.

Model dissection

GBR was found to outperform other methods, resulting in models with the highest average R 2 values in both trained panel and public review data sets. Impurity-based rankings of the most important predictors for each predicted sensorial trait were obtained using the ‘scikit-learn’ package. To observe the relationships between these chemical properties and their predicted targets, partial dependence plots (PDP) were constructed for the six most important predictors of consumer appreciation 74 , 75 .

The ‘SHAP’ package in Python (v0.41.0) was implemented to provide an alternative ranking of predictor importance and to visualize the predictors’ effects as a function of their concentration 68 .

Validation of causal chemical properties

To validate the effects of the most important model features on predicted sensory attributes, beers were spiked with the chemical compounds identified by the models and descriptive sensory analyses were carried out according to the American Society of Brewing Chemists (ASBC) protocol 90 .

Compound spiking was done 30 min before tasting. Compounds were spiked into fresh beer bottles, that were immediately resealed and inverted three times. Fresh bottles of beer were opened for the same duration, resealed, and inverted thrice, to serve as controls. Pairs of spiked samples and controls were served simultaneously, chilled and in dark glasses as outlined in the Trained panel section above. Tasters were instructed to select the glass with the higher flavor intensity for each attribute (directional difference test 92 ) and to select the glass they prefer.

The final concentration after spiking was equal to the within-style average, after normalizing by ethanol concentration. This was done to ensure balanced flavor profiles in the final spiked beer. The same methods were applied to improve a non-alcoholic beer. Compounds were the following: ethyl acetate (Merck KGaA, W241415), ethyl hexanoate (Merck KGaA, W243906), isoamyl acetate (Merck KGaA, W205508), phenethyl acetate (Merck KGaA, W285706), ethanol (96%, Colruyt), glycerol (Merck KGaA, W252506), lactic acid (Merck KGaA, 261106).

Significant differences in preference or perceived intensity were determined by performing the two-sided binomial test on each attribute.

Reporting summary

Further information on research design is available in the  Nature Portfolio Reporting Summary linked to this article.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this work are available in the Supplementary Data files and have been deposited to Zenodo under accession code 10653704 93 . The RateBeer scores data are under restricted access, they are not publicly available as they are property of RateBeer (ZX Ventures, USA). Access can be obtained from the authors upon reasonable request and with permission of RateBeer (ZX Ventures, USA).  Source data are provided with this paper.

Code availability

The code for training the machine learning models, analyzing the models, and generating the figures has been deposited to Zenodo under accession code 10653704 93 .

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Acknowledgements

We thank all lab members for their discussions and thank all tasting panel members for their contributions. Special thanks go out to Dr. Karin Voordeckers for her tremendous help in proofreading and improving the manuscript. M.S. was supported by a Baillet-Latour fellowship, L.C. acknowledges financial support from KU Leuven (C16/17/006), F.A.T. was supported by a PhD fellowship from FWO (1S08821N). Research in the lab of K.J.V. is supported by KU Leuven, FWO, VIB, VLAIO and the Brewing Science Serves Health Fund. Research in the lab of T.W. is supported by FWO (G.0A51.15) and KU Leuven (C16/17/006).

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These authors contributed equally: Michiel Schreurs, Supinya Piampongsant, Miguel Roncoroni.

Authors and Affiliations

VIB—KU Leuven Center for Microbiology, Gaston Geenslaan 1, B-3001, Leuven, Belgium

Michiel Schreurs, Supinya Piampongsant, Miguel Roncoroni, Lloyd Cool, Beatriz Herrera-Malaver, Florian A. Theßeling & Kevin J. Verstrepen

CMPG Laboratory of Genetics and Genomics, KU Leuven, Gaston Geenslaan 1, B-3001, Leuven, Belgium

Leuven Institute for Beer Research (LIBR), Gaston Geenslaan 1, B-3001, Leuven, Belgium

Laboratory of Socioecology and Social Evolution, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 59, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium

Lloyd Cool, Christophe Vanderaa & Tom Wenseleers

VIB Bioinformatics Core, VIB, Rijvisschestraat 120, B-9052, Ghent, Belgium

Łukasz Kreft & Alexander Botzki

AB InBev SA/NV, Brouwerijplein 1, B-3000, Leuven, Belgium

Philippe Malcorps & Luk Daenen

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Contributions

S.P., M.S. and K.J.V. conceived the experiments. S.P., M.S. and K.J.V. designed the experiments. S.P., M.S., M.R., B.H. and F.A.T. performed the experiments. S.P., M.S., L.C., C.V., L.K., A.B., P.M., L.D., T.W. and K.J.V. contributed analysis ideas. S.P., M.S., L.C., C.V., T.W. and K.J.V. analyzed the data. All authors contributed to writing the manuscript.

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Correspondence to Kevin J. Verstrepen .

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K.J.V. is affiliated with bar.on. The other authors declare no competing interests.

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Schreurs, M., Piampongsant, S., Roncoroni, M. et al. Predicting and improving complex beer flavor through machine learning. Nat Commun 15 , 2368 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-46346-0

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How to Write an Essay Introduction | 4 Steps & Examples

Published on February 4, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on July 23, 2023.

A good introduction paragraph is an essential part of any academic essay . It sets up your argument and tells the reader what to expect.

The main goals of an introduction are to:

• Catch your reader’s attention.
• Give background on your topic.
• Present your thesis statement —the central point of your essay.

This introduction example is taken from our interactive essay example on the history of Braille.

The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability. The writing system of raised dots used by visually impaired people was developed by Louis Braille in nineteenth-century France. In a society that did not value disabled people in general, blindness was particularly stigmatized, and lack of access to reading and writing was a significant barrier to social participation. The idea of tactile reading was not entirely new, but existing methods based on sighted systems were difficult to learn and use. As the first writing system designed for blind people’s needs, Braille was a groundbreaking new accessibility tool. It not only provided practical benefits, but also helped change the cultural status of blindness. This essay begins by discussing the situation of blind people in nineteenth-century Europe. It then describes the invention of Braille and the gradual process of its acceptance within blind education. Subsequently, it explores the wide-ranging effects of this invention on blind people’s social and cultural lives.

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Table of contents

Step 1: hook your reader, step 2: give background information, step 3: present your thesis statement, step 4: map your essay’s structure, step 5: check and revise, more examples of essay introductions, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the essay introduction.

Your first sentence sets the tone for the whole essay, so spend some time on writing an effective hook.

Avoid long, dense sentences—start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

The hook should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of the topic you’re writing about and why it’s interesting. Avoid overly broad claims or plain statements of fact.

Examples: Writing a good hook

Take a look at these examples of weak hooks and learn how to improve them.

• Braille was an extremely important invention.
• The invention of Braille was a major turning point in the history of disability.

The first sentence is a dry fact; the second sentence is more interesting, making a bold claim about exactly  why the topic is important.

• The internet is defined as “a global computer network providing a variety of information and communication facilities.”
• The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education.

Avoid using a dictionary definition as your hook, especially if it’s an obvious term that everyone knows. The improved example here is still broad, but it gives us a much clearer sense of what the essay will be about.

• Mary Shelley’s  Frankenstein is a famous book from the nineteenth century.
• Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale about the dangers of scientific advancement.

Instead of just stating a fact that the reader already knows, the improved hook here tells us about the mainstream interpretation of the book, implying that this essay will offer a different interpretation.

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Next, give your reader the context they need to understand your topic and argument. Depending on the subject of your essay, this might include:

• Historical, geographical, or social context
• An outline of the debate you’re addressing
• A summary of relevant theories or research about the topic
• Definitions of key terms

The information here should be broad but clearly focused and relevant to your argument. Don’t give too much detail—you can mention points that you will return to later, but save your evidence and interpretation for the main body of the essay.

How much space you need for background depends on your topic and the scope of your essay. In our Braille example, we take a few sentences to introduce the topic and sketch the social context that the essay will address:

Now it’s time to narrow your focus and show exactly what you want to say about the topic. This is your thesis statement —a sentence or two that sums up your overall argument.

This is the most important part of your introduction. A  good thesis isn’t just a statement of fact, but a claim that requires evidence and explanation.

The goal is to clearly convey your own position in a debate or your central point about a topic.

Particularly in longer essays, it’s helpful to end the introduction by signposting what will be covered in each part. Keep it concise and give your reader a clear sense of the direction your argument will take.

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As you research and write, your argument might change focus or direction as you learn more.

For this reason, it’s often a good idea to wait until later in the writing process before you write the introduction paragraph—it can even be the very last thing you write.

When you’ve finished writing the essay body and conclusion , you should return to the introduction and check that it matches the content of the essay.

It’s especially important to make sure your thesis statement accurately represents what you do in the essay. If your argument has gone in a different direction than planned, tweak your thesis statement to match what you actually say.

To polish your writing, you can use something like a paraphrasing tool .

You can use the checklist below to make sure your introduction does everything it’s supposed to.

Checklist: Essay introduction

My first sentence is engaging and relevant.

I have introduced the topic with necessary background information.

I have defined any important terms.

My thesis statement clearly presents my main point or argument.

Everything in the introduction is relevant to the main body of the essay.

You have a strong introduction - now make sure the rest of your essay is just as good.

• Argumentative
• Literary analysis

This introduction to an argumentative essay sets up the debate about the internet and education, and then clearly states the position the essay will argue for.

The spread of the internet has had a world-changing effect, not least on the world of education. The use of the internet in academic contexts is on the rise, and its role in learning is hotly debated. For many teachers who did not grow up with this technology, its effects seem alarming and potentially harmful. This concern, while understandable, is misguided. The negatives of internet use are outweighed by its critical benefits for students and educators—as a uniquely comprehensive and accessible information source; a means of exposure to and engagement with different perspectives; and a highly flexible learning environment.

This introduction to a short expository essay leads into the topic (the invention of the printing press) and states the main point the essay will explain (the effect of this invention on European society).

In many ways, the invention of the printing press marked the end of the Middle Ages. The medieval period in Europe is often remembered as a time of intellectual and political stagnation. Prior to the Renaissance, the average person had very limited access to books and was unlikely to be literate. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century allowed for much less restricted circulation of information in Europe, paving the way for the Reformation.

This introduction to a literary analysis essay , about Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein , starts by describing a simplistic popular view of the story, and then states how the author will give a more complex analysis of the text’s literary devices.

Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein is often read as a crude cautionary tale. Arguably the first science fiction novel, its plot can be read as a warning about the dangers of scientific advancement unrestrained by ethical considerations. In this reading, and in popular culture representations of the character as a “mad scientist”, Victor Frankenstein represents the callous, arrogant ambition of modern science. However, far from providing a stable image of the character, Shelley uses shifting narrative perspectives to gradually transform our impression of Frankenstein, portraying him in an increasingly negative light as the novel goes on. While he initially appears to be a naive but sympathetic idealist, after the creature’s narrative Frankenstein begins to resemble—even in his own telling—the thoughtlessly cruel figure the creature represents him as.

If you want to know more about AI tools , college essays , or fallacies make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

• Ad hominem fallacy
• Post hoc fallacy
• Appeal to authority fallacy
• False cause fallacy
• Sunk cost fallacy

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Your essay introduction should include three main things, in this order:

• An opening hook to catch the reader’s attention.
• Relevant background information that the reader needs to know.
• A thesis statement that presents your main point or argument.

The length of each part depends on the length and complexity of your essay .

The “hook” is the first sentence of your essay introduction . It should lead the reader into your essay, giving a sense of why it’s interesting.

To write a good hook, avoid overly broad statements or long, dense sentences. Try to start with something clear, concise and catchy that will spark your reader’s curiosity.

A thesis statement is a sentence that sums up the central point of your paper or essay . Everything else you write should relate to this key idea.

The thesis statement is essential in any academic essay or research paper for two main reasons:

• It gives your writing direction and focus.
• It gives the reader a concise summary of your main point.

Without a clear thesis statement, an essay can end up rambling and unfocused, leaving your reader unsure of exactly what you want to say.

The structure of an essay is divided into an introduction that presents your topic and thesis statement , a body containing your in-depth analysis and arguments, and a conclusion wrapping up your ideas.

The structure of the body is flexible, but you should always spend some time thinking about how you can organize your essay to best serve your ideas.

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Examine our research from the last year in the ReliaQuest 2024 Annual Cyber-Threat Report

An Introduction to the 2024 Annual Cyber-Threat Report

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ReliaQuest is proud to announce the publication of the 2024 edition of the Annual Threat Report (ATR) , which offers a comprehensive overview of the ever-evolving cyber threat landscape. In the report, we cover the key cyber threats and events we observed in 2023 and provide a quantitative and qualitative analysis of our findings. This report aims to empower defenders with the tools and insights they need to anticipate and defend against evolving cyber threats.

In this blog, we’ll cover some of the key findings from the report and where we see things going next.

• 71.1% of observed attacker tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTPs) involved the use of spearphishing links or attachments. Of particular concern is a sharp rise in QR code phishing (quishing) which increased 51% last year compared to the previous eight months.
• ReliaQuest observed a significant number of incidents involving drive-by compromise, whereby individuals downloaded disguised malicious files—in most cases via the SocGholish and SolarMarker malware.
• ReliaQuest has observed a 246% increase in BEC attacks , primarily involving phishing emails aimed at deceiving employees into making fraudulent payments. These attacks have increased due to the adoption of phishing-as-a-service (Phaas) offerings, such as BulletProofLink, which streamline and facilitate operations.
• We identified a significant threat from threat actors using Living off the Land (LotL) techniques. In such incidents threat actors seek to obfuscate their activity via defense evasion techniques, such as log clearing and infiltrating PowerShell. In an intrusion ReliaQuest observed in April 2023, a Chinese state-sponsored threat group primarily focused on using LotL commands to blend into a company’s environment. The group’s discreet LotL activity allowed them to maintain access for more than a month.
• Extortion activity increased by 74.3% in 2023, setting a new record for the number of companies listed on ransomware data-leak sites. LockBit alone named over 1,000 companies on its data-leak site during the year, shattering past records.
• We discovered more than 6 billion leaked credentials from data breaches, bringing the total to 36 billion and counting.
• The use of AI to evolve attacks is gaining significant attention among major cybercriminal forums, with growing interest in weaponizing this technology. ReliaQuest has found dedicated AI and machine-learning sections of these sites that detail criminal alternatives to mainstream chatbots, such as FraudGPT and WormGPT, and discussions hinting at the development of simple malware and distributed denial of service (DDoS) queries using these options.
• ReliaQuest has noted that a growing number of threat actors are automating various stages of their attacks, or the entire attack chain—in particular, the Citrix Bleed exploitation. In one observed incident, we identified a threat actor using automation to assist with parsing for sensitive data.
• On the defensive side, we saw that customers using at least some level of AI and automation saw a reduction in their MTTR to 58 minutes, which is down 98.8% from 2022. Those who are fully leveraging AI and automation have brought their MTTR down to 7 minutes or less.

Cyber threats are not only proliferating at an unprecedented rate but are also advancing in complexity, significantly narrowing the window for defenders to preempt and neutralize potential cyber attacks. This reality underscores the purpose of our 2024 Annual Cyber-Threat Report , which is meant to arm defenders with critical strategies and actionable intelligence tailored to counteract these evolving threats effectively. By dissecting attacker TTPs and showcasing real-world case studies, the report highlights the trajectory of threat evolution over the past year, offering invaluable insights for bolstering cybersecurity defenses.

Our research is dedicated to empowering security teams with the knowledge and tools necessary to anticipate and mitigate cyber risks. By providing a comprehensive analysis of current threats and forecasting emerging trends, we aim to make security possible for organizations. This commitment reflects our mission to help organizations increase visibility, reduce complexity, and manage risk, paving the way toward a future where strategic and informed defense actions profoundly mitigate the influence of cyber threats on global security.

Related Blogs

China-linked Threats to Operational Technology

FBI IC3 Report Highlights BEC, Ransomware

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Legislative Review of the Cannabis Act : Final Report of the Expert Panel

Download in PDF format (1.324 KB, 97 pages)

Organization: Health Canada

Date published: March 2024 Cat.: H134-37/2024E-PDF ISBN: 978-0-660-70615-3 Pub.: 230837

Prepared by:

Morris Rosenberg (Chair) Dr. Oyedeji Ayonrinde Dr. Patricia J. Conrod Lynda L. Levesque Dr. Peter Selby

Table of contents

Chapter 1: executive summary, chapter 2: recommendations and observations, chapter 3: introduction, chapter 4: summary of engagement, chapter 5: overview of the cannabis framework, chapter 6: public health.

Chapter 7: First Nations, Inuit and Métis

Chapter 8: Economic, social and environmental impacts

Chapter 9: adult access, chapter 10: criminal activity and displacement of the illicit market, chapter 11: medical access, chapter 12: research and surveillance, appendix a: glossary, appendix b: stakeholder list, appendix c: panel member biographies.

After almost a century of prohibition, Canada became the first major developed country to legalize and regulate cannabis when the Cannabis Act (the Act) came into force in 2018. Canada's approach to cannabis shifted from prohibiting and criminalizing activities with cannabis to one grounded in regulated and controlled access to minimize the risks and harms for individuals and communities.

In view of the wide-ranging impacts of the change from prohibition to legal, regulated access, Parliament established a requirement for the Act to be reviewed 3 years after its coming into force.

In September 2022, the Minister of Health and the Minister of Mental Health and Addictions and Associate Minister of Health appointed us as an independent Expert Panel to conduct a review. The mandate for the review, set out in section 151.1 of the Act, was to assess the administration and operation of the legislation, particularly:

• impact of the Act on public health and, in particular, on the health and consumption habits of young persons with respect to cannabis use
• impact of cannabis on Indigenous persons and communities
• impact of the cultivation of cannabis plants in a dwelling-house

The Ministers also asked us to consider the following:

• economic, social and environmental impacts of the Act
• progress towards providing adults with access to strictly regulated, lower-risk, legal cannabis products
• progress made in deterring criminal activity and displacing the illicit cannabis market
• impact of legalization and regulation on access to cannabis for medical purposes
• impacts on Indigenous Peoples, racialized communities and women, who might be at greater risk of harm or face greater barriers to participation in the legal industry based on identity or socio-economic factors

We were supported by the Legislative Review Secretariat, housed in Health Canada, whose role was to provide administrative and research support. We would like to thank the team for their invaluable assistance through this process.

Engagement process

We were provided with a report from Health Canada summarizing information and stakeholder perspectives it had collected in the lead up to the review. This report was published on Health Canada's website along with an invitation to submit written comments. With the help of the Secretariat, we developed a comprehensive engagement strategy to allow experts and people with relevant lived and living experience to provide more detailed guidance on particular topics and to answer specific questions. We held nearly 140 engagement sessions and heard from over 600 participants. We employed a distinctions-based approach for our engagement with First Nations, Inuit and Métis. Footnote 1

Principles and approach

Consistent with the purpose of the legislation, as stated in section 7 of the Act, we kept the protection of public health and public safety at the forefront of our review.

We took an evidence-informed approach, incorporating research findings, statistics and data, as well as the insights shared with us by stakeholders, experts, and those with lived and living experience. We applied a Sex and Gender-based Analysis Plus (SGBA Plus) lens in our work, recognizing that policies can have varying impacts on different subpopulations and communities. Footnote 2

It has only been 5 years since the Act came into force. It has been difficult to fully assess the impacts of legalization, given the limited time to collect data and evaluate outcomes and ongoing barriers to research. Despite these caveats, we aimed to identify dominant trends and themes, while also exercising caution when the evidence was not able to support a recommendation.

Based on the evidence presented to us, we believe that there has been significant progress made on several of the key objectives of the legislation. Notably, these include:

• the establishment of a licensing framework supporting a legal industry that is providing adult consumers with a quality-controlled supply of a variety of cannabis products
• steady progress in shifting adult consumers to the legal cannabis market
• for the most part, adherence to rules on promotion, packaging and labelling, including prohibitions about making claims about health or lifestyle benefits
• a significant reduction (95% between 2017 and 2022) in the number of charges for the possession of cannabis and minimizing the negative impact on some individuals from interactions with the criminal justice system

However, it would be a mistake for governments to adopt an attitude of complacency with the current regime or move away from a public health and public safety approach to cannabis. Continuous assessment of what works and what needs to change is necessary in a framework that is a radical shift from an era of prohibition, which limited research and evidence-based policy. Our consultations have uncovered the following areas of concern.

Youth and children

We are concerned with trends related to youth use of cannabis. While the data indicates that youth use has remained relatively stable since legalization, Canada continues to report among the highest rates of youth cannabis use in the world, and cannabis use among young adults has increased (for example, as described in our What We Heard Report , surveys now suggest that more than 4 in 10 Canadians aged between 20 and 24 report using cannabis in the past year). We find that the inadequate support for some interventions, particularly youth prevention initiatives, has contributed to this trend. Further, increasing reports of poisonings among children who have unintentionally consumed cannabis are troubling.

High-potency products

We are also increasingly concerned with the apparent shift toward the consumption of higher-potency cannabis products, since these products carry greater health risks, and there have been recent reports suggesting increases in cannabis-related health care presentations.

First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities

We acknowledge the barriers and challenges First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities have experienced with respect to the cannabis framework. We have heard consistently that First Nations, Inuit and Métis were not adequately consulted when the Act and related measures were developed. This has led to significant public health and public safety challenges in many communities and inequitable economic development opportunities. There is an urgent need to re-engage on these issues consistent with the Government of Canada's commitment to recognize the rights of Indigenous Peoples, and with a shared commitment by all parties to protecting public health and public safety.

Industry challenges

The legal cannabis industry has made substantial progress in shifting adult consumers to the legal cannabis market, although progress has been uneven across the country. The illicit cannabis market remains entrenched, and too many illicit retailers continue to operate both online and physical stores.

There are challenges for the sustainability of companies, particularly smaller-sized licensed cultivators and processors.

Industry representatives expressed concerns about the cost burden that the excise tax imposes on them, particularly the excise tax for dried cannabis, as well as the costs associated with regulatory fees and regulatory requirements that are imposed at both the federal and provincial and territorial levels.

The information available to us also suggests a lack of diversity in the sector, and that communities that were disproportionately harmed when cannabis was criminalized continue to face barriers to participation in the legal market.

Reduced interactions with the criminal justice system

We are encouraged by the significant decrease in Canadians' interactions with the criminal justice system related to cannabis; however, there is a need for more data on the extent to which racial bias continues to exist in law enforcement activities related to cannabis.

Need for more enforcement

While the Act contains serious offences and penalties to deter criminal activities with cannabis (such as unauthorized production and sale to youth), enforcement action has been limited due to shifting police priorities, inadequate resourcing and gaps in authority. A greater commitment to enforcement is needed to avoid undermining the integrity of the regime. Inadequate enforcement emboldens criminal actors and may be interpreted by some that illicit cannabis activity does not pose health or safety concerns.

Access to cannabis for medical purposes

The legalization of cannabis did not substantially facilitate research and there has been limited progress on evaluating the therapeutic benefits of cannabis. Patients continue to report many challenges obtaining reasonable access to cannabis for medical purposes, as well as difficulties finding reliable information, specific products, and supportive and knowledgeable health care professionals. The current lack of high-quality evidence can create difficulties for health care professionals and insurance providers faced with patient requests about the use of cannabis for medical purposes. Our consultations have helped us to identify several promising reforms to improve how patients access cannabis for medical purposes.

Filling research gaps

Deficiencies in the evidence available impeded our ability to fully assess the impacts of legalization on public health and public safety. To address critical knowledge gaps, sustained investment in surveillance and research in a range of disciplines will be required.

Nature of our advice

Achieving the public health and public safety objectives of the Act requires a multi-faceted approach relying on several policy instruments. Most of our recommendations involve targeted changes to policies and regulations, and bolstering support for research, surveillance and enforcement. We also propose new initiatives related to prevention and enhanced consumer information.

We have limited our formal recommendations to areas within the mandate of the Government of Canada. However, given that responsibilities in some areas of cannabis control rest with other levels of government and that other actors play important roles (such as law enforcement and health care professionals), we have made some observations in areas outside the purview of the federal government.

Moving forward, it will be important for the Government of Canada to allocate appropriate funding and resources to ensure the effective implementation of the cannabis framework. This will need to include allocating resources in areas that did not initially receive dedicated funding, such as research on the therapeutic potential of cannabis and prevention and treatment programming. In some circumstances difficult decisions will need to be made about when, or the extent to which, our recommendations can be implemented. While some new investments may be required, we encourage all levels of government to consider how existing resources can be redirected, and to consider how cannabis fits into broader priorities (for example, investment in mental health and addictions services, prevention programs, consumer information, and research and surveillance).

Summary of advice

Public health: youth.

Youth and young adults are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of cannabis. More needs to be done to drive change in youth behaviour to reduce prevalence of use and discourage harmful use. There may be lessons from the success in reducing youth use of other substances, such as tobacco, that can be applied to cannabis. Greater efforts towards increasing evidence-based prevention programs, and monitoring and enforcing laws against promotion and the sale of cannabis to young people, could help to address this concern.

Public health: Children

Increasing reports of poisonings among children who have unintentionally consumed cannabis, notably edible cannabis, were troubling. Children should never be able to access cannabis and these exposures should never occur. More research is needed to understand what products are involved in these incidents, as well as renewed efforts to educate consumers, including parents and caregivers, about ways to prevent these poisonings.

Public health: Adults

For adult consumers, we are concerned about the emerging shift toward increasingly potent cannabis products in the legal market (that is, products with high quantities or concentrations of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC]), and recent studies suggesting increases in health care presentations, including for psychosis.

A mix of policy instruments should be used to mitigate the risks posed by higher-potency and novel cannabis products, including better research, making a wider variety of lower-potency products available to consumers, enhancing information for consumers, and ongoing regulatory compliance and enforcement efforts by Health Canada. If the current trend toward higher-potency cannabis cannot be halted or reversed, then Health Canada should be ready to restrict or prohibit certain products to protect Canadians from the associated harms. To be effective, such regulatory measures should be accompanied by strategies to prevent the illicit market from taking over this market segment.

Maintenance of public health measures

The evidence suggests that the framework includes appropriate controls and measures to manage the risks associated with the exposure to and consumption of cannabis, while providing adults who choose to use cannabis with access to a wide variety of quality-controlled products. That said, there are areas where implementation can be improved and where more effort is needed. This is particularly true of efforts to reduce the consumption of products with higher quantities or concentrations of THC.

After reviewing available evidence and the core health and safety-focused rules, we recommend that the majority should be maintained (including restricting promotion to environments where it is not visible to youth, requiring plain packaging and prohibiting products that are appealing to youth). That said, there are areas where greater clarity can be provided to industry about permissible promotion, packaging and labelling practices, and areas where certain changes could be made that would not impact the protection of public health.

Many First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities reported challenges in providing services for their people related to cannabis, given the many priorities they must address with limited resources. We recommend support for distinctions-based health, public health and mental health initiatives in communities, as well as support for evidence-based materials and programs to disseminate distinctions-based cannabis-related health information.

While the Act defines the authorities of the federal government and provincial and territorial governments, it is silent on the authority of First Nations, Inuit and Métis governments with respect to cannabis. This is a significant gap that negatively impacts the public health, public safety and equitable treatment of Indigenous communities and individuals seeking to participate in the cannabis industry.

We acknowledge the Government of Canada's commitment to align Canada's laws with the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples through the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act . However, given the uncertainties respecting the timelines and ways the Declaration will be implemented, and the public health and public safety challenges that are present in Indigenous communities, more immediate changes are necessary.

We call for amendments to the Cannabis Act , facilitating a collaborative process with Indigenous communities that would allow those who wish to exert more control over cannabis-related activities in their territories to enter into nation-to-nation agreements with the Government of Canada based on agreed-upon minimum standards to protect public health and public safety. We also recommend that Health Canada, as well as provinces and territories, take steps to improve their licensing processes to better support Indigenous applicants who wish to participate in the legal cannabis market.

Economic, social and environmental impacts

Industry representatives raised urgent concerns about their financial viability in the highly competitive market that exists today. These concerns are well-founded; however, any efforts to support the industry must be consistent with the public health and public safety objectives of the Act and not aim to increase the amount of cannabis consumed or the number of Canadians who use cannabis.

The Government of Canada should support continued displacement of the illicit market, while maintaining measures that protect public health and public safety. Continued monitoring of the legal share of the total market, relying on a combination of information sources that are sensitive to emerging trends, will be important to guide policymaking and priority-setting across all levels of government.

Health Canada should reduce the financial and administrative burden it places on participants in the legal industry. We recommend Health Canada accelerate its work to reduce unnecessary regulatory burden, informed by the experience gained over the last 5 years. It appears there is room to revise certain regulatory requirements without compromising public health or public safety.

Industry players have repeatedly called on the Government of Canada to reform the excise tax regime, particularly for dried cannabis where price decreases have substantially increased the tax burden for industry. We recognize that Finance Canada has committed to monitoring this issue, but we see an opportunity to update tax policy to reflect the current reality and to encourage positive changes in cannabis use behaviour by developing a progressive excise tax regime. This would involve higher-potency products being subject to more tax than lower-potency products.

At the outset of legalization, there was a missed opportunity to address the harms of prohibition. The Government of Canada has a role to play in encouraging the participation of marginalized and racialized groups in the industry, and to support inclusivity and remove barriers to success. Health Canada and its partners should take a comprehensive approach that looks beyond the issuance of a licence, to include pre- and post-licensing supports, and take a broad view of diversity so that policies and programs consider how to support the inclusion of smaller-sized businesses across the country.

We would like to see substantial improvements in the state of knowledge about the differential impacts of legalization on equity-deserving groups, as well as measures taken to address identified issues.

Adult access

The available information indicates that access to legal cannabis has improved since the Act came into force in October 2018. It appears that most adult Canadians who wish to obtain cannabis can do so from legal sources. However, we observed some geographical differences in ease of access, notably in the North.

One of the issues we heard most about was the amount of THC permitted in edible cannabis products. While industry stakeholders favoured increasing the limit to encourage consumers to shift to the legal market, public health stakeholders opposed this, citing concerns about the potential impact on child poisonings, cannabis-related emergency room visits and mental health impacts. Given these concerns, we believe Health Canada should maintain the current limit of 10 milligrams of THC per package in edible cannabis products and continue to develop the knowledge base in this area to determine whether there are conditions under which the limit could be raised without unduly impacting public health.

Criminal activity and displacement of the illicit market

Consumers who wish to access legal, regulated cannabis can do so, and we are encouraged by the evidence we have seen on the transition of adult consumers to the legal cannabis market, but more needs to be done.

We are also encouraged that legal access has reduced some of the negative social impacts on individuals, especially in terms of interactions with the justice system for the possession of cannabis.

However, we are concerned with the criminal activity that persists outside of the legal framework. The illicit production and sale of cannabis poses dangers to public safety (for example, illicit cannabis sales support other activities of organized crime, such as money laundering and possession of firearms) and to public health (for example, illicit products can carry greater risks than those available in the legal market because of inaccurately labelled cannabinoid content and the presence of contaminants).

We are also struck by the limited enforcement action. We appreciate that law enforcement does not have unlimited resources to address criminal activity and must prioritize; however, the integrity of the regime depends on deterring criminal activity and effective enforcement. Notwithstanding other priorities, we encourage law enforcement to focus their efforts on the involvement of organized crime, the diversion of cannabis from personal and designated production sites (where individuals register with Health Canada to produce their own cannabis for medical purposes), the proliferation of unauthorized retail stores on First Nations reserves (that is, stores that operate without approval from community leadership, or a provincial or territorial authorization) and the activities of illicit online sellers (who promote and sell with relative ease to youth and adults).

We also believe that the burden of enforcement should not fall entirely on the police. Health Canada, Public Safety Canada, provincial and territorial regulators and the Canadian public have a role to play in deterring illegal activity. There needs to be more collaboration between regulators and police forces to develop a comprehensive strategy to address illicit activity. Canadians also need information about the broader social harms they unintentionally encourage when they purchase from the illicit market.

Medical access

The legalization of cannabis has had a profound impact on how Canadians access cannabis. However, patients, health care professionals, medical regulatory bodies, municipalities and law enforcement have all voiced concerns about how the system of access to cannabis for medical purposes is working. Many patients are concerned that they do not have reasonable access to cannabis for medical purposes from licensed sellers, while health care professionals and medical regulatory bodies continue to have concerns about the lack of evidence to guide clinical decisions. Municipalities and law enforcement have serious concerns about the abuse of the personal and designated production program, and how cannabis is diverted from this program into the illicit market. We heard that some health care professionals authorizing cannabis for medical purposes accept financial incentives from industry, a practice that would be considered unacceptable in the context of prescription medications.

We see a need to maintain a distinct medical access program, with improvements, to better support patients and to better address the problems caused by bad actors in the personal and designated production program.

We appreciate that there are still significant gaps in the evidence base and recognize that cannabis is not a suitable treatment for all individuals and all health conditions, nor is its use risk-free. At the same time, there is a need to continue to support patients to access cannabis for medical purposes. Clinical guidance is required to increase the knowledge and understanding of health care professionals related to cannabis for medical purposes.

In our view, an important improvement to the medical access regime would be the establishment of an in-person pharmacy access channel. We recognize that establishing a pharmacy access channel cannot happen overnight. It would require regulatory changes from Health Canada and consultation with interested provinces and territories and regulatory authorities for pharmacists. Pharmacy access would have benefits for patients by addressing concerns about delays with mail delivery and product shortages and would allow patients to consult with a pharmacist and discuss potential drug interactions or side effects.

We recognize that Health Canada has made progress in reducing the number of registrations in the personal and designated production program, and the number of plants grown under these registrations. We encourage the department to continue to carefully scrutinize applications and to refuse or revoke those that pose risks to public health and public safety. Limiting the ability of multiple individuals to grow plants at the same site would also reduce the risks associated with this program.

Research and surveillance

Five years after the legalization of cannabis, many critical knowledge gaps remain. Priorities must be set to guide investments in research, helping to fill gaps in the evidence base and guide future policy decisions. We encourage this priority-setting to be done quickly, and for the necessary funding to be made available to support this research.

In addition to research to fill knowledge gaps, there must be continued surveillance of cannabis-related behaviours and cannabis-related health effects.

Looking ahead

Our review fulfills the requirement in section 151.1 of the Act, but the Act refers only to a single review. We believe there should be similar reviews at regular intervals to ensure the impacts of the framework are assessed over time. While mandated reviews of the Act would provide important opportunities to take stock, we also encourage federal, provincial and territorial governments to evaluate their frameworks, including laws, regulations, policies, programs and interventions, on an ongoing basis.

Recommendations

Recommendation 1: The Government of Canada should allocate sufficient funding and resources to ensure the effective implementation of the cannabis framework, including the ability to address emerging public health and public safety issues.

Public health

Recommendation 2: Health Canada should set and monitor targets for reducing youth and young adult cannabis use and cannabis-related harms.

Recommendation 3: Health Canada should redouble its efforts to inform Canadians about the potential risks to children that can arise from accidental exposure to cannabis products (irrespective of the product's origin) and provide advice to consumers on where and how to store cannabis safely.

Recommendation 4: Health Canada should take a leadership role, working in collaboration with provinces and territories, to support the development and implementation of evidence-based school prevention programs and other interventions to reduce the prevalence of youth cannabis use. Federal, provincial and territorial governments should consider committing a portion of cannabis revenues to fund evidence-based public health interventions, including prevention programming for youth and young adults.

Recommendation 5: Health Canada should establish a representative youth advisory board on cannabis to provide a mechanism to engage with youth and young adults on cannabis and related issues. This forum should allow young Canadians to share their knowledge, insights and feedback on cannabis policy, regulatory initiatives and non-regulatory programs that would affect them and their peers.

Recommendation 6: Health Canada should take steps to mitigate the risks associated with cannabis products that contain higher quantities or concentrations of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), including working to establish a definition of higher-potency cannabis products and applying additional health warnings that inform consumers about the elevated risks of these products. We offer a separate recommendation on the use of tax policy to disincentivize the consumption of higher-potency cannabis products. If the current trend towards consuming higher-potency cannabis cannot be halted or reversed, then Health Canada should be ready to implement additional product regulations. To be effective, such regulatory measures should be accompanied by strategies to prevent the illicit market from occupying this market segment.

Recommendation 7: Health Canada should maintain key promotion and plain packaging and labelling requirements, including restrictions on characteristics that are appealing to youth, child-resistant packaging and limits on the use of logos, colours and branding, that are aimed at protecting children and youth, and prohibitions on promotions that imply wellness or lifestyle enhancement.

Recommendation 8: Health Canada should ensure the cannabis industry is provided with clear guidance on the promotion restrictions and packaging and labelling requirements, including correcting misperceptions about what information is, and is not, allowed on product labels (or in cannabis promotions).

Recommendation 9: Health Canada should regularly revise health warning messages to ensure they are appropriate to the product, reflect up-to-date evidence on the health risks associated with cannabis and are impactful in communicating these risks. Additionally, Health Canada should reinstate health warning messages that pertain to serious cannabis-related mental health risks, including psychosis and schizophrenia.

Recommendation 10: Health Canada should revise the packaging and labelling rules that apply to all cannabis products to more clearly convey information on delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) quantity or concentration to adult consumers, by simplifying product labels and allowing the display of only "total THC" and "total CBD" for each unit and for the package, and by requiring larger font sizes to display THC and CBD quantity (or concentration).

Recommendation 11: Health Canada should consider allowing some portion of a cannabis package (for dried cannabis and fresh cannabis only) to be transparent, without undermining the intent of plain packaging requirements and other labelling rules to protect children.

Recommendation 12: Health Canada should revise the packaging and labeling rules to allow for the display of certain symbols that convey useful information to the consumer (for example, symbols related to organic certification or recycling), ensuring that permitted symbols do not serve as an inducement to youth or non-consumers.

Recommendation 13: Health Canada should revise packaging and labelling rules to allow the use of QR codes on product labels to convey factual information to consumers, within the constraints of what is currently permitted on labels or in cannabis promotions.

Recommendation 14: Health Canada should develop a "standard dose" or "unit dose" (as appropriate for different classes of cannabis). The development of a standard dose should be prioritized and accompanied by regulatory amendments to require it as an element on cannabis product labels.

Recommendation 15: Health Canada should be vigilant with its regulatory enforcement efforts, with priority given to taking action against regulated parties who do not comply with rules that protect youth and to taking action when regulated parties repeatedly demonstrate non-compliance.

First Nations, Inuit and Métis

Recommendation 16: The Government of Canada, including Indigenous Services Canada, should continue to enhance and expand distinctions-based health, public health and mental health wellness supports, that are culturally appropriate, trauma-informed and in partnership with First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities.

Recommendation 17: We agree with the Standing Senate Committee on Indigenous Peoples that Health Canada and Indigenous Services Canada should work with Indigenous Peoples and communities to establish and fund a research strategy on cannabis and its effects on Indigenous Peoples and communities, recognizing that this research should be led, owned and used by First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities.

Recommendation 18: Health Canada should commit to co-developing culturally appropriate, evidence-based materials and programs to disseminate cannabis-related health information on a distinctions-basis with First Nations, Inuit and Métis.

Recommendation 19: The Government of Canada should take steps to amend the definition of intoxicant in the Indian Act to enable First Nations band councils to enact bylaws regarding cannabis.

Recommendation 20: We agree with the Standing Senate Committee on Indigenous Peoples that the Government of Canada, as it develops legislation in collaboration with the provinces and the territories, and First Nations governments, should establish legislative mechanisms for the enforcement of band bylaws and other laws related to cannabis by all police services, and to ensure that related offences can be investigated and prosecuted effectively.

Recommendation 21: We agree with the Standing Senate Committee on Indigenous Peoples that the Government of Canada should ensure adequate funding and training is available to First Nations communities for the policing and enforcement of band bylaws related to cannabis to better protect public health and public safety. We also encourage the Public Prosecution Service of Canada and other agencies at the provincial and territorial level to support training efforts for prosecutors on the laws of First Nations communities.

Recommendation 22: Health Canada should better advertise and evaluate existing supports for Indigenous licence applicants to determine if they are meeting needs in an effective way. Health Canada should also apply the recommendations we have made on broader measures to support equity-deserving groups and micro-licence applicants and holders to Indigenous applicants.

Recommendation 23: Health Canada should take immediate steps to co-develop, with First Nations, Inuit and Métis, amendments to the Cannabis Act to better protect public health and public safety in Indigenous communities. These amendments should authorize the Minister to enter into nation-to-nation agreements with interested First Nations, Inuit and Métis to control commercial cannabis activities in their communities, when certain minimum standards are met. Over the longer-term, it is our hope that learnings and outcomes from these agreements and other processes could be used to inform the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples implementation work for cannabis.

Recommendation 24: We agree with the Standing Senate Committee on Indigenous Peoples that Finance Canada should work with First Nations to identify options for the development of an excise tax-sharing framework as part of its discussions on fuel, alcohol, cannabis and tobacco taxes.

Recommendation 25: Health Canada should prioritize and accelerate its work on regulatory streamlining to reduce the administrative burden on federal licence holders, while ensuring that the public health and public safety objectives of the Cannabis Act are not compromised.

Recommendation 26: Health Canada should amend the regulations to allow cultivators, including micro-cultivators, to sell packaged and labelled dried or fresh cannabis directly to distributors. Cultivators should be required to follow the same quality assurance and testing requirements for dried cannabis that apply to processors.

Recommendation 27: Finance Canada should consider a review of the excise tax model, recognizing that it was originally designed when the average price of dried cannabis was significantly higher than it is today. Further, Finance Canada should consider making reforms to the excise tax regime that would discourage the consumption of higher-risk cannabis products, for example, by applying progressively larger duties on cannabis products with higher quantities or concentrations of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) (or other intoxicating cannabinoids).

Recommendation 28: Health Canada should be more transparent with the data it holds on the state of the cannabis market and ensure that prospective licence applicants are provided with this information, in sufficient detail, to allow them to assess the feasibility of their business plans based on current market conditions.

Recommendation 29: Health Canada, in consultation with Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, should establish and support an expert advisory body to conduct a timely review of the regulation of industrial hemp and make recommendations about the most appropriate regulatory framework.

Recommendation 30: Health Canada should carefully examine, and where appropriate revise, its approach to regulatory fees for equity-deserving groups and micro-licence holders. This examination should include an assessment of how regulatory fees could be modified to promote greater diversity among participants in the legal cannabis market.

Recommendation 31: Health Canada should work with relevant departments to ensure that federal licence holders and applicants, particularly small and equity-deserving businesses, are informed of existing programs (such as for grants and loans), incentives and supports that may assist them in establishing and running their businesses. Health Canada should offer post-licensing supports to help these companies navigate regulatory compliance and other business-related responsibilities.

Recommendation 32: The Government of Canada should consider whether offences under the Cannabis Act should be considered under the automatic record sequestration process that will come into force in November 2024.

Recommendation 33: Health Canada should enhance and expand informational materials and educational programs related to cannabis for equity-deserving groups and subpopulations, in partnership with these communities, to ensure they are non-stigmatizing and culturally appropriate.

Recommendation 34: Health Canada should regularly collect and analyze demographic data from licence holders to assess diversity in the industry (including ownership, leadership and the workforce). Health Canada should publish this information in a timely manner to allow the public to monitor the diversity of representation in the industry.

Recommendation 35: The Government of Canada should make substantial improvements in the systematic collection and publication of data related to cannabis that is disaggregated by relevant demographic indicators, such as race. Appropriate data safeguards must be in place to protect privacy and prevent further stigmatization.

Recommendation 36: The Government of Canada should establish indicators related to the environmental impacts of the cannabis industry, collect baseline data and continue to monitor these indicators and their trends. The Government of Canada should publish this information in a timely manner to allow the public to monitor progress.

Recommendation 37: Health Canada should maintain the current limit of 10 milligrams of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) per package in edible cannabis products and continue to develop the research in this area to determine whether there are conditions under which the limit could be raised without unduly impacting public health.

Recommendation 38: Health Canada should provide Canadians who choose to grow cannabis at home with information on the potential risks associated with home cultivation, as well as practical advice on how to grow and store cannabis safely.

Recommendation 39: The Government of Canada should work with provincial and territorial governments to help consumers identify legal retailers and products, especially online, and prioritize public communication on the health risks associated with illicit products.

Recommendation 40: The Government of Canada should consider creating authorities to compel Internet service providers to block illicit cannabis websites and to compel financial service operators to provide financial information that helps identify illicit online operators.

Recommendation 41: In order to provide access and continued support to patients who rely on the medical access program, Health Canada should maintain the program under the Cannabis Regulations , with the improvements set out in this report.

Recommendation 42: To improve patient access to cannabis for medical purposes, Health Canada should permit pharmacies to distribute cannabis products to individuals holding a medical authorization from a health care professional. Provinces and territories and the regulatory authorities for pharmacists should consider supporting this new access channel for patients once federal changes are made.

Recommendation 43: Health Canada should encourage additional research on the therapeutic use of cannabis in Canada, without compromising the frameworks established for the review and authorization of clinical trials and health products. Health Canada should support a transparent process to identify the specific potential therapeutic applications of cannabis that would benefit most from additional study.

Recommendation 44: Health Canada should establish and maintain a knowledge hub that provides up-to-date evidence and information on the use of cannabis for medical purposes for health care professionals and the public.

Recommendation 45: Health Canada, in partnership with provinces, territories, patients and health care professionals, should support the development and dissemination of national clinical guidance documents related to cannabis for medical purposes to increase the knowledge and understanding of health care professionals. These documents should cover issues such as: indications for which there is a sufficient evidence base of effectiveness, how to monitor patients, and how to track and report adverse reactions.

Recommendation 46: Health Canada should prioritize efforts to move beyond a distinct medical access program so that cannabis is considered within standard drug approval pathways and part of conventional medical care. This should start with the rapid advancement of a pathway for cannabis health products containing cannabidiol (CBD). The department should also establish a science advisory committee to review the evidence related to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).

Recommendation 47: To support patient care, Health Canada should amend the regulatory requirements related to the medical document to allow health care professionals to include specific information about the product format and dose of cannabis for the patient, similar to prescriptions for other substances.

Recommendation 48: To address public safety concerns, Health Canada should limit the number of registrations for personal or designated production of cannabis for medical purposes at a single site (where 4 are currently allowed, decrease to 1 registrant per site).

Recommendation 49: Health Canada should build on its recent efforts to seek additional clinical justifications from health care professionals authorizing high daily amounts and consider whether and how additional scrutiny could be applied. Health Canada should use its regulatory authorities to refuse and revoke applications that are deemed to pose a risk to public health or public safety.

Recommendation 50: Finance Canada should review whether the excise tax should be applied to cannabis for medical purposes products.

Recommendation 51: Health Canada, Public Safety Canada, Statistics Canada, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research and other partners should work with stakeholders, including those with lived and living experience and from marginalized communities, to identify key research priorities. This prioritization effort should guide ongoing investment in cannabis-related research.

Recommendation 52: Health Canada, Public Safety Canada, Statistics Canada and other partners should support ongoing surveillance and monitoring activities for cannabis that are responsive to the variety of potential impacts of cannabis and cannabis legalization, including monitoring the state of the cannabis market, social equity impacts and environmental consequences of cannabis legalization.

Recommendation 53: Health Canada should take steps to develop an amendment to the Cannabis Act to mandate periodic independent reviews of the legislation to regularly monitor its impacts. Consideration of the social equity impacts of the legislation should be mandated as an element of future reviews.

Recommendation 54: In addition to regular independent reviews of the Cannabis Act, Health Canada should conduct ongoing evaluation of the cannabis program, and implement any necessary changes.

Observations

Observation 1: Federal, provincial and territorial governments should allocate a portion of cannabis revenues to fund cannabis-related public health and public safety initiatives.

Observation 2: Distributors and retailers should stock cannabis products with diverse ranges of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) quantities or concentrations and take steps to encourage customers to choose lower-THC products whenever appropriate.

Observation 3: Provinces and territories should allow more flexibility in their distribution and retail systems, both through incentives (lower mark-ups, for example) and, for those provinces with publicly-controlled retail, creating space for Indigenous owned and operated retail stores.

Observation 4: Provincial and territorial governments should consider permitting direct-to-consumer sales from smaller cultivators and processors (farmgate, or mail order within a jurisdiction), in a way that allows smaller players to generate and keep more revenue than they would by selling cannabis through distributors.

Observation 5: Provincial and territorial distributors should consider regularly reviewing their mark-ups, fees, purchasing practices and the amount of shelf space they allocate to different products and different licence holders, including those from equity-deserving groups, to improve the prospects for the many smaller-sized companies that are currently struggling.

Observation 6: Law enforcement should focus its efforts on the activities of organized crime and criminal networks, the diversion of cannabis from sites registered for personal and designated production, the proliferation of retail stores on First Nations reserves operating without provincial, territorial or community authorization and illicit online sellers. There is also a role for regulatory authorities to play in combatting the illicit market.

Observation 7: Provincial and territorial governments should consider creating authorities to compel Internet service providers to block illicit cannabis websites and to compel financial service operators to provide financial information that helps identify illicit online operators.

Observation 8: Parliamentarians should consider how the proposed Online Harms Act could be used to protect children and youth from the harms associated with exposure to substances, including cannabis.

Observation 9: Law enforcement should prioritize enforcement of cannabis-impaired driving, supported by appropriate resources and additional training of officers, particularly for rural and remote police services.

Observation 10: The regulators for health care professionals should use their authorities to investigate and sanction health professionals with problematic authorization practices.

Observation 11: Provincial and territorial regulatory authorities should require health care professionals (including physicians, nurse practitioners, and, if applicable, pharmacists) to disclose financial relationships with licence holders. This work could build on existing policies governing health professional relationships with the pharmaceutical industry.

Setting the context for the legislative review

The control framework under the Cannabis Act (the Act) marks a radical departure from a century of prohibition. The decision by Parliament to require an independent review 3 years after the Act's coming into force is an implicit acknowledgement that there would likely be gaps between what Parliament intended to achieve with the legislation and other supporting measures, and the practical implementation of those elements.

In legalizing and regulating cannabis, Parliament opted to replace the regime of prohibition with one based on the protection of public health and public safety. The rationale for this approach was to better protect youth, displace the illicit market and provide adults with a legal source of quality-controlled cannabis. Legalization also results in societal benefits, including lessening the harms of convictions for simple cannabis possession, disrupting the control of cannabis trade by organized crime and minimizing the danger this trade poses to communities, and addressing the health risks associated with using illicit supply. We feel it is important to emphasize that the message of the Act is not that cannabis is harmless, but that Parliament chose an approach based on public health and public safety, rather than prohibition. We believe the focus should remain on the public health (including mental health) and social consequences of regular and heavy use of cannabis, as well as the impact on vulnerable populations.

It has been 5 years since the Act came into force and Canada's experience with this new public health approach to cannabis is still in its early days. Given this, there has been limited time to collect data and evaluate results, and barriers to research remain. These limitations hindered our efforts to assess the impacts of legalization, and they also negatively impact the collective understanding about the potential risks and benefits of cannabis use.

Throughout the review, it became clear that stakeholders have different understandings of the definition and application of "public health" and "public safety". Generally, public health stakeholders were less willing to accept any relaxation of public health controls to transition consumers from the illicit to the legal market. They were primarily focused on public health objectives and accept that certain consumers will continue to purchase from the illicit market. Industry stakeholders, however, were generally of the view that the illicit market poses a significant problem for public health and public safety. They advocated for measures that would attract more consumers to the legal market and greater enforcement against illicit actors. We believe that the current framework is a balanced combination of these perspectives; it implements a range of controls and enables other measures, while also allowing for the sale of a wide variety of cannabis products to adults who choose to use cannabis.

Examining the foundational objectives of the Act

We recognized that the core of the regime, and thus the starting point for this review, is the purpose set out in section 7 of the Act. It sets out that the objectives of the legislation are to protect public health and public safety and, in particular, to:

• protect the health of young persons by restricting their access to cannabis
• protect young persons and others from inducements to use cannabis
• provide for the licit production of cannabis to reduce illicit activities in relation to cannabis
• deter illicit activities in relation to cannabis through appropriate sanctions and enforcement measures
• reduce the burden on the criminal justice system in relation to cannabis
• provide access to a quality-controlled supply of cannabis
• enhance public awareness of the health risks associated with cannabis use

All the elements of section 7 can be viewed as the means by which the Government of Canada aims to protect public health and public safety. These are the overarching objectives of the Act. We note the specific reference to the protection of the health of young persons.

Section 7 also specifies that providing for a legal supply of cannabis is a means of achieving the public safety objective of reducing illicit activity in relation to cannabis, as well as the public health goal of providing access to a quality-controlled supply of cannabis for those who choose to consume it. The commercial market permitted by the cannabis framework must therefore be viewed in terms of supporting the public health and public safety goals of the Act.

We carefully considered issues related to the sustainability of the legal industry and its ability to provide a quality-controlled supply of cannabis for adults, as well as issues related to social equity and diversity in the industry. However, in formulating our advice on how to better achieve a sustainable cannabis industry, we took care not to compromise the overarching objectives of the Act.

In supporting the objectives of the Act, deterring illegal activity requires both appropriate sanctions (that is, offences and penalties) and enforcement. The Act sets out appropriate sanctions; however, the legislation itself cannot mandate enforcement. Sanctions without effective enforcement risk undermining the objectives of the Act.

Section 7 also notes that an objective is to enhance public awareness of the health risks associated with cannabis use. We feel that such activities require the ongoing provision of information, supported by the best available evidence, as well as prevention initiatives, supported by sustained investment. Improving the awareness of the health risks associated with cannabis for different segments of society is important.

Many risks of cannabis use are well known. For example, there is substantial evidence that early initiation and frequent use of cannabis, especially high-potency products, can lead to addiction, that use during pregnancy is associated with low birth weight and that frequent use and use of high-potency products are associated with the development of schizophrenia or psychosis.

However, there remain very significant knowledge gaps on the risks and benefits of cannabis use. This is also true of the impacts of the new framework, and it may take many years to fully assess its impacts. Section 7 of the Act is silent on the need for continuous research and surveillance. Yet without continued investments in these areas, future efforts to evaluate the impacts of the new approach will be hindered. This is a theme that emerges throughout this report and has led to several of our recommendations.

Finally, we note that section 7 does not include the generation of revenue as an objective of the Act. We agree with the Task Force on Cannabis Legalization and Regulation (a group of experts that advised the Government of Canada on the design of the framework in 2016) that "revenue generation should be a secondary consideration for all governments, with the protection and promotion of public health and safety as the primary goals". Footnote 3 Yet, we note that governments have been the primary beneficiaries of revenue generated from the sale of cannabis.

We believe that Parliament's objectives for the legislation, set out in section 7, will not be achieved without sustained resources.

In preparing this report, we sought to identify key issues and make recommendations in areas where we felt reforms or additional resources were needed. We did not undertake cost analyses or specify the appropriate level of investment or funding. We recognize that in some circumstances difficult decisions will need to be made about when, or the extent to which, our recommendations can be implemented. While some new investments may be required, we encourage all levels of government to consider how existing resources can be redirected, and to consider how cannabis fits into broader priorities (for example, investment in mental health and addictions services, prevention programs, consumer information, and research and surveillance).

We engaged with stakeholders and experts between December 2022 and January 2024 to gather evidence and perspectives related to the areas we were asked to review. We approached stakeholder engagement with humility; we listened and learned from the perspectives shared with us, including those from people with lived and living experience. We acknowledge that barriers exist for many groups in engaging in processes like this review, including historical power imbalances, resource or capacity limitations and access issues. We took measures to address some of these barriers, including offering various modes of participation and making use of trusted interlocutors, such as community leaders and youth advocates, to help facilitate conversations and hear diverse voices.

We hope that we have captured the breadth and nuances of these perspectives and acknowledge that any errors are our own.

Summary of engagement process

We engaged with:

• researchers and academics in various fields (including public health, public safety, criminal justice and economics)
• health care professionals, organizations and regulatory authorities
• people working in the areas of public health and harm reduction
• youth and youth advocates
• First Nations, Inuit and Métis (including leaders, governments, community organizations, representatives from National Indigenous Organizations, police and health services, industry members and Elders)
• the cannabis industry (including federal licence holders, distributors, regulators, retailers and industry associations)
• equity-deserving groups
• people with diverse lived and living experience
• international policy leaders
• various levels of government
• law enforcement representatives
• stakeholders involved in the use of cannabis for medical purposes (including patients and their caregivers, patient advocacy groups, researchers, health care professionals, cannabis clinics and those operating outside of the medical access system)

In our engagement with First Nations, Inuit and Métis, we adopted a distinctions-based approach. Footnote 1 This included tailoring aspects of our discussions to the unique goals and priorities of First Nations, Inuit and Métis, recognizing each has different ways of knowing. We sought to engage at the individual, community, regional and national levels, and were honoured to have been invited to visit some communities in person. We acknowledge that we were only able to meet with a small fraction of nations.

Before we were appointed, Health Canada launched an online engagement process, supported by 2 engagement papers: Taking stock of progress: Cannabis legalization and regulation in Canada and Summary from engagement with First Nations, Inuit and Métis Peoples: The Cannabis Act and its impacts . Health Canada received over 2,100 responses to their online questionnaires and over 200 written submissions. We received a briefing on the results of this online engagement process and were provided access to the submissions received. We thank all those who took the time to submit their views in that process.

Overview of engagement activities

We used a range of methods to conduct our engagement. These activities occurred with stakeholders throughout Canada, through in-person meetings, videoconferences and in a hybrid format. As described in our What We Heard Report , we initially engaged with stakeholders on a one-on-one basis and by sector. This afforded stakeholders the opportunity to provide us with comprehensive perspectives on their key issues.

In total, we:

• met with over 600 individuals from over 250 organizations in nearly 140 meetings
• completed 10 sector-based roundtable meetings (public health, justice and public safety, industry, 3 meetings with patients and advocates, 2 meetings with youth and young adult advocates, multi-sectoral roundtable on public health and industry issues, multi-sectoral roundtable on medical access)
• completed 5 roundtables focused on issues related to diversity, equity and inclusion (women in the industry, issues specific to Black Canadians, social equity issues, harm reduction measures, learnings from other jurisdictions)
• undertook distinctions-based engagement activities with First Nations, Inuit and Métis (this included meetings with: British Columbia-based First Nations, organized in partnership with the First Nations Leadership Council; representatives of the 4 Inuit regions, organized in partnership with Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami and Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada; the Manitoba Métis Federation; the Métis National Council; the Assembly of First Nations; the Anishinabek Nation; the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne; the Mohawk Council of Kahnawà:ke; Samson Cree Nation; Shxwhá:y Village; Six Nations of the Grand River; Tyendinaga [Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte]; Williams Lake First Nation)
• visited sites of licence holders involved in cultivation and processing, retail stores, harm reduction sites and cannabis clinics
• engaged with stakeholders operating outside of federal, provincial or territorial licensing frameworks
• heard from the Students Commission of Canada, which facilitated roundtables with youth on our behalf
• received over 250 written submissions

A full list of the stakeholders we engaged with is in Appendix B. While significant effort was made to ensure we heard from a broad range of voices, we acknowledge that some viewpoints may be more limited. In keeping with our commitment to those we engaged with, we have not attributed comments to specific individuals or organizations, unless their views are in the public domain or the stakeholder requested it.

We would like to thank everyone who generously gave us their time and energy in sharing their perspectives, whether in writing or in a discussion. We hope that this first review marks the beginning of a continuing review process where diverse groups are engaged regularly to assess the cannabis legislative framework and its implementation.

On October 17, 2018, Canada became the first major developed nation in the world to legalize and regulate cannabis when the  Cannabis Act (the Act) and its regulations came into force. The purpose of the Act is to protect public health and public safety, including by providing access to a quality-controlled supply of cannabis, and by enhancing public awareness of the health risks associated with cannabis use.

The Act recognizes federal, provincial and territorial authorities with respect to the production, distribution and sale of cannabis. These include authorities that enable the Government of Canada (the Minister of Health) to issue licences and permits authorizing activities such as production, import, export and sale. The provinces and territories have all exercised authority over the distribution and sale of cannabis under provincial and territorial law. The Act does not set out authorities related to First Nations, Inuit or Métis governments.

The federal framework

Under the Act, the Government of Canada is responsible for licensing various activities with respect to the production of cannabis (including industrial hemp), including cultivation, processing and testing, as well as associated activities, such as possession, distribution, sale and research with cannabis. The Government of Canada also establishes and oversees compliance with the rules that apply to cultivating and manufacturing cannabis for commercial sale, including:

• the requirements to obtain a licence (for example, physical and personnel security measures)
• the types of cannabis products that can be made available for sale
• the rules that apply to the production and formulation of cannabis products, including mandatory testing requirements and delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) quantity or concentration limits
• the packaging and labelling requirements for cannabis products
• the tracking requirements that apply to those authorized to produce and sell cannabis to prevent diversion and inversion of cannabis out of or into the legal system

The Government of Canada is also responsible for overseeing a framework to provide access to cannabis for medical purposes under the Act. This framework enables Canadians, including young persons, to access cannabis for their medical needs from commercially-licensed sellers or through personal or designated production.

The Act prohibits the promotion of cannabis, cannabis accessories or related services, except in limited circumstances. Prohibited promotions include those that:

• are considered appealing to young persons
• are false, misleading or deceptive
• are likely to create an erroneous impression about the health effects of cannabis or evoke a positive emotion or image of a way of life (for example, glamour)
• use sponsorship, testimonials or endorsements
• depict a person, celebrity, character or an animal

The Act does permit promotion, under specific conditions, to help adult consumers make informed decisions about cannabis. For example, it allows for informational promotion, such as price and availability (that is, information about how it can be obtained), as well as brand-preference promotion (such as promotion on attributes of the cannabis like "sun grown" or "organic"), in material addressed to adults over the age of 18 or in places where youth are not permitted by law.

The Act contains a series of criminal offences and sanctions (for example, ticketing and imprisonment) to deter illicit activity related to cannabis, with exceptions for certain individuals and authorized parties.

Control measures in the Act include:

Restricting youth (people below 18 years of age) from accessing cannabis

• Prohibiting youth from possessing more than 5 grams of dried cannabis (or its equivalent in other classes of cannabis)

Controlling access to cannabis for adults of legal age

• Prohibiting individuals and organizations from selling cannabis, unless authorized to do so under the Act
• Limiting adult possession in public to 30 grams of dried cannabis (or its equivalent in other classes of cannabis)
• Limiting home cultivation to 4 plants per dwelling-house

Protecting public safety

• Prohibiting production, distribution and sale, unless authorized
• Prohibiting distribution and sale to youth
• Prohibiting import and export, with exceptions for licence holders with a permit and only for a scientific or medical purpose (or in respect of industrial hemp)

The implementation of the Act and its regulations is supported by various activities related to licensing, regulatory compliance and enforcement, criminal enforcement, research and surveillance, and public education, such as:

• issuing and renewing licences and security clearances
• promoting and monitoring regulatory compliance, including through risk-based inspections of federal licence holders to determine whether requirements are being met (for example, whether cannabis products have been tested, if appropriate records are kept about production and sale)
• investigations, charges and court proceedings related to infractions of the criminal offences in the Act
• monitoring data to identify and track emerging trends and risks (for example, risks posed by new cannabis products)
• funding research on the public health and public safety impacts of legalization, the therapeutic potential of cannabis, the cannabis plant and its components, and social science research on topics such as stigma, diversity and inclusion
• providing public education to Canadians to educate and raise awareness of the health and safety risks associated with cannabis use, prevent problematic use and promote informed choices

Other elements of the federal cannabis framework are found in other pieces of legislation, including:

• Criminal Code : Laws related to impaired driving
• Excise Act, 2001 : Laws related to the duty payable on cannabis products by federal licence holders

Provincial, territorial and municipal roles and authorities

Provinces and territories are responsible for overseeing the distribution and sale of cannabis within their jurisdictions. They have established a range of distribution and retail models (public, private and hybrid), and must have legislation that subjects authorized sellers to the measures set out in section 69 of the Act . These measures are that the cannabis sold or distributed must be supplied by a federal licence holder, there be no sale to minors, there be appropriate records of their activities and they take adequate measures to protect against diversion of the cannabis to the illicit market.

Provinces and territories have the authority to establish additional controls, such as:

• increasing the minimum age for adult possession, but not lowering it (all provinces and territories have increased the minimum age to 19, except Alberta where the minimum age is 18 and Quebec where the minimum age is 21)
• lowering the personal possession limit (no provinces and territories have elected to do this)
• creating additional rules for growing cannabis at home, such as lowering the number of plants per residence (for example, home cultivation of cannabis is prohibited in Quebec and Manitoba)
• restricting where adults can consume cannabis, such as in public or in vehicles (all provinces and territories have placed prohibitions or limits on public consumption, with most aligning with their existing rules related to tobacco)
• limiting access to certain types of products (for example, Quebec has restricted certain types of edible cannabis products)

Local governments and municipalities may develop bylaws on issues such as zoning, public consumption and fire prevention.

While the Act addresses the role and authorities of federal, provincial and territorial governments, there is no similar recognition of First Nations, Inuit and Métis governments. Under other established legislation and authorities (for example, the Indian Act or municipal authorities), some additional laws or requirements can be created (for example, zoning bylaws), provided they do not conflict with the Act.

Social equity considerations

While the framework takes into account societal behaviours and social factors (for example, reducing harms for adult consumers and youth, reducing criminal activity and allowing adult access to quality-controlled cannabis), there are no social equity objectives or explicit measures for marginalized or disadvantaged groups, with the exception of certain flexibilities for licensing applications and supports for Indigenous and Indigenous-affiliated applicants. Footnote 4

Introduction

The framework implemented by the Cannabis Act (the Act) sought to balance multiple objectives, notably to protect public health and public safety while also providing access to a quality-controlled supply of cannabis. In providing their advice to the Government of Canada, the Task Force recognized that a balanced approach was most likely to achieve the government's public policy goals, and that both highly permissive and highly restrictive regimes would lead to health and social harms that would be unacceptable to Canadians.

The framework was designed to minimize the harms associated with cannabis use. A variety of instruments were used to achieve this, including legislative and regulatory controls on issues such as: production practices, product composition, ingredient standards and limits, delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) limits, and promotion, packaging and labelling requirements, among others. Footnote 5 , Footnote 6 Non-regulatory tools, including the dissemination of evidence-based information, research and surveillance activities, and financial support for community-based programs, also play important roles in minimizing the harms associated with cannabis use and protecting vulnerable populations.

The legalization of cannabis was a major policy shift in Canada, and the consequences of this change continue to emerge. In view of the ongoing evolution of cannabis use behaviours and the cannabis market, the limited time that has passed since legalization and the shortcomings in the evidence base, we have exercised caution in making our recommendations.

Concerning public health trends

Throughout our review, concerns were raised about the impacts of legalization on Canadian children and youth. Increasing reports of poisonings of children who have unintentionally consumed cannabis are troubling. While pre-legalization fears about increased use by adolescents have not materialized, use has not decreased in the same way that youth smoking and alcohol use have, and cannabis remains easy to access for those under the legal age. Footnote 7

There is a concerning shift toward increased prevalence of cannabis use and increasingly potent cannabis products in the legal market, including dried cannabis, vaping products and infused pre-rolled joints (that is, products with high quantities or concentrations of THC). As well, while the dramatic reductions in the price of cannabis seen over the past 5 years may be driven by economic forces, we worry that lower retail prices will likely contribute to increased consumption of cannabis and elevate the risk of cannabis-related harms (for example, addiction, psychosis, depression, anxiety).

Risks to youth and children

The research is clear that exposure to cannabis can disrupt normal brain development, which continues up to the age of 25. Earlier use and more intensive patterns of cannabis use increase the risk of serious adverse effects. The social and cultural normalization of substances, such as tobacco and alcohol, increases curiosity about these products, lessens the perceived risks and may influence individuals, especially youth, to underestimate their potential harm. Cannabis-related behaviours and perceptions should be monitored across all age groups to ensure that normalization of cannabis use among youth does not become an unintended consequence of legalization. There is a role for the Government of Canada to play in protecting youth from the harms of cannabis by discouraging normalization of cannabis use, fostering informed decision-making and helping youth to develop skills that will better protect them from the early use of substances (including cannabis).

While mass marketing campaigns may help to raise general awareness or provide basic, factual information, efforts to delay the start of cannabis use, and to encourage safer use among those young people that do use cannabis, should be thoroughly evaluated and based on solid evidence. Interventions (such as youth-focused interventions offered in schools relying on both evidence-based content and approaches) can be effective at addressing substance use among youth.

Academic studies and reports demonstrate increases in the number of children being poisoned as a result of accidentally consuming cannabis. Our What We Heard Report summarized several studies, and a more recent article provides updated figures on emergency department visits and hospitalizations for cannabis poisonings among children aged 0 to 11. The study found significant increases in emergency department visits for cannabis-related poisonings between 2015 and 2021 in Ontario and Alberta. Hospitalization data, available from all provinces and territories except Quebec, also showed significant increases in the rate of cannabis-related poisonings, from 0.5 per 100,000 in 2015 to 6.4 per 100,000 in 2021. Footnote 8

We are deeply concerned about this trend. Children should never be able to access cannabis and these poisonings should never occur. In a series of recommendations throughout this report, we emphasize the importance of maintaining key measures that protect children (for example, child-resistant packaging and a prohibition on products that appeal to youth, among others), call for more research in this area and recommend redoubled efforts to educate consumers, including parents and caregivers, about ways to prevent these poisonings. We also call on retailers and provinces and territories to provide information to consumers about how to safely store cannabis in their homes (discussed further in Chapter 9).

Protecting children, youth and young adults from the harms of cannabis

Balancing responsible and informed access to cannabis for adults while prioritizing the protection of youth is critical. We feel that it is important to avoid normalizing or glamorizing cannabis. While most Canadian youth do not use cannabis, a social norm which should be noted, rates of cannabis use among Canadian youth are among the highest in the world, and youth are more vulnerable to cannabis-related harms. While cannabis use among youth has been relatively stable, the 2023 Canadian Cannabis Survey noted an increase in use among youth aged 16 to 19 compared to the previous year (although the result was similar to 2019 and 2020). Footnote 9

To ensure the Government of Canada is clear about its goals, and to reduce cannabis-related harms experienced by youth, Health Canada should establish targets to reduce the prevalence of cannabis use among youth, drawing from lessons learned in tobacco control.

Ongoing monitoring of youth cannabis use, cannabis-related poisonings and other cannabis-related harms is necessary to avoid unintended and undesirable consequences of legalization. To identify important differences in the impact on different subpopulations, monitoring should include collection of disaggregated data and consider a variety of factors (for example, age, sex, gender, sexual orientation, race/ethnicity and types of cannabis products used). To support reductions in youth use and the harms that result from use, the Government of Canada should work with partners and implement a multi-faceted strategy to support prevention, encourage less harmful use and ensure availability of treatment to those that need it. Approaches that aim to reduce cannabis use and harms should include the development and implementation of targeted health interventions that meet the needs of specific populations, and that are responsive to emerging trends. Footnote 10

Addressing accidental exposures to cannabis

There are substantial knowledge gaps about cannabis-related poisonings, including the relative contribution of legal cannabis, homemade cannabis products and illicitly sourced cannabis. Irrespective of where they obtain it, adults must always store cannabis in locations that cannot be accessed by children. We recognize Health Canada has made efforts to inform the public of these risks and to educate consumers on the importance of safe storage, but with the rising number of childhood poisonings, we believe these efforts should be redoubled.

Additionally, we encourage other levels of government, distributors and retailers to also encourage consumers to store cannabis safely.

Informing consumers about the risks associated with cannabis

There is room for improvement in how Health Canada and other authorities disseminate cannabis information, both for youth and for the broader population. Initial federal communications efforts after legalization largely aimed to disseminate information about the legal regime (for example, what was and was not legal and rules on impaired driving and crossing borders), as well as to communicate the health risks of cannabis and how to lower risks associated with consumption (for example, the Lower-Risk Cannabis Use Guidelines published in 2017 and updated in 2021). Footnote 11 , Footnote 12 Health Canada has also supported targeted efforts to reach certain populations (for example, youth and parents), although certain risks (for example, cannabis-related psychosis) and certain populations (for example, people with a family or personal history of mental health disorders) have not received sufficient attention, in our view. Footnote 13

There is an opportunity to refocus these communication efforts by taking a more evidence-based approach to disseminating information on cannabis use and the associated risks and harms. More focus should be placed on the unique interests and needs of different consumer populations. Informational materials and other measures should be co-designed with the intended target group or population to help make the information accessible, relevant and reflective of their needs and lived experiences. Informational and education programs need to be fact-based, non-stigmatizing, culturally sensitive, regularly evaluated and adjusted accordingly.

Emphasizing the need for prevention programs

Providing information about cannabis to the general public, or to certain communities, is necessary but not sufficient. Further research is needed on the most effective ways to increase awareness, inform and educate as part of a broader strategy. Specifically, more research is needed on more intensive interventions like targeted prevention programs (for example, brief, personality-targeted, cognitive-behavioural interventions) and other interventions for frequent consumers and those at risk (for example, screening, referral to treatment). Footnote 14 Such measures also have important roles to play in reducing harms from cannabis at a population level.

We recommend that federal, provincial and territorial governments come together to fund and support the development and implementation of evidence-based school prevention programs and other interventions that equip youth to make better decisions about substance use (including cannabis), to avoid or delay the use of cannabis and other substances, and to engage in lower-risk substance use behaviours. We acknowledge the complexity of implementing these measures, and the need for collaboration and coordination among the educational system, researchers and organizations with expertise in developing, implementing and evaluating these kinds of programs.

Ensuring youth have a voice

We sought the perspectives of youth during our engagement and were impressed by the knowledge and insights that young Canadians shared with us. For example, we heard from youth that there is not enough reliable, unbiased, accessible and accurate information on cannabis that is tailored to them (such as the long-term effects of cannabis use, how it affects people differently and guidance on how cannabis can be used to respond to a medical condition).

Even though youth protection is a key objective of the cannabis framework, Health Canada does not have an established mechanism for engaging youth about cannabis. The Tobacco Youth Leadership Team is a model that could be adopted for cannabis. We encourage Health Canada to prioritize engagement with youth on cannabis, using a Sex and Gender-Based Analysis Plus lens.

Addressing high-potency cannabis products, novel products and their risks

The Act and its regulations permit the production of a wide range of cannabis products to allow the legal industry to innovate and compete with the illicit market. While the Task Force recognized the risks of consuming high-potency products, it ultimately recommended that these products be included as part of the regulated market and be subject to safety and quality-control measures to offer consumers a less harmful choice. The Task Force also noted that production practices for high-potency cannabis concentrates (for example, shatter) in the illicit market often involved toxic and flammable solvents that create risks of fires and explosions. In addition, the Task Force noted that without appropriate safeguards, harmful residues from these solvents could end up being concentrated in the illicit products and consumed. Health Canada regulates how licence holders manufacture such products to mitigate these risks.

The products available in the cannabis market today are different than the products that were used historically in cannabis research or that some groups of consumers may recall using in the past. In addition to increasing quantities or concentrations of THC, there are product innovations (for example, "fast-acting" edible cannabis), newer product formats and changing patterns of use. Products with large amounts of cannabidiol (CBD) are also available. Footnote 15 There are also unknown health risks related to the use of different types of cannabis products, including emissions from smoked and vaped cannabis.

Risks of high-potency cannabis products and novel products

While continued product innovation is expected, there must be recognition of the risks associated with high-potency products and with some novel products, particularly for youth. There has been a shift toward the sale and use of higher-potency cannabis products. For example, the majority of dried cannabis sold contains greater than 20% THC, and high-potency vaping products and infused pre-rolled joints appear to be gaining market share. The use of higher-potency cannabis products is likely to increase exposure to THC, which can increase the risks of adverse mental and physical health effects. Two recent studies (one examining emergency department visits in Ontario, and another examining hospitalizations in Alberta, British Columbia, Ontario and Quebec) describe increases in the rate of health care incidents for cannabis-related psychosis coinciding with the legal sale of additional classes of cannabis products (that is, cannabis extracts, edible cannabis, cannabis topicals) and commercial retail expansion. Footnote 16 , Footnote 17 Additional research is needed to investigate the relationship between the use of higher-potency cannabis products and cannabis-related harms, including psychosis.

We also note that while certain synthetic cannabinoids (for example, spice) are controlled by the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act and not by the Cannabis Act , they could pose a problem in the future and should be monitored.

Interventions to address high-potency products and novel products

We deliberated extensively on the topic of higher-potency cannabis products, taking into account all the evidence available, the data gaps and the differing points of view. Like the Task Force, we had to contemplate the unintended consequences of possible measures, including product regulation to limit THC quantities or concentrations in different cannabis products.

Ultimately, we feel that at this time, the best course of action is a combination of measures that aim to nudge consumers away from higher-potency cannabis products, while supporting research to better characterize the risks associated with these products and their use. First, research on the health effects of high-potency products and novel cannabinoids is necessary to further characterize the health consequences for different subpopulations. Footnote 18 Second, consumers need to be provided with options to choose lower-potency products, and with better information about the risks posed by high-potency products and novel cannabinoids. Third, Health Canada should exercise vigilance in its review of new cannabis product notifications to ensure the current rules are being followed. Finally, if the current trend toward higher-potency cannabis cannot be halted or reversed through labelling, consumer information, price disincentives and moral suasion (discussed below), then more aggressive product regulation should be considered. In Chapter 8, we offer a recommendation to use tax policy to encourage lower-risk cannabis consumption, calling on Finance Canada to consider applying progressively larger duties on cannabis products with higher quantities or concentrations of THC (or other intoxicating cannabinoids).

Advancing research on high-potency and novel products

Determining the appropriate interventions to address high-potency and novel products requires a better understanding of the effects of these products. However, research has not kept pace with the evolution of cannabis products, nor with changes in cannabis-related behaviours. The Government of Canada should provide adequate and ongoing support for research on the health effects of high-potency cannabis products and novel cannabinoids. There are many unknowns about certain cannabinoids (such as intoxicating cannabinoids like cannabinol [CBN] or delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol), combinations of cannabinoids and formulations that are intended to increase the intoxicating potential of products (such as those that are "fast-acting"). In view of emerging concerns about increased use of higher-potency cannabis products and the corresponding health consequences, it is important that current gaps in knowledge be addressed through timely investment in research.

Providing consumers with information and lower-risk options

Steps should be taken to increase consumer awareness about the potential risks of consuming large quantities of THC, and to assist consumers in making decisions about lower-risk cannabis use. We see merit in establishing an appropriate definition for high-potency products and implementing 1 or more new health warning messages to inform consumers about the elevated risks of these products. Other labelling initiatives, including the establishment of a standard dose discussed later in this chapter, may also help to convey the intoxicating potential of a given product to consumers and nudge consumer behaviour towards lower-potency and lower-risk products. We advise Health Canada to think carefully about the terminology in this area, and in the design of any additional labelling, to avoid any unintended consequences where these measures become a promotional tactic for companies attempting to promote the THC content of their product, or to imply that lower-potency products are "safe".

While Health Canada regulates the production of cannabis, it does not control the purchasing policies of provincial and territorial distributors or the product mix that is made available to adult Canadians in legal retail stores and online. Footnote 19 We appreciate that distributors and retailers aim to meet customer demands; however, we would like to see distributors and retailers take steps to diversify their product offerings to include a greater selection of lower-potency cannabis products. This may nudge consumers to choose lower-potency cannabis products.

Monitoring the introduction of new cannabis products

The federal cannabis compliance and enforcement framework enables surveillance and provides tools to take action to address issues with products already on the market (such as warning letters, public advisories, product recalls, administrative monetary penalties, licence suspensions and licence revocations). There are a number of legislative and regulatory requirements that licence holders are subject to, including restrictions on the use of certain ingredients. However, we believe that Health Canada needs to be more vigilant in monitoring new products and should be ready to implement new controls where necessary to address innovations that increase risks to health. The recent example of companies formulating products with intoxicating cannabinoids other than delta-9-THC is a case in point. Health Canada should determine whether regulatory controls that are currently specific to delta-9 THC (for example, the maximum quantity or concentration of THC in a product) should be modified to include other cannabinoids as well.

Stand ready to introduce product regulation

If the current trend toward higher-potency products and their resulting harms continues, we would encourage Health Canada to examine measures that would place more restrictive limits on the cannabinoid content of legal cannabis products, or to implement additional limitations on the appeal of these products (for example, prohibiting flavours). If additional restrictions are contemplated in the future, Health Canada should recognize that regulatory measures that limit or prohibit consumer access to products that have been legally available may have the unintended consequence of pushing some consumers to the illicit market. To avoid unintended consequences, the introduction of any additional restrictions or prohibitions should be combined with enforcement and education strategies that address the supply of, and demand for, illicit high-potency cannabis products.

Maintaining the majority of promotion, packaging and labelling requirements, while improving certain aspects

In light of the concerning public health trends discussed in this chapter, there is a need to maintain the elements of the framework that protect youth from accessing cannabis, while providing adult consumers with information to make informed decisions.

We believe that the core elements of the framework dealing with promotion, packaging and labelling must be maintained to protect youth and non-consumers.

We acknowledge that there are areas where greater clarity can be provided to the industry about what is allowed, thereby providing more certainty for their promotion, packaging and labelling practices. There are also some adjustments to the regulations related to packaging and labelling that we believe can be made without posing undue risks. We address other potential adjustments to the regulations to reduce regulatory burden in Chapter 8.

Upholding promotion, packaging and labelling controls

The core promotion, packaging and labelling controls (such as limiting promotion to age-restricted environments, requiring plain packaging and prohibiting products that are appealing to youth) should be maintained to prevent inducements to use cannabis, particularly among youth. Footnote 20 Experience with the cannabis framework is limited, and lessons from tobacco suggest that robust controls are needed to protect youth and others from inducements to use addictive, mind-altering substances. While the Government of Canada should always be responsive to new evidence, maintaining the current controls is prudent at this time. In general, the evidence available to us suggested that the current regulations related to promotion, packaging and labelling do not compromise public health and public safety, although some stakeholders raised concerns to us about the use of company names to convey notions of wellness or lifestyle enhancement, which would otherwise be prohibited on product labels or in promotions.

Clarifying current restrictions and requirements

Some of the reforms requested by the cannabis industry on packaging and labelling relate to practices that do not actually contravene the current controls. These include presenting factual information on product labels about the product (for example, that a product was "sun grown" or "hand trimmed"). While changes that increase the appeal to youth or those who do not use cannabis should not be allowed, providing some additional information on a product's characteristics or its origin to people who use cannabis may help to reduce the emphasis on THC quantity or concentration as a marker of quality or value. Health Canada should provide clear guidance to industry on the promotion restrictions and packaging and labelling requirements to allow industry to communicate more effectively with consumers in age-restricted environments and on product packages, resulting in more informed consumer choice.

Improving health warning messages

While the key promotion and packaging and labelling restrictions should be maintained, improvements could be made to product labelling rules to convey health risk information. It is our view that health warning messages that relate to a specific route of consumption (for example, smoking) would be more effective if they appear on products that are consumed in that manner (for example, pre-rolled joints). However, some health warnings could continue to be applied to any cannabis product (for example, messages about the risks of using while pregnant). As well, there are some well-substantiated risks that are not included in the current health warning messages, including the risk of cannabis-induced psychosis and schizophrenia.

Health Canada should update the content of the health warning messages and commit to regularly revising them as new science emerges.

As Health Canada pursues reforms to health warning messages, it should engage with the research community to ensure that the content reflects the latest science, and that the approaches to messaging are as evidence-based, effective and impactful as they can be.

Making information on labels easier to understand

Both public health and industry representatives advocated for changes to the elements of the current framework that might be causing confusion for consumers. The framework lays out a series of requirements that are intended to provide adult cannabis consumers with accurate information on the products they consume. In their current form, the labels of certain cannabis products must display at least 8 numeric values: the quantity or concentration of THC per unit, the "total THC" per unit (taking into account the conversion of THCA into THC), the quantity or concentration of THC per package, the "total THC" per package, and the 4 corresponding values for CBD. Footnote 21 This can be difficult to interpret for some consumers and is an area where simplification may improve comprehension and support healthier decision-making.

Targeted changes to packaging and labelling

Industry representatives advocated for transparent windows in product packages, and on this matter some nuance seems appropriate. While we have great concern about a cut-out window for edible cannabis products (revealing gummies, cookies or brownies to children who might see the package), we do not have the same concern for dried cannabis products. A small cut-out window for dried cannabis products would allow consumers to see the plant material before they purchase the product, which may aid in shifting the perception of high THC quantity or concentration as the primary marker of quality.

Industry stakeholders advocated for regulatory changes that would provide consumers with more information about the product. Such information would need to be consistent with the restrictions and requirements in the Act and the regulations with respect to promotion, packaging and labelling. For example, we received suggestions for regulatory changes that would allow for the use of certain symbols (such as organic certification or recycling) on product labels.

Some latitude in this regard may help reduce the focus on THC quantity or concentration as the primary product characteristic or indication of quality, while providing factual information to consumers.

Industry stakeholders also advocated for the ability to use "QR codes" on product labels. Examples of information that could be accessed via a QR code include: the quantity or concentration of other cannabinoids, terpene profile, analytical testing results and production practices (such as "sun-dried" or "organically grown"). Footnote 22

Some Panel members expressed concern about the potential for QR codes to increase the exposure of youth and non-consumers to promotions. These Panel members were concerned that such a change could lead to unsolicited promotions or online marketing. These members suggested that, if adopted, the outcomes of the change should be closely monitored for unintended consequences and reversed if evaluation suggests any unintended harms.

A majority of the Panel was in favour of the use of QR codes to provide the type of factual information described above as a way to reduce the focus on high THC content as the key characteristic of a cannabis product. They felt that the issue of online targeting of youth or new consumers is a serious one, but that the use of QR codes would not materially contribute to the problem.

Moving toward a standard dose

We also see the need for a simpler way to communicate a "standard dose" or "unit dose" to cannabis consumers, to help convey the amount of a product that should be considered a single serving. This could be an effective nudge for cannabis consumers to move towards lower-risk cannabis use behaviours, through clearer communication and messaging. The concept of a standard dose for cannabis has been elusive for several years due to the complexity of establishing comparable units in different product classes, as well as the large individual differences in how cannabis can be consumed, metabolized and experienced. Nonetheless, this initiative could facilitate additional research on cannabis and its effects. Health Canada should undertake the research and consultation necessary to move forward with the establishment of a standard dose and corresponding labelling requirements.

Enhancing regulatory compliance and enforcement

Another important aspect of labelling is the accuracy of the information presented. Several stakeholders raised concerns about "lab shopping", where claims about the THC quantity or concentration of a product are inflated as part of an effort to appeal to consumers seeking higher levels of THC. While there would be some benefit from additional empirical data to help characterize the extent of the issue, a product should contain, within reasonable variances, what the label says it does. The Act already includes provisions that prohibit false or misleading claims; these measures do not appear to be enforced in the context of inflated claims about THC content. Health Canada should take steps to remedy the issue through regulatory enforcement.

We appreciate the need for product and brand differentiation in a competitive market and believe that some degree of promotion could be beneficial to reduce the focus on THC quantity or concentration as one of the markers of a product's characteristics. Promotional activities that would comply with the current rules and that might be helpful to adult consumers could include in-store displays of information about how products from a particular company were produced (for example, "hand trimmed") or where they were made. Such information could also be displayed on product labels to help adult consumers differentiate between products and brands.

Health Canada explained that it conducts some monitoring of the promotional activities of cannabis licence holders and other regulated parties (for example, authorized retailers), largely based on complaints it receives (for example, lifestyle promotion, promotion that is appealing to youth), and that some compliance and enforcement activities have occurred. But often non-compliance (such as engaging in prohibited promotion practices) results only in warnings without meaningful penalties. Since the department continues to receive information on examples of activities that are non-compliant, this suggests that warnings are not sufficient. We also encountered examples of non-compliant advertising and promotional activity, which raises concern about the effectiveness of the current approach to enforcement. In future, Health Canada should be vigilant and consider more decisive enforcement actions against those engaging in prohibited cannabis promotions, including issuing administrative monetary penalties and revoking the licences of those that repeatedly or egregiously violate promotional restrictions.

No one we met with advocated for promotion outside of age-restricted environments. We feel strongly that age-restriction is a measure that must be maintained. However, there is a marked difference between approaches to verifying age in physical stores and online. It appears that, for the most part, brick-and-mortar retailers are adequately enforcing age requirements.

On the Internet, it is a different story. The current approach to verifying age in most cases (that is, ticking a box to confirm the purchaser is over the age of majority or inputting a date of birth to gain access to a website) is weak and ineffective. While the issue of online age verification is not unique to cannabis, measures should be explored to make it harder for youth to access cannabis websites and social media platforms where cannabis is promoted. Private companies and Crown corporations (that is, distributors and publicly-owned retailers) operating in the legal cannabis market should do more than require "click yes to enter" or "enter a birth date". Examples of age verification strategies include validating identification documents or cross-checking consumer details against third-party data from public databases.

We recognize that there are broader issues involving the protection of minors online, which may warrant attention and collaboration by regulators and enforcement agencies. We also recognize that the most egregious promotions are typically posted by illicit players, and there are challenges associated with finding and identifying unregulated parties. We discuss these matters further in Chapter 10.

Chapter 7: First Nations, Inuit and Métis

We were given a mandate to consult broadly with First Nations, Inuit and Métis on the impacts of cannabis and the Cannabis Act (the Act). We took a distinctions-based approach to our meetings, understanding that each community had specific concerns and experiences related to cannabis and its legalization. Footnote 1 We would like to thank everyone we met with for sharing their time and answering our questions.

We acknowledge that some of the recommendations we are making relate to shared priorities for First Nations, Inuit and Métis, but we emphasize that they should be adopted and implemented through a distinctions-based approach that includes nation-to-nation consultations. We also recognize that some of these recommendations may not be applicable to all communities.

While the Act represents a paradigm shift in the government's approach to cannabis, for many First Nations, Inuit and Métis leaders, it is a reminder of the systemic barriers they face in their dealings with governments. A common theme we heard throughout our consultations was a sense of frustration with the lack of opportunity to provide input into the design of a legislative framework that would have a profound impact on their peoples. While the Act defines the authorities of the federal government and provincial and territorial governments, it is silent on the authority of First Nations, Inuit and Métis governments with respect to cannabis.

First Nations, Inuit and Métis leaders and communities have responded to the public health and public safety concerns related to cannabis and cannabis legalization using the resources, tools and law-making authorities they have at their disposal. These responses range from efforts to fully prohibit cannabis within their territory, to operating within federal, provincial and territorial legislative frameworks, to establishing their own laws and governing bodies to oversee production and retail sale, consistent with their expression of their inherent rights and sovereignty.

In developing our advice, we considered the recommendations of the Standing Senate Committee on Indigenous Peoples (the Standing Senate Committee) report On the Outside Looking In: The Implementation of the Cannabis Act and its effects on Indigenous Peoples and have included reference to them where applicable. We also considered findings from Health Canada's Summary from engagement with First Nations, Inuit and Métis Peoples : The Cannabis Act and its impacts .

Our overall assessment is that there are significant gaps in the cannabis framework that negatively impact the public health, public safety and equitable treatment of Indigenous communities and individuals.

We heard concerns from Indigenous leadership about the absence of any authority in the Act for Indigenous communities to govern activities relating to cannabis in their communities. Other issues raised by First Nations, Inuit and Métis Peoples include:

• insufficient and outdated research on the impact of cannabis on First Nations, Inuit and Métis
• lack of investment in culturally appropriate public health interventions (for example, harm reduction, mental health and prevention) and in culturally appropriate information about cannabis
• the proliferation of unauthorized retail stores in some First Nations communities (that is, stores operating without approval from community leadership, or without provincial or territorial authorization)
• inadequate ability to address criminal activity in communities
• barriers to participating in the legal cannabis market

We understand that issues related to cannabis legalization and the control of cannabis-related activities are linked to broader issues of self-determination and reconciliation. We also recognize the Government of Canada has made a commitment through the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Act to take measures to ensure the laws of Canada are consistent with the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples . Over the long-term, we expect the broader effort to implement the Declaration to include consideration of cannabis and resolve what self-determination means in the context of cannabis. This will be important work, and we encourage public health and public safety considerations to be at the forefront. This work may lead to significant changes; in the meantime, action is needed now to help communities address the situation on the ground.

Given this context and the public health and public safety challenges that are present in Indigenous communities, notably First Nations communities, it is clear to us that changes are required. We also see these changes, and others, as providing better opportunity to support participation in the legal market, and thus economic development in communities.

This chapter makes recommendations that aim to improve outcomes in 3 areas: health (including public health and mental health); public safety and law enforcement; and economic participation.

Our recommendations depend on appropriate resources being in place to be effective. Interested First Nations, Inuit and Métis should have the funding necessary to be full partners in working to make the recommended amendments to the Act and to build the capacity to take on the responsibility of overseeing commercial cannabis activities in their communities, alongside supports for public health interventions and police services, to better protect public health and public safety.

Investing in health, public health and mental health supports, and research

There are already significant demands on health, public health and mental health services in many First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities. We acknowledge that the capacity and resource issues in these areas are broader than the scope of our review; however, they cannot be disregarded as they are interconnected with cannabis legalization.

Many communities are dealing with a multitude of health and public health challenges, including mental health issues, polysubstance use and problematic substance use (including the use of cannabis). In addition, experiences of discrimination, racism and intergenerational trauma arising from Canada's history of colonialism continue to affect the health of First Nations, Inuit and Métis. These challenges require an integrated approach to provide effective health services that are culturally appropriate and trauma-informed, including prevention interventions and treatment supports. Footnote 23

Supporting the development of distinctions-based, culturally appropriate research and health information

We understand that many communities are seeking more resources and supports to lead their own research and surveillance activities, as the Standing Senate Committee also noted. We recommend that research about the impacts and effects of cannabis and legalization on First Nations, Inuit and Métis be Indigenous-led. The research must reflect the priorities of First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities and recognize data sovereignty and ownership.

Distinctions-based, culturally appropriate cannabis information and education efforts are critical, and must consider the knowledge and experience that exists in communities . Generic public information materials are often not reflective of the reality in First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities, nor based on evidence or data that included adequate First Nations, Inuit and Métis representation.

Some First Nations, Inuit and Métis organizations have developed their own culturally appropriate public information material. For example, Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada published Let's Talk About Ujarak: a Cannabis Harm Reduction Toolkit , which was guided by Inuit values and created to help Inuit increase their knowledge about cannabis use and how to reduce harms. These types of resources are important and needed; Health Canada should commit to co-developing them on a distinctions-basis with First Nations, Inuit and Métis.

The Manitoba Métis Federation indicated that their priorities continue to be focused on the protection of public health and public safety. We heard very clearly that research, education and interventions for Red River Métis must always be Métis-specific and developed and informed by consultations with communities.

Defining cannabis as an "intoxicant"

An important element in giving communities control over public health and public safety is the opportunity to prohibit the possession or sale of cannabis for non-medical purposes. While the Indian Act allows First Nations governments to ban alcohol, this is not the case for cannabis. This could be remedied with a simple amendment to the definition of "intoxicant" in the Indian Act.

Community public safety and enforcement

The rise in cannabis retail stores not sanctioned by communities operating on Indigenous land, largely First Nation reserves, is a significant problem. We heard and saw first-hand how these stores, some of which we understand are supported by criminal organizations from outside the community, have taken advantage of the jurisdictional complexity associated with legalization to operate against community wishes and without any protection for public health and public safety. These stores sell products that do not comply with product, packaging or labelling rules, creating public health risks for both residents of the community and those from outside the community who purchase the products. Community leadership also told us that these stores present significant public safety challenges, given the amount of cash involved on site and the actors who support the operation of the stores.

It must be emphasized that these unauthorized stores are different than stores that are sanctioned by community leadership. Stores sanctioned by the community may be operating outside of the provincial or territorial frameworks, but we understand that in these cases, the communities largely have the same public health and public safety objectives as in the Act . We saw several examples of community laws that articulate this commitment to public health and public safety and heard from some communities about the steps they have taken to set up licensing and oversight bodies. From our perspective, the real concern is retail outlets on Indigenous territories that are operating without any authorization and that may be affiliated with organized crime groups.

While communities are often supportive of enforcement actions being taken to disrupt unsanctioned, illicit operations on reserve, police actions have been limited. Given the large number of these stores in some communities, First Nations community leadership expressed fears about the prospect of never seeing change. They noted that their own police services do not have the capacity to tackle the problem and that there needs to be more assistance from and coordination with other police services such as the Royal Canadian Mounted Police or provincial police services. As a result, public health and public safety risks continue to grow unchecked.

Support for enforcement

We believe that recognition of community authority to control cannabis activities would help to address this challenge, since it would draw a clear line between authorized and unauthorized activities and provide clarity for enforcement purposes. We also recognize that First Nations police services must contend with many priorities, similar to other police services. They also face the challenge of operating in a context of time-limited and insufficient funding, as well as more limited access to training and other supports. Inadequate resourcing and training of First Nations police services is not restricted to enforcement of the Act. However, the lack of progress in this area negatively impacts public safety in First Nations communities.

We also note the recommendation from the Standing Senate Committee that the Royal Canadian Mounted Police provide dedicated space for First Nations police services to undertake Drug Recognition Expert Training, and that Public Safety Canada provide additional funding to First Nations to support this work to address cannabis-impaired driving.

Where First Nations communities do not have their own police services, we believe there should be further training for the non-Indigenous police services in relation to First Nations community laws and bylaws to better support their enforcement. We encourage these police services to prioritize building relationships with the First Nations communities within the territories where they work.

Longstanding challenges to public safety in Indigenous communities will require sustained attention by all governments and the development of strategies in collaboration with Indigenous leadership. They include training and capacity building for community police services, better coordination with non-Indigenous police services and with Crown prosecutors, and greater priority given by all governments to public safety in Indigenous communities. All of these issues need to be addressed; failing to do so will mean there is unlikely to be any improvement in public safety generally, nor specifically in relation to criminal activity with cannabis.

Economic participation

Throughout our discussions, many First Nations representatives expressed disappointment in the lack of opportunity to participate in the legal cannabis industry, noting that governments missed an opportunity to advance economic reconciliation by bringing jobs and tax revenue to communities.

We heard from many First Nations leaders and entrepreneurs and some Métis individuals who are interested in participating in the cannabis industry. Some view the ability to have commercial cannabis activity within communities as an important element of economic reconciliation and a means to create a more equitable industry. Others felt that the establishment of legitimate retail outlets would help counter the proliferation of illicit operations in their communities, many of which have links to organized crime.

We believe there are 2 approaches to improve economic participation. First, more support should be provided for those interested and willing to participate in the existing licensing frameworks. There should also be authority under the Act for nation-to-nation agreements that would provide greater community control of commercial activities with cannabis. This second approach would require the Government of Canada to collaborate and co-develop these legislative amendments with First Nations, Inuit and Métis, with the aim of enabling agreements that provide for Indigenous government authority. This would require agreement on requirements or standards that protect public health and public safety. This work would also require the parties to answer important questions including: the degree of harmonization between federal, provincial and territorial requirements and Indigenous government laws, responsibility for enforcement of Indigenous laws and how to best address illegal activity that harms Indigenous communities.

Economic participation in cannabis production via federal licensing

Some communities have made the decision to participate in the framework under the Act and acquire federal licences to produce cannabis. As of September 2023, there were a total of 907 licence holders authorized to cultivate or process cannabis, of which 50 (6%) were self-identified Indigenous licence holders. Footnote 24 However, similar to others in the industry, Indigenous entrepreneurs and leaders told us there are many barriers that impede them from successfully participating in the legal industry as federal licence holders. These issues include:

• financial barriers to entering the legal industry, including difficulties in accessing capital to build a site
• competition from the illicit market
• regulatory burden of information requested by Health Canada and the Canada Revenue Agency related to licensing and excise tax licensing
• issues related to accessing basic business services, such as banking and insurance
• challenges selling product to provincial and territorial distributors (for example, volume requirements from distributors, reliance on competitors to sell product to distributors and restrictions on cultivators from selling dried cannabis directly to distributors)

Health Canada must take immediate steps to address these issues to better support those who wish to participate in the federal framework. Chapter 8 lays out a series of recommendations that could apply to Indigenous federal licence holders. These include possible revisions to regulatory fees charged to equity-deserving licence holders and micro-licence holders, providing these applicants with information on grants, loans and other programs that may be available to them, and offering post-licensing supports to help them navigate regulatory compliance and other business responsibilities.

We note that Health Canada provides certain services to support Indigenous applicants in navigating the licensing process under the Act, including a Navigator Service, a Licensing Advisor and a 2-stage review process. We understand that the Navigator Service, which supports general inquiries about licensing, has helped nearly 170 self-identified Indigenous-affiliated commercial licence applicants since 2017, while the Licensing Advisor, who provides more detailed application development support, has only had 2 clients. Footnote 25 The 2-stage review process allows Indigenous and Indigenous-affiliated applicants to have their applications reviewed before requiring a built site (which is a requirement for all other applicants). This allows for early feedback on an application and is intended to help facilitate access to capital to finance site construction.

Economic participation in distribution and retail

As noted in our What We Heard Report , a February 2023 article in an industry periodical suggested that less than 1% (24 of more than 3,300) of the provincially or territorially authorized retail stores were operating on First Nations reserves. Footnote 26

We heard from some communities that they are interested in obtaining provincial or territorial licences to operate retail stores. British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec and Saskatchewan have enacted legislation that provides authority for the government to enter into agreements with First Nations to sell cannabis on their territories. However, as the Standing Senate Committee report points out, some First Nations expressed concerns that participating in provincial licensing regimes can be costly. We also learned from some communities that there are inadequate incentives to enter into such agreements (for example, they do not get any discounts on licensing fees or product mark-ups) and that they are still required to participate in a provincial licensing process (Saskatchewan's legislation is the exception, as it allows First Nations to establish their own licensing regimes).

In provinces and territories where there is public control of retail sale, there appears to be less progress towards arrangements for First Nations retail. As an example, a First Nations community in Quebec expressed concern that if the provincial government does not provide regulated retail access to community members, illicit sales will proliferate, along with the attendant harms from illicit products (that is, products that do not comply with the product, packaging and labelling rules posing health risks and the potential for more dangerous criminal activity posing public safety risks).

Indigenous jurisdiction and control of cannabis activities in Indigenous communities

There is no one-size-fits-all approach. As noted above, some communities simply want the authority to prohibit activities related to cannabis for non-medical purposes in their communities, including prohibiting commercial activities. Others are prepared to work within federal and provincial and territorial frameworks. Some want to assert full control.

Certain communities have created their own cannabis frameworks, including their own cannabis laws. We understand that these generally reflect the public health and public safety requirements and product standards found in federal, provincial or territorial laws. We reviewed some examples, including from Six Nations of the Grand River and the Mohawk Council of Akwesasne. Some of these communities have developed their cannabis frameworks as an assertion of their inherent rights and reject the need for federal, provincial or territorial licences. Others have done so due to provincial or territorial unwillingness to authorize retail stores in their communities.

Despite being lawful from the community's perspective, the lack of recognition of First Nations, Inuit and Métis authority under the Act means that production and sale activities conducted pursuant to these, or other, community laws are not legal under the Act and may result in legal challenges for those engaging in them.

Notwithstanding the desire of these communities to protect public health and public safety, there are questions about the quality of the products being sold and the health risks they might pose (for example, being contaminated with pesticides), given that community-sanctioned retail stores cannot access cannabis from federal licence holders or testing from licensed analytical testing companies. The lack of recognition of First Nations authority also limits the ability of the communities and entrepreneurs involved to be recognized as legitimate businesses by banks, insurance companies and others. We believe that these public health and public safety issues, and others, can be better addressed by providing for greater Indigenous community control under the Act.

Providing for greater Indigenous community control under the Cannabis Act

The issue of bringing the Act into compliance with the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples needs to be addressed, but this will take time. However, there are pressing public health, public safety and economic equity reasons for acting now to provide more control to Indigenous communities over economic activities involving cannabis. This would require amendments to the Act to create a viable pathway for interested First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities to assume more control over commercial cannabis activities. This work would need to include a process to develop, with First Nations, Inuit and Métis, requirements or minimum standards to protect public health and public safety (for example, the types of products that could be made and sold, the testing standards for cannabis products, the minimum age to purchase cannabis and measures to protect against diversion to the illicit market). One of the issues to be determined is what role the provincial and territorial governments would have with respect to the development of these standards.

One promising approach is that taken by the Government of Saskatchewan. In 2023, it amended its Cannabis Control (Saskatchewan) Act to create a legal framework for First Nations in Saskatchewan to licence and regulate the distribution and retail sale of cannabis on reserve. By having an agreement with the provincial cannabis authority, a First Nations cannabis authority can issue permits for the sale and distribution of cannabis on reserve, including charging fees and setting terms and conditions for permittees. The Saskatchewan legislation sets out mandatory requirements for these permits (including that the cannabis sold or distributed must be supplied by a federal licence holder, that there be no sale to minors, that there be appropriate records of their activities and that they take adequate measures to protect against diversion of the cannabis to the illicit market). We note these are the same measures set out in section 69 of the Cannabis Act that provinces and territories must apply to authorized sellers. We encourage Health Canada and Indigenous leadership to review the agreements implemented as a result of this legislative change in Saskatchewan. As this is a cannabis-specific development, it may prove useful as a positive step to provide greater control.

Recent federal legislation on child welfare and on drinking water, co-developed with First Nations, Inuit and Métis and which address recognition of Indigenous authority and rights, are examples that could be useful for considering how to address cannabis in the context of the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples . Footnote 27 , Footnote 28 A recent decision by the Supreme Court of Canada upheld the constitutionality of the child welfare legislation, and noted that the effort to "braid" together the legislative authority of Indigenous Peoples, the international standards in the Declaration and the provisions enacted by Parliament on national standards or principles provided "a framework for reconciliation when it comes to Indigenous child and family services, in the spirit of the Declaration". Footnote 29

The Supreme Court's language on the development of the national standards or principles in relation to child welfare has resonance when it comes to thinking of an approach to developing public health and public safety standards for cannabis in the context of nation-to-nation agreements. The Court makes it clear that Parliament's intention with respect to national standards was not to impose them unilaterally, without regard to the perspectives of Indigenous groups, communities or peoples. Rather, it said the Government of Canada committed to engaging with Indigenous peoples and provincial governments to support a comprehensive reform of child and family services that are provided in relation to Indigenous children.

Taxation and revenue sharing

The question of authority over taxation was one that the Standing Senate Committee heard about, and an issue that arose repeatedly in our engagement with Indigenous communities, particularly First Nations communities, who also shared a variety of preferred approaches. The range of positions is captured in Chapter 7 of our What We Heard Report : "While select First Nations governments have negotiated agreements to allow them to control the sale of cannabis, they are still required to collect sales tax for other levels of government. Many continue to advocate for arrangements in which they would receive all, or a share of, cannabis sales and excise tax revenues generated from within their communities in order for the revenues to be reinvested. Some seek tax-sharing agreements with federal or provincial and territorial governments, while others seek amendments to tax laws to provide opportunities for interested First Nations to levy their own cannabis excise tax in their communities. Many argue that federal or provincial and territorial sales tax revenue should be directed back into their communities."

Successful implementation of the cannabis control framework depends on many factors, including a reliable supply of regulated, quality-controlled cannabis. While the Cannabis Act (the Act) does not explicitly list ensuring the viability of the industry as an objective, the commercial production model implemented via the Act relies on financially viable private sector participants to supply the legal cannabis market.

Throughout our review, industry representatives raised urgent concerns about their financial viability in the current highly competitive market. We believe these concerns are well-founded; however, we are of the view that efforts to support the industry need to be done in a manner consistent with the overarching public health and public safety objectives of the Act.

Notwithstanding the difficulties faced by individual licence holders, experience to date suggests that, overall, the market share of legal cannabis has increased substantially over time and compares favourably with U.S. states that have legalized cannabis. Displacement of the illicit market is discussed further in Chapter 10. There are a wide variety of legal cannabis products available through retail stores and websites. While there are price differences between legal and illicit cannabis, and displacement of the illicit market differs regionally, the data available to us suggests that the gap has narrowed, and cannabis consumers are increasingly acquiring cannabis from legal sources.

Creating economic conditions for a viable cannabis industry

Challenges for smaller licence holders.

Cannabis is not like other products; a large illicit cannabis market existed in Canada before legalization, and that history, and the people that were part of it, must be factored into the continued implementation of the Act. Through the cannabis framework, the Government of Canada sought to encourage a diverse, competitive market, with smaller and larger players distributed across the country. We understand that through the creation of "micro" class licences and other measures, the federal government had hoped to facilitate the transition of individuals who had been involved in illicit cannabis production (but without links to organized crime or histories of violent criminal activity) into the legal cannabis market. Footnote 30

In principle, small-scale cultivators and processors distributed throughout the country could increase consumer access to a greater variety of cannabis products (for example, "craft" products manufactured by small, local businesses, more opportunities for innovation). In practice, however, the majority of micro-class licence holders appear to be struggling to gain a foothold in the legal market.

It will be very challenging for smaller companies to succeed without some government intervention and measures that provide some specific advantages or flexibilities. Over the last 18 months, we met many people from the cannabis industry who exhibited an obvious passion about the quality of their product and a clear desire to participate in the legal industry. In the best-case scenario, the legal market might provide these individuals with an opportunity to find a niche for themselves and their businesses. But we fear it currently does not. If barriers to success are not addressed, many small legacy producers will see no advantage to joining the legal market, and some of those who have done so may decide to return to the illicit market.

Current market conditions

Cannabis companies of all sizes are struggling. The last 5 years have been a tumultuous period for participants in the legal cannabis market. The market today is crowded, and production capacity greatly exceeds demand. Without material changes in the economic conditions, it is reasonable to anticipate that some portion of the current cannabis businesses will continue to downsize or cease operations. Depending on the extent of this shift, the diversity of cannabis products offered in the legal market may decrease while prices may increase.

It is clear that excess production and over-supply have contributed to decreased wholesale prices (that is, the price paid by provincial and territorial distributors to licensed processors). Canada has among the lowest cannabis prices in the world. Low prices have economic consequences for participants in the legal market as well as health consequences for consumers. There is concern that a market with abundant, cheap cannabis will likely contribute to increased cannabis consumption and exacerbate the negative public health impacts.

Over-supply is not the only issue. In the current model, there are many sellers (that is, licensed processors) and few buyers (that is, distributors). Provincial and territorial distributors hold a great deal of influence over the success of prospective suppliers, as they are the main purchasers of cannabis. Provincial and territorial distributors must make choices about how they operate, and in most jurisdictions they have exercised their monopsony power (that is, being the sole buyer in a market) in a way that we see as detrimental to those licensed by Health Canada to make and sell cannabis. This scenario, where provincial and territorial distributors can dictate terms, often leads to adverse effects, including lower prices for cannabis producers, reduced incentives for innovation and an overall imbalance in the bargaining power between distributors and producers.

That said, we recognize that distributors cannot reasonably purchase cannabis from every company that has a product to sell. The large number of cannabis licence holders vying for market share also contributes to the challenges being experienced by those operating in the legal market. Consolidation may lead to business failures, investment losses and job losses, which are all regrettable for those affected.

Our review of the Act reflects a particular point in time in a market that is continuing to evolve. We encourage the Government of Canada and its provincial and territorial partners to closely monitor the financial health of the cannabis sector. The Cannabis Industry Forum established by Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada may provide an important venue for continued discussion of the factors affecting the viability of the legal cannabis market. As the market and consumption patterns continue to change, the framework will need to evolve to keep pace.

At the present time, Canadians spend more than $5 billion per year on legal cannabis. Footnote 31 This level of revenue should be sufficient to support a robust domestic market, albeit with no guarantees that every company that chooses to enter the market will be viable. Currently, cannabis revenues are not divided in a way that allows licensed cultivators and processors to be consistently profitable. In particular, smaller licence holders appear to be struggling as they cannot compete with larger companies on price and have less ability to secure shelf space with provincial and territorial distributors (who often look for large quantities of product).

Reducing regulatory burden on industry

Health Canada can, for its part, reduce the financial and administrative burden it places on participants in the legal industry. The department recently consulted on potential regulatory streamlining. If implemented, this initiative would have benefits in reducing the costs of compliance for licence holders and the regulatory costs Health Canada seeks to recover through fees charged to licence holders. As Health Canada and the regulated industry have gained experience with the framework, it appears to us that there is room to relax or update certain regulatory requirements without compromising public health or public safety.

For example, we suggest that current personnel security requirements might not be needed for some types of employees, some controls related to physical security may not be essential (such as visual monitoring of areas not in use), and some record-keeping and reporting requirements could be streamlined (such as harmonizing reporting between Health Canada and the Canada Revenue Agency to avoid duplication, reducing the reporting burden for some lower-risk activities such as waste and destruction, and reducing the length of time required to store certain records, especially visual records). Footnote 32

Measures to support cultivators and processors

Cultivators are currently not permitted to sell cannabis directly to provincial and territorial distributors. Rather, they must engage a processor to package and label the cannabis. As part of the regulatory streamlining amendments, we advise Health Canada to allow companies holding a cultivation licence to sell dried or fresh cannabis (that complies with all requirements for packaging, labelling and quality control) directly to distributors. We feel that this is within the spirit and intent of the cultivation licence class; it would also remove an unnecessary step in the supply chain.

Reforms at the provincial and territorial level that accommodate additional direct-to-consumer sales outside of the physical retail environment may create opportunities for smaller cannabis cultivators and processors to establish a niche for their products and generate revenue. While assessing distribution and retail sale is beyond the scope of our review, we note how important direct-to-consumer sales are for craft breweries. To have a positive impact, we believe any province or territory that sees benefit in allowing direct-to-consumer sales (for example, farmgate programs, or mail order within a province or territory) would also need to allow cultivators and processors to retain a larger share of revenue (for example, reducing or eliminating mark-ups and fees). Footnote 33 Jurisdictions exploring direct-to-consumer sales should consider whether and how these programs could be targeted so that they support independent micro-scale licence holders (sometimes referred to as "craft" producers) and equity-deserving groups, to promote the market diversity that was envisioned at the time of legalization.

There is also an opportunity for provincial and territorial distributors to reserve space for and highlight products from small licence holders and those from companies owned by members of equity-deserving groups. We are aware of some initiatives of this nature (for example, British Columbia's Indigenous Shelf Space program) and think additional ones could be important to sustaining diversity in the legal cannabis market.

Excise tax structure

Industry players concerned about their own viability have called on the Government of Canada to reform the excise tax regime. Footnote 34 In particular, they are seeking relief from the minimum duty of 10% or $1 per gram, whichever is greater, on dried or fresh cannabis (as well as plants and seeds). Some industry players called for reform because the excise tax formula was set at a time when the price was much higher than it is today. Footnote 35 At current cannabis prices, the excise tax is a substantial burden. Industry representatives also questioned whether the excise tax is serving its intended purpose of moderating consumption, given that licence holders are largely bearing the cost rather than passing it on to the consumer.

The challenge of designing an effective tax regime under the highly competitive market conditions that exist today is that any reductions in the excise tax on dried cannabis would likely translate to reductions in the wholesale price (that is, the price paid to licence holders by provincial and territorial distributors) and the retail price (that is, the price paid by consumers). Given the priority we place on the protection of public health, we would not want to see further reductions in the retail price of dried cannabis in the legal market, nor would we want any changes to make it more attractive to purchase products in the illicit market. Any redesign of the excise tax framework for cannabis should keep these considerations in mind and will need to be evaluated regularly and adjusted depending on how the market reacts.

Addressing potency through a progressive tax

There is a trend in market data that is troubling from a public health perspective. It appears that more and more consumers are purchasing cannabis products with increasingly higher quantities or concentrations of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Researchers and industry representatives told us that restrictions on labelling and promotion have led consumers to fixate on THC content as a marker of quality or value. Elsewhere in this report (Chapter 6) we outline recommendations to clarify the information that should be permitted on labels and in promotions and for targeted regulatory reforms that would allow licence holders to communicate factual information about their products. While we hope this nudges consumer behaviour and reduces the emphasis on THC, we also encourage Finance Canada to consider developing a progressive excise tax regime for all cannabis products that increases the amount of tax owed based on the quantity or concentration of THC (or other intoxicating cannabinoids). Products with lower quantities of THC should have less tax.

An ideal regime would disincentivize the manufacturing and sale of higher-risk products and incentivize the production of lower-risk cannabis products. For a reform of this type to disrupt the current trend toward higher-potency products, relatively higher taxes on higher-risk products would need to translate to higher retail prices; it would be ineffective if companies simply absorbed the added cost from the higher tax. Distributors would also have to pay more for higher-risk products, as would consumers. If this model were to be implemented, there would be a need for a monitoring mechanism to examine the extent to which consumers are moving to the illicit market to purchase lower-priced products. Such monitoring should also consider any impacts on the purchasing and consumption behaviour of youth and other population subgroups.

Improving transparency

The federal licensing program has resulted in an over-supply of cannabis in Canada and concerns about the financial viability of many licence holders. As of September 2023, 907 companies held federal licences for cultivation and processing. Footnote 36 While we understand the Minister of Health has the authority to place a limit on the number of licences issued, we heard little support for this kind of intervention. Such a measure could also lead to unintended consequences (for example, discouraging geographic and demographic diversity in the legal cannabis market). However, Health Canada should continue to closely monitor the state of the legal cannabis industry.

Licence applicants and licence holders would benefit from greater transparency about the state of the cannabis market. Health Canada should provide prospective licence applicants with data that would enable them to make informed decisions about the feasibility of entering the market.

There are other measures that Health Canada could take if over-supply threatens the viability of the industry (for example, production limits on standard class licences). However, this type of measure should be contemplated only after full consultation and consideration of any unintended consequences.

Reviewing the regulation of industrial hemp

Industrial hemp (that is, varieties of cannabis with 0.3% THC or less in their leaves and flowers) is also regulated under the Act. Representatives of the industrial hemp industry noted that while cannabis and hemp come from the same plant family, the products that result from their cultivation are entirely different and carry very different risks. They told us that the industrial hemp industry in Canada has been negatively impacted by the legalization of cannabis, with less industrial hemp production and sales today than in 2017. They advocated for a new approach to the regulation of industrial hemp that sees it treated as an agricultural commodity, with changes that would increase the maximum allowable limit of THC in industrial hemp and associated derivatives. The industry also raised other issues related to potential uses of industrial hemp (including industrial hemp-derived cannabinoids or biomass). Footnote 37

We did not have an opportunity to delve deeply into the regulation of industrial hemp, but we recognize this is a topic that deserves careful and detailed consideration.

Building social equity into the framework

While the Act does not contain any explicit social equity objectives, the Ministers broadened the scope of our review to include some social equity considerations. Clearly there were wide-reaching social impacts from the prohibition of cannabis and the discrimination experienced by some groups in the criminal justice system. In addition, we heard concerns about how the current regime has led to under-representation of equity-deserving communities in the cannabis industry and a lack of economic opportunities for some.

Researchers at the Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation recently published a report that reviews evidence and best practices in social equity from other jurisdictions with legal cannabis markets; we encourage policymakers to examine their report, A Roadmap for Cannabis Equity in Canada to Inform the Legislated Review of the Cannabis Act .

In our consultations, many equity-deserving individuals described how the legal cannabis industry is not inclusive. They expressed frustration about the barriers faced by entrepreneurs from their communities and the obstacles confronting community members already in the industry, including challenges with financing (such as raising affordable capital) due to current and historical discrimination.

Community representatives highlighted the limited diversity in leadership roles in the cannabis industry, and their belief that there is less minority representation in this industry than in others. Stakeholders noted that people who are Black, Indigenous and from other racialized groups were subject to discrimination under prohibition and continue to be disadvantaged and under-represented under legalization.

The following paragraphs make a number of recommendations aimed at improving social equity. The objective is to make progress in undoing decades of discrimination. This will require sustained commitment over many years. Therefore, it will be important that there be ongoing, long-term attention to social equity issues. We believe that the future independent reviews that we call for in Chapter 12 should explicitly provide for an assessment of the progress made in advancing social equity, both with respect to participation in the cannabis industry and in relation to addressing disparities in interactions with the criminal justice system related to cannabis.

Supporting a diverse legal cannabis industry

We support the Government of Canada's goal of having a diverse legal industry, specifically, one that creates space for women, racialized communities, 2SLGBTQIA+, First Nations, Inuit, Métis and those disadvantaged by the historical harms of cannabis prohibition. We believe that at the outset of legalization there was a missed opportunity to address the harms of prohibition. However, that should not prevent action now. The federal government has a role to play in encouraging the participation of marginalized and racialized groups in the industry.

The current market conditions, as discussed, are challenging for most involved in the industry. Equity-deserving applicants seeking to enter the cannabis industry need to be provided with appropriate information and support. In developing programs and measures to increase the participation of these groups in the cannabis sector, Health Canada and its partners should take a comprehensive approach that looks beyond the first step of issuing a licence.

Health Canada should develop a specialized program for applicants from under-represented communities that provides pre- and post-licensing supports. This should include information about opportunities other than cultivation and processing licences, such as licences for industrial hemp and analytical testing. Footnote 38 Acknowledging the submission by the Competition Bureau entitled Planting the seeds for competition: Competition Bureau submission to Health Canada and the Expert Panel to support the Cannabis Act legislative review , which dealt with this issue, we believe that Health Canada should consider whether the requirement that applicants for licences have a pre-built site could be eliminated for equity-deserving and small business applicants. Footnote 39

We heard about difficulties that equity-deserving groups experience when attempting to secure loans, given their lack of existing networks and relationships with banks, lenders and investors. Health Canada could do more to make these applicants aware of business supports (for example, grants or loans) that may be available to them from other government departments and agencies (for example, the Black Entrepreneurship Loan Fund). Footnote 40 Similarly, we heard about the challenges micro-class applicants face, such as limited access to capital, regulatory burdens and difficulties navigating the licensing process.

During the licensing phase, Health Canada should consider reducing the costs it imposes for equity-deserving and micro-class applicants, including by reducing or eliminating regulatory fees related to applying for a licence.

After licensing, Health Canada should take a broad view of the supports that can be offered, including raising awareness about resources or educational opportunities offered by other departments or organizations that may help licence holders establish and run their businesses. For Health Canada this could include reviewing the annual regulatory fees charged to licence holders and providing more dedicated training and support to assist companies to comply with the requirements set out in the Act and its regulations.

Social equity and the criminal justice system

Many community representatives voiced their concern that disadvantaged and marginalized groups, especially racialized groups, continue to be disproportionately impacted by over-policing and interactions with the criminal justice system because of disparities in cannabis enforcement. There are gaps in knowledge about the impact of cannabis on specific groups, and the extent of ongoing racial discrimination in law enforcement, particularly with youth. It is well understood that charges or convictions related to cannabis offences cause enduring adverse social outcomes, such as stigmatization, negative impacts on family structures, job losses, difficulties in securing employment and restrictions on travel and housing access.

As of August 1, 2019, a distinct application process was implemented for those seeking a record suspension for historical convictions for cannabis possession. Footnote 41 , Footnote 42 This process was meant to be fairer and to better ensure the reduction of stigma and barriers experienced by those with such convictions. With this new process there is no fee or waiting period before an application can be submitted for many individuals. While a small proportion of people have made use of this distinct application process, access to this stream is expected to improve, as Public Safety Canada has funded non-governmental organizations to help individuals apply, including assisting with compiling all necessary documentation. Footnote 43 This process is not automatic and applicants must submit an application along with required documentation, which can be a barrier; it is an improvement over the regular record suspension process. However, the revised program only applies to those solely with simple cannabis possession convictions. Individuals with convictions for other cannabis offences (for example, production) must apply through the regular process, with its attendant costs and waiting periods, which can be as long as 10 years.

An automatic record sequestration process will come into force in November 2024 that will address all simple possession offences for all controlled drugs and will apply even if there are other non-drug offences involved. Footnote 44 , Footnote 45 We are encouraged to hear about this development; however, this new process only addresses offences under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act and not those under the Cannabis Act . It is our understanding that the new process will be reviewed in November 2026; we encourage analysis and scrutiny of the efficacy and outcomes of the new process as it relates to cannabis convictions.

Improving information about cannabis for equity-deserving groups

As discussed elsewhere in this report (such as in Chapter 6), Health Canada should ensure that it follows an evidence-based approach when disseminating information on cannabis use and the associated risks and harms to consumers, or the public at large. As equity-deserving communities have their own interests and needs, informational materials should be co-designed with the intended audiences. Informational and educational programs need to be fact-based, non-stigmatizing, culturally appropriate, regularly evaluated and adjusted accordingly.

Enhancing data collection

Our efforts to assess the social equity impacts of legalization were hindered by a lack of data. There is no systematic collection of data on the diversity of the cannabis industry. In some surveys and other information collected by government, key sociodemographic data (for example, ethnicity or race) has not been collected, or, in some instances where this information is collected, it is not adequately disaggregated in the analysis or reporting of findings (including population surveys, health data, and data collected on police-reported incidents and criminal charges related to cannabis). While some progress has been made in recent years toward disaggregating data, more progress is required, including making this data publicly accessible.

Improving the monitoring of environmental impacts

While the Act and its regulations do not have any explicit environmental objectives, the Ministers broadened the scope of our review to include environmental impact.

Although the environmental impact of cannabis was not raised often during engagement, some participants highlighted concerns about cannabis product packaging. They raised issues about single-use plastic packaging and the limited use of packaging composed of cannabis and industrial hemp plant by-products. We also heard about the high rates of energy required for indoor cultivation. Some stakeholders discussed innovative approaches to reducing the environmental footprint of cannabis cultivation, such as the use of organic and regenerative farming practices, using cannabis as a bio-accumulator to help remediate the soil, making use of solar energy and the secondary use of cannabis by-product waste.

It is difficult to comprehensively assess the environmental impact of the cannabis regime, given the lack of data available. However, cannabis cultivation, processing and distribution across the supply chain undoubtedly have environmental impacts, including energy and water consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, cannabis-derived odours, packaging waste and disposal of vaping devices, among others.

One of the objectives of the Cannabis Act (the Act) is to provide adults who choose to use cannabis with access to a quality-controlled supply of strictly regulated, legally produced cannabis. The goal of legalization was not to increase the number of people using cannabis. Rather, it was intended to provide those who already used cannabis with a regulated supply, complemented by a range of measures (including promotion restrictions, plain packaging requirements, labelling requirements and dissemination of information) that sought to discourage youth, and those who do not use cannabis, from initiating use. Footnote 46

Access to legal cannabis has improved since the Act came into force in October 2018. While there were supply chain issues in late 2018 and early 2019, it now appears that most adult Canadians who wish to obtain cannabis are able to do so from legal sources.

The distribution and retail sale of cannabis is controlled by provinces and territories. It is apparent that physical retail stores are the dominant means by which consumers access legal cannabis; however, retail density varies across the country. Some stakeholders highlighted challenges faced in rural and remote communities, particularly in the North, where retail store access is limited to larger population centres. In addition, Inuit communities also face unique challenges in accessing legal product due to limited access to credit cards and the Internet to buy legal products online.

Another element of access is the ability for consumers to legally obtain different types of cannabis products. Since late 2019, licensed processors have been able to develop and sell a wide range of cannabis products, with a variety that is generally comparable to the illicit market. However, in balancing its public health and public safety objectives, the framework does not provide unfettered access to all possible forms of cannabis. For example, there are restrictions that prohibit the sale of cannabis products (and accessories) that would be considered appealing to children. In addition, the current regulations on edible cannabis products (for example, beverages, gummies, chocolate) set a limit of 10 milligrams of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in a package to address concerns about over-consumption and accidental consumption. Other forms of cannabis are also subject to restrictions, such as the limits on the ingredients that can be used to make cannabis vaping products and cannabis topical products.

Perspectives on the THC limit for edible cannabis products

Throughout our engagement, we heard calls from industry, and some consumers, to increase the amount of THC permitted in edible cannabis products. This issue was raised frequently, and our own deliberations around this topic exemplified a broader debate about balancing the protection of public health with the desire to provide adults who use cannabis with legal access to the products they want.

The general view of industry stakeholders was that the objectives of the Act would be best served by raising the THC limit for edible cannabis. They believe that making more potent edible products available in the legal market would encourage further displacement of the illicit market, and as a result, a greater share of the edible cannabis would be in child-resistant packaging (which is a requirement for legal products). As well, they argue there would be a reduced presence of illicit edible products that mimic common candies and foods that are enticing to children, and consequently there would be fewer unintentional exposures to children. Industry representatives also stated that the potential risks to adult consumers would be reduced by shifting more consumer to the legal market because illicit products may be contaminated or contain extremely high amounts of THC (for example, products on the illicit market often claim to contain between 500 to 1,000 milligrams of THC).

Public health stakeholders, on the other hand, supported maintaining the current limit on the THC content of edible cannabis. The public health community argued that legal products are likely contributing to the observed increase in the frequency of unintentional cannabis poisonings among children (for example, they noted higher rates of pediatric exposures in jurisdictions with greater availability of legal edible products). Public health representatives were also concerned that a higher THC limit would increase the severity of these unintentional exposures to children, citing research that suggests the threshold for severe or prolonged adverse effects on young children is quite low (1.7 milligrams of THC per kilogram of bodyweight, or about 20 milligrams of THC for a toddler). Footnote 47

Representatives from the public health community also noted that under the current limit, the majority of edible cannabis products offered include multiple units in each package (for example, 2 units with 5 milligrams of THC each), and argued that these smaller portions send an important signal to adults about appropriate dosing. Some in the public health community stated that while they support measures to increase displacement of the illicit market, it is not justifiable to undermine public health controls to accelerate the transition to the legal market.

These are conflicting points of view from stakeholders, and there are also shortcomings in the available evidence. While there are studies demonstrating increases in the incidence of child poisonings (see Chapter 5 of our What We Heard Report , as well as a recent study by Varin et al.), there is limited information available on the origin of the cannabis products involved in these events, and whether homemade edibles, illicit edibles or legally produced edibles were involved.

There is also uncertainty about the level of demand in the market for legal edible cannabis products with more THC. Industry representatives pointed to the sale of ingestible cannabis extracts as evidence of demand, but tended to disregard the price differential between these products and conventional edible products and the role that a lower price-per-unit may play in driving demand for a lower-cost product. Footnote 48 Notably, unlike dried cannabis where legal prices are increasingly competitive with the illicit market, illicit edible cannabis products may be up to 90% cheaper than legal products. Price will remain an important consideration for some consumers who are purchasing larger quantities or seeking larger doses of THC. However, in many provinces and territories, there are legal edible products containing 10 milligrams of THC that are available for as little as $3.

Industry also noted U.S. state markets, where edible cannabis comprises a greater share of the legal cannabis market, as well as estimates of illicit spending on edible cannabis products in Canada that suggest millions of dollars in revenue may currently be captured by the illicit market. Industry representatives also shared anecdotes about customers seeking larger amounts of THC, and some submissions we received referred to consumer research that suggests some cannabis consumers are critical of the current limit.

Public health researchers pointed to recent survey findings that suggest that only 12% of respondents, and 18% of cannabis consumers, were opposed to the THC limit on edible cannabis. Footnote 49 As well, public health stakeholders highlighted research (described in Chapter 10 of our What We Heard Report ) that found more than two-thirds of people who consume edible cannabis products reported sourcing them legally (in 2021, 68% reported buying exclusively from the legal market, 15% reported buying exclusively from the illicit market and 17% reported mixed sourcing). Footnote 50 Based on this evidence, they suggested that for most edible cannabis consumers, the current limit is sufficient and is not an impediment to legal sourcing. However, it is also apparent that there is a minority of edible cannabis consumers who wish to purchase edible products with more THC in them.

We deliberated extensively on the issue of the THC limit for edible cannabis products. The critical gaps in the current evidence made our efforts to reach a consensus position very difficult. There was a shared view that protection of children from accidental consumption is the paramount concern. Edibles come in forms that are much more attractive to children than dried cannabis and other cannabis products, therefore, the risk of ingestion is greater. This is reflected in the more stringent approach Health Canada took to regulating edible cannabis when these products were permitted in 2019, as compared to the higher amounts of THC permitted in other products.

We also agreed that any increase in the THC content of edible cannabis products would need to be coupled with additional controls to reduce the risk of accidental consumption (or over-consumption by adult consumers). Any additional controls would likely add to manufacturing costs for licence holders. Ultimately, we felt that there are too many unknowns and too much uncertainty about the likely consequences of increasing the amount of THC in these products. Therefore, we are of the view that prudence is warranted here and accordingly, we recommend that the current limit be maintained, and that research be undertaken that will fill critical knowledge gaps related to this issue. We also note that consumers wishing to ingest higher doses of THC continue to have access to oral oils and capsules, as well as a range of other cannabis products that do not resemble foods and do not pose the same risk of accidental consumption for children.

We encourage Health Canada to incorporate emerging evidence into future decisions related to the regulation of edible cannabis (which may suggest that THC limits could be increased or that additional controls are needed). This research needs to help characterize the likely impacts of a potential change at the individual and population levels, and on adult consumers, as well as those at risk of being unintentionally exposed, especially children.

Maintaining home cultivation rules

While home cultivation was a controversial topic at the time of legalization, it was not raised as a priority during our engagement. Most stakeholders who spoke to the issue of home cultivation supported the current approach (that is, the ability of adults to grow up to 4 plants in their residence). Some called for additional information to be made available on the health and safety risks associated with growing cannabis in or around a person's home (for example, detrimental effects on indoor air quality, electrical hazards, increased risk of fires).

There was no evidence that suggested reforms are needed to the federal rules on home cultivation. We do encourage continued efforts to raise awareness and provide information about potential risks, including safe storage of cannabis products in the home.

The federal framework for cannabis includes various measures aimed at protecting public safety and discouraging activities conducted outside the legal regime. Footnote 51 Central to the approach to displace the illicit cannabis market is providing adult consumers with the ability to purchase cannabis from legal, regulated sources, while setting out offences and sanctions to deter criminal activity and supporting law enforcement action against those who engage in illicit activities. Footnote 52

We note considerable progress has been made in achieving some of the important objectives of the legislation. It is clear that consumers who wish to access legal, regulated products can do so, and we are encouraged by evidence regarding the displacement of the illicit market.

As described in our What We Heard Report , there was a 95% reduction in the number of charges for cannabis possession between 2017 and 2022. We are encouraged that the provision of legal access to cannabis has reduced the negative impacts of prohibition which resulted from interactions with the criminal justice system. Footnote 53

We are concerned, however, with the criminal activity that persists. Of particular concern are the activities of organized crime and criminal networks (which often involve trafficking other substances and firearms, the use of firearms and the use of proceeds from cannabis to fund other serious criminal activities), the diversion of cannabis by some of those who are registered with Health Canada to produce cannabis for medical purposes as a source of illicit supply, the proliferation of unauthorized retail stores on First Nations reserves (that is, stores operating without community approval, or a provincial or territorial authorization) and the relative ease with which unauthorized online sellers operate.

We are also struck by the limited enforcement action against these criminal activities. We were provided with some examples of large-scale investigations leading to charges and convictions, especially for the import and export of cannabis. But overall, enforcement of the regime does not appear to be a priority. We appreciate that law enforcement does not have unlimited resources to address criminal activity and must prioritize its efforts; however, the integrity of the cannabis regime depends on deterring criminal activity. The absence of consequences, or any fear of consequences, will lead criminal actors to continue their activities, resulting in harm to individuals and communities. We also heard that the lack of law enforcement action leads some consumers to believe that illicit cannabis does not pose health or safety risks, or that the illicit cannabis is in fact legal. In this chapter, we offer recommendations to improve consumers' ability to distinguish between legal and illicit cannabis, as well as a series of observations that relate to the leading cannabis-related enforcement issues.

Addressing the illicit market

The evidence available to us indicates that there has been substantial displacement of the illicit market. While there are different approaches to assessing the extent of displacement, and some debate over individual estimates, it is clear that meaningful progress has been made over the first 5 years of legalization at the national level. For example, the latest estimate from Statistics Canada suggests that in the third quarter of 2023, 73% of household expenditures on non-medical cannabis was from legal sources, while the latest findings from the Canadian Cannabis Survey suggest 79% of cannabis consumers reported always or mostly obtaining cannabis from legal sources. Footnote 54 , Footnote 55

However, these reports and surveys about displacement rely on self-reported data, and some participants in our review cautioned that they do not tell the full story, which may lead to an underestimation of the size of the illicit market. Some survey respondents may not be truthful about the source of their purchases, for example, or may believe that they have purchased cannabis legally, given the efforts some illicit sellers take to make their products and presence look legitimate.

Some stakeholders have questioned recently published findings from the 2023 Canadian Cannabis Survey that indicated only 3% of cannabis consumers reported usually obtaining cannabis from illicit sources (that is, an illegal store, illegal website or dealer), although notably an additional 15% of consumers reported usually obtaining cannabis from social sources (that is, acquaintances, friends or family members). In response to a separate question, 15% of consumers indicated that they rarely or never buy from legal sources. Footnote 55

Continued monitoring of the legal share of the total market, along with regular public reporting on the extent to which the illicit market has been displaced, will be important to help guide policymaking and priority-setting by all levels of government. We caution against relying on a single measure of displacement and advise examining multiple indicators together when trying to gauge progress. This effort should include disaggregating by type of cannabis product (for example, examining dried cannabis and cannabis vaping products separately), assessing differences in the extent of legal sourcing in different regions and considering different types of consumers. National estimates, and those that rely on one type of indicator, lack nuance and obscure important trends. For example, we heard from some First Nations communities who have seen organized crime groups move into their territories and increase the illicit trade of cannabis locally. Such activities are not detectable in national, provincial or territorial spending figures.

We also caution against setting a displacement target. We believe that a target would be arbitrary and may lead to unintended consequences (for example, after the target is reached, criminal enforcement activities may be deprioritized and resources redirected, which could be exploited by illicit operators and organized crime). Rather, the Government of Canada should strive to displace the illicit market to the extent possible and implement measures that promote a continued transition toward a legal, regulated cannabis market.

The Government of Canada should support continued displacement of the illicit market, relying on strategies that prioritize the protection of public health and public safety. To support further displacement, the government should employ measures that both "push" and "pull" consumers to the legal market and consider initiatives that address both supply and demand. Examples include permitting product types and formats that are reasonably competitive with those on the illicit market (while maintaining safeguards to mitigate risks to public health and public safety), disseminating information for consumers in an effort to discourage demand for illicit cannabis products and taking enforcement actions against illicit producers and sellers to reduce the supply of illicit cannabis.

Organized crime and criminal networks

Law enforcement highlighted the ongoing involvement of organized crime in the production and supply of illicit cannabis. They noted investigations have established linkages between organized crime suppliers and online sellers. Illicit supply may end up being distributed and sold in different places (for example, the export market). We heard concerns about the illicit market supplying products to unauthorized stores on First Nations reserves (that is, stores operating without approval from the community, or a provincial or territorial authorization) and to unauthorized retail stores that are re-emerging in major cities and to illicit online sellers.

Diversion of cannabis from personal and designated production for medical purpose sites

As discussed in Chapter 11, some law enforcement officials pointed to the abuse of the personal and designated production of cannabis for medical purposes program as a contributor to illicit supply. Some criminal actors seek registrations for large plant counts without having any medical need and solely as a means to provide cover for their illicit production activities. We also heard concerns about the resulting threat to public safety for residents near areas where this large-scale, organized criminal activity takes place.

Health Canada must do more to address the practices that lead to registrations that produce large amounts of cannabis for the illicit market. This needs to involve action on a number of fronts, including restricting the number of registrations on a single site, seeking additional justifications from authorizing health care professionals about the amounts of cannabis they are recommending and refusing or revoking applications where there are risks to public health or public safety (including the risk of cannabis being diverted). See Chapter 11 for a broader discussion and recommendations related to the personal and designated production program.

Unauthorized retail stores on First Nations reserves

As discussed in Chapter 7, illicit cannabis operations on First Nations reserves that are not authorized by the community pose many health and safety problems for residents. These stores sell unregulated products that do not comply with product, packaging or labelling rules, including products designed to be attractive to youth. Community leaders believe that many of these stores are supported by criminal elements from outside of their communities. We heard that community leadership and police services often do not have the capacity to shut down these stores, and there needs to be more assistance from, and coordination with, other police services that are responsible, such as the Royal Canadian Mounted Police or provincial police services.

Illicit online sales

We heard about illicit sales of cannabis on both the dark web and the surface or traditional web, including how illicit sellers use websites and social media to facilitate their sales. These sites and platforms offer anonymity and ease of access (including for youth) and offer products that are not available in the legal market (for example, edible products with higher amounts of delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol [THC], or products that are designed to be attractive to youth).

Sites on the surface web often appear to be legal, offering a variety of payment methods (including Interac and credit card), which may cause consumers to believe they are legitimate. Law enforcement indicated that investigating illicit online sellers is a significant challenge due to the complexity and time involved in locating, identifying and tracking the host of the websites. Illicit operators often use virtual private networks or route their address through multiple jurisdictions to camouflage their locations. Further, even if an illicit site has been identified and shut down, it is relatively simple for the criminal actors to launch another site.

Addressing illicit market actors

Enforcement action to address the criminal activity of illicit market actors is essential to achieving the Cannabis Act 's (the Act) public safety objectives.

Law enforcement has a vital role to play in enforcing the criminal offences in the Act. Notwithstanding the other priorities they must manage, we encourage law enforcement to increase their focus on cannabis-related criminal activity, especially when organized crime is involved. Since the burden of enforcement should not fall entirely on the police, we encourage Health Canada, Public Safety Canada and regulators in the provinces and territories to work with law enforcement to develop a comprehensive strategy to address illicit activity.

However, we also recognize there is an opportunity for other (non-criminal enforcement) activities to address both demand and supply, to deter criminal activity and support further displacement to the legal market.

On the demand side, we emphasize the need to collect better information about the motivation of consumers for buying from illicit sources, as this will shape the direction of policy in the future. In the interim, continued dissemination of practical information for occasional consumers about how to recognize legally produced cannabis and authorized retailers may better equip them to recognize and choose legal products (for example, looking for excise stamps, child-resistant packaging or the standardized cannabis symbol). We understand that both Health Canada and some provincial and territorial distributors have done this. For legacy consumers, price declines in the legal market may also influence their choice of markets, especially for product formats other than dried cannabis where price differences remain. However, as noted in Chapter 8, we would not want to see lower prices encourage consumption.

While Health Canada's primary role is to licence and oversee the legal industry, we understand it works closely with law enforcement and may refer suspected illicit activity for investigation (for example, complaints received about illicit sellers or information about unauthorized production for medical purposes). We encourage the department to continue this and to work with law enforcement and provincial and territorial partners to issue public advisories or other forms of communication about illicit products and the harm they pose. This could involve regularly testing seized products and releasing information about the presence of contaminants and THC quantities or concentrations.

On the supply side, we see potential for the use and enforcement of municipal zoning bylaws, or business licensing rules, to discourage the proliferation of illicit physical stores. We note provisions in British Columbia legislation, for example, which enable charges to be laid against the landlords of illicit physical stores. In our view, landlords should not profit from leasing to businesses selling illicit cannabis, nor should illicit sellers be able to use these stores and the signage associated with them to encourage consumption and entice youth.

We recognize that police investigations into illicit online sellers are time consuming and require specialized competencies and tools which may not always be available, especially for smaller police services. We encourage governments to consider the approach of British Columbia's Community Safety Unit, where civilian investigators coordinate enforcement actions with law enforcement partners locally and across Canada. We understand that this Unit has access to tools to investigate potential illicit operators (sellers and producers). It is authorized to demand and inspect records, seize and destroy illicit cannabis products and other items, and impose monetary penalties against illicit operators.

British Columbia has had some success in disrupting the activities of illicit online sellers. Over 1,500 sites were investigated as of January 2024, with almost 1,000 disrupted. Nonetheless, we heard that there are limitations due to the lack of legal authority compelling Internet service providers to remove illicit content. Footnote 56 Similarly, there is no requirement for financial institutions to track and prevent illicit actors from using their services. We understand some provinces are considering measures in this area, by amending laws to provide authority for judicial orders, to compel the removal of illegal sites from online platforms and to compel financial service operators to provide financial information that helps identify illegal online cannabis operators and to stop providing services to those operators. We feel it would be in the best interests of public health and public safety for various levels of government to consider new tools aimed at shrinking the amount of harmful criminal activity online.

In this regard, we note that the Government of Canada recently introduced Bill C-63, the Online Harms Act . The purpose of this proposed legislation is to, among other things, promote online safety and to reduce harms caused as a result of harmful content (such as hate speech, or content that insights violence). It would create a Digital Safety Commission to administer and enforce the Act, including requirements for the operators of social media services to implement measures to mitigate the risk that users will be exposed to harmful content on their services, and to integrate features to protect children. We encourage parliamentarians to consider how the proposed legislation could be used to better protect children and youth from the harms associated with exposure to substances, including cannabis.

Cannabis-impaired driving

We heard that cannabis-impaired driving continues to be a significant concern that requires ongoing enforcement efforts. Law enforcement officials, especially those in rural and remote communities, told us that they face challenges accessing the tools, training and personnel required to detect cannabis use and confirm impairment in drivers. Cannabis-impaired driving is an area that deserves priority attention because the actions of impaired drivers can result in serious injury or loss of life to the drivers and others.

We appreciate that governments at all levels, as well as civil society actors, have made efforts to emphasize the importance of not driving while impaired by cannabis. Given the significant shifts in social norms with respect to driving while impaired by alcohol, there are likely lessons that can be applied to prevent cannabis use and driving.

Access to cannabis for medical purposes was one of the more complex issues we were asked to review. We recognize that there are longstanding court-affirmed rights to reasonable access to cannabis for medical purposes. However, legalization changed the context for this form of access; there is no longer an absolute prohibition on cannabis, as was the case when the medical regime was developed in the early 2000s. This initial regime provided a way for people to legally possess and produce cannabis, and later to legally purchase cannabis, for their own medical use without the fear of being investigated, charged and possibly jailed.

The medical regime now exists within a broader legal framework where all adult Canadians can legally purchase and possess cannabis, and in most provinces and territories, also legally grow up to 4 plants. Footnote 57 Patients who wish to use the medical access program, including young persons, must have a medical document from a health care professional, which includes an authorized daily amount based on medical need (set out in grams of dried cannabis per day); however, there is no limit to how much cannabis a health care professional can authorize. Footnote 58 In the medical access program under the Cannabis Regulations , individuals have the option to register with a seller licensed by Health Canada to purchase cannabis products that are then shipped to them or to register with Health Canada to grow cannabis or designate someone to grow it on their behalf (this is referred to as personal or designated production).

In 2016, the Task Force acknowledged that a separate system would be necessary to preserve medical access for patients at a time of unprecedented change. It recognized that the medical access system would need to be reviewed in light of legalization and recommended that the Government of Canada evaluate the framework within 5 years of legalization.

The Task Force also acknowledged that while a regulatory pathway existed for the approval of cannabis medicines (that is, pharmaceutical drugs with a Drug Identification Number), uptake was limited. It noted that the Government of Canada needed to do more work to promote and support pre-clinical and clinical research to facilitate the approval of cannabis-based medicines held to pharmaceutical standards, recognizing that research and drug development processes take many years. It also noted the federal government's efforts to explore a different pathway for "wellness" products (for example, products containing cannabidiol [CBD] or non-psychoactive cannabinoids), such as those modelled on natural health products. Notwithstanding the Task Force's recommendations, limited progress has been made to improve medical access through either the pharmaceutical drug (drugs with a Drug Identification Number) or health product streams.

Throughout our review, we heard a range of perspectives on the future direction of access to cannabis for medical purposes, as well as an underlying sentiment of frustration with the current state of access. The legalization of cannabis has had a profound impact on how Canadians access cannabis. However, patients, health care professionals, medical regulatory bodies, municipalities and law enforcement have all voiced concerns about how legalization has impacted access to cannabis for medical purposes. Further, legalization has not resulted in the desired improvement to the clinical knowledge about cannabis for medical purposes, and there continues to be stigma around its use.

We heard from many patients and their caregivers, as well as patient advocacy groups, harm reduction groups, cannabis clinics and compassion clubs, and recognize the desire of many people to have access to cannabis for medical purposes to manage their symptoms and conditions. Given the lack of progress towards the approval of cannabis as pharmaceutical drugs and of health products containing cannabis, we see a need to maintain a distinct medical access program, with improvements, to better support patient care and to address abuse of the personal and designated production program. Currently, the medical access program is the only system that offers patients using cannabis for medical purposes oversight from a health care professional.

Despite limited clinical evidence regarding the therapeutic benefits of cannabis, individuals suffering from a variety of medical conditions report deriving therapeutic benefits from cannabis. Many Canadians use the medical access program, and many more report using cannabis for medical purposes outside the medical access program.

As of September 2023, there were approximately 203,000 individuals registered to obtain cannabis for medical purposes. This includes the 188,000 Canadians registered with licensed sellers and the 15,000 Canadians registered with Health Canada for personal and designated production. Registrations for personal and designated production are almost all for personal production, with only 300 registrations for designated production. In contrast, at the time of legalization, some 371,000 Canadians were registered to access cannabis for medical purposes: 345,000 with licensed sellers and 26,000 with Health Canada for personal and designated production (of which 1,300 were for designated production). Footnote 59

Those involved with the medical program shared numerous suggestions for improvements, including supporting greater recognition of cannabis as a harm reduction tool, greater access to knowledgeable health care professionals, more reliable and affordable product options, and improved eligibility for insurance coverage.

We appreciate that there are still significant gaps in the evidence in this area and recognize that cannabis is not a suitable treatment for many individuals, nor is it risk-free. At the same time, there is a need to continue to support the 203,000 currently registered patients who rely on the medical access system, as well as enhancing the program for future registrants. This chapter details ways to better support patients within the parameters of the program and the evidence that exists today. As our proposed changes are implemented, we hope that there would be an assessment of their impact, as well as any additional evidence developed. This would help guide future decisions related to medical access.

Enabling pharmacy access

In our view, an important change to improve access to cannabis for medical purposes would be to allow patients to obtain cannabis in-person from pharmacies. Some jurisdictions that permit medical access (such as Australia, France, Germany, Israel, Italy and the United Kingdom) use pharmacies as the means to distribute cannabis through prescriptions. While the individual regimes vary (some make very limited product forms available and some offer insurance coverage), the pharmacy distribution model recognizes there are benefits to cannabis being provided in a manner similar to pharmaceutical medications.

Pharmacies are equipped to manage many types of products. We believe pharmacy systems and infrastructure can be adapted to handle cannabis, given they already manage controlled substances, such as narcotics. Enabling this form of access would address patient concerns about the delays with mail delivery and product shortages they encounter today. It would also provide patients with an opportunity to consult with pharmacists and be counselled on effects on mental health (such as psychosis) and issues of medication management (for example, getting advice about contraindications and interactions with other substances).

We understand that the Cannabis Regulations already enable distribution of cannabis by hospital pharmacists so that patients can continue to have access to cannabis while seeking treatment at a hospital. While this is not a major element of the current regime, we believe the current regulations and recent experience could help inform a system that enables wider pharmacy access.

While we believe there would be overall benefit to enabling pharmacy access to cannabis for medical purposes, we understand that some pharmacists and pharmacy regulatory authorities are concerned about the potential for unintended consequences. They have shared concerns that some people may believe cannabis is a prescription medication that meets rigorous safety, quality and efficacy standards because of the involvement of pharmacists in providing it. This issue could be addressed in part by providing better information for health care professionals and for patients.

Establishing a pharmacy access channel cannot happen overnight. It would require regulatory changes from Health Canada, consultation with interested provinces and territories, and regulatory authorities for pharmacists, as well as potential changes at the provincial and territorial level related to the scope of practice of pharmacists. Enhanced cannabis-specific training and education supports would be required to prepare pharmacists for this new role. We note there is already some cannabis-related training available for pharmacists, notably those in Ontario.

Further, we acknowledge that pharmacy access would not address issues of affordability (including the sales and excise taxes that are applied to cannabis products sold for medical purposes). Finally, it is unlikely that every pharmacy would choose to participate in providing cannabis for medical purposes, or that individual pharmacies would stock hundreds or thousands of different cannabis products.

Notwithstanding these issues, we believe Health Canada should take the first steps to create this access channel. This should include establishing requirements for pharmacies to manage the safe storage and handling of the products.

Consultation with relevant parties would be required to ensure the effective development and implementation of access to cannabis for medical purposes in pharmacies. Health Canada should work closely with interested provinces and territories to establish pharmacy access, and to evaluate these efforts for the benefit of other jurisdictions that may be considering similar models.

We also believe that the current mail order delivery system should be maintained for the benefit of patients who prefer that form of access. The mail order access system would also continue to play an important role for patients in areas without pharmacies, or in provinces and territories where pharmacy involvement might be more limited. We understand that the current system also authorizes health care professionals, such as nurse practitioners, to receive cannabis from licensed sellers and to distribute it to patients; these provisions could be expanded to enable the shipment of cannabis from pharmacies to health care professionals, thereby supporting patients in rural or remote regions (for example, those receiving care at nursing stations in the North).

Research on the use of cannabis for medical purposes

Despite recommendations made more than 7 years ago by the Task Force to promote and support pre-clinical and clinical research into the use of cannabis for medical purposes, little progress has been made.

We believe more needs to be done to study the therapeutic uses of cannabis to better understand both the potential benefits and the potential risks. We feel that beliefs held by many Canadians on the use of cannabis for medical purposes, or as a substitute for the use of other substances, are not generalizable across health conditions, or specific cannabis products. Further, these beliefs are not based on reliable, high-quality evidence for specific health conditions. Additional research is needed to better guide the use of cannabis for medical purposes.

That said, we feel that cannabis products should follow the same regulatory pathways as other health products in order to obtain a Drug Identification Number and make health claims. Health Canada has established robust systems for evaluating the safety, quality and efficacy of a range of health products, and the evidentiary standards set in these systems should be maintained for cannabis. In our view, advancing research on the use of cannabis for medical purposes hinges on identifying and removing the barriers that currently impede good quality research, and not relaxing standards in the case of cannabis.

Addressing barriers to research

A key barrier that researchers identified to us was difficulty accessing cannabis products manufactured according to Good Manufacturing Practices, which refers to a system of processes, procedures and documentation that ensure a product (for example, a pharmaceutical drug) meets appropriate quality standards for its intended use. Canadians who use cannabis for medical purposes consume a wide array of product types, and the research materials used in clinical studies should reflect this variety. However, some Canadian cannabis licence holders manufacture cannabis products compliant with Good Manufacturing Practices predominantly for export markets (that is, to countries that require this standard for cannabis products, including Australia, Israel and Germany). It may be possible to increase Canadian researchers' access to quality cannabis that meets the requirements under the Good Manufacturing Practices to conduct clinical trials.

Obtaining access to cannabis that meets the requirements under Good Manufacturing Practices is a necessary step to conducting clinical trials with cannabis, but funding is another significant barrier. Given the widespread availability of cannabis and existing beliefs about the medical benefits of products already available, many pharmaceutical companies may not see sufficient return on investment in research and product development, although some companies and academic researchers continue to conduct clinical research with cannabis. Therefore, public investment may be required to make meaningful advances in research on the therapeutic uses of cannabis.

The Government of Canada has an opportunity to encourage researchers to undertake studies on the medical use of cannabis by making research priorities clear and providing targeted funding opportunities. Cannabis, in many different forms, is currently used to treat a range of symptoms and conditions, and prioritization of research needs is important. To that end, we encourage Health Canada to support a transparent process to identify the specific potential therapeutic applications of cannabis that would benefit most from additional study.

Facilitating better information, guidance and education for health care professionals

Throughout our review, we heard that the lack of clinical information, guidance and training for health care professionals on the use of cannabis for medical purposes has a negative impact on patient care. Health care professionals find the medical authorization process (that is, the document required by the regulations that forms the basis of a patient's registration for medical access) difficult to navigate. Many health care professionals are also uncomfortable with the lack of clinical evidence that is available for many uses of cannabis.

In addition, many patients report difficulty finding a health care professional with sufficient knowledge and interest in overseeing cannabis-based therapies. In the absence of knowledgeable health care professionals, some patients obtain their authorizations through cannabis clinics with whom they have little to no prior relationship or history.

We endeavored to consult broadly with the medical community throughout our review but were largely unsuccessful. While we did receive some written submissions, and some physicians attended our roundtables on cannabis for medical purposes, the limited engagement meant that our deliberations on this important issue did not have the benefit of the full perspective of all parts of the medical community.

It is our understanding that many medical professionals are reluctant to recommend that their patients use products that have not gone through a rigorous review process to evaluate their safety, quality and efficacy. However, the reality is that approximately 203,000 Canadians are registered in the medical access program, while many others are using cannabis they obtain from recreational stores or from the illicit market to treat a variety of medical conditions. Most of these people are receiving advice from friends and family members, sales personnel in retail stores ("budtenders") and the Internet. The paucity of health care professionals with knowledge of cannabis therefore leads to a situation where many of these medical consumers are putting themselves at risk.

There should be more education for health care professionals. Some health care professions, including nursing and pharmacy, have taken steps to educate their members. The Canadian Nurses Association, with funding from Health Canada's Substance Use and Addictions Program, developed a national cannabis framework called Non-Medical Cannabis: A Nursing Framework and a nursing e-learning course, Understanding Cannabis in Clinical Practice . The Ontario College of Pharmacists requires practicing pharmacists who provide patient care to complete mandatory cannabis education. We also understand that some medical schools include course modules and information on cannabis, including the Cannabis Education for Health Care Providers Toolkit from the University of British Columbia. However, much more needs to be done to improve the knowledge of health care professionals, especially physicians.

There is an opportunity to improve how knowledge about the use of cannabis for medical purposes is collected and shared. In 2018, Health Canada published Information for Health Care Professionals: Cannabis (marihuana, marijuana) and the cannabinoids which described the evidence available at that time about various conditions and diseases. We encourage Health Canada to update this document and take steps to keep the information up-to-date, such as creating a knowledge hub that can provide health care professionals, researchers and interested members of the public (including patients) with current, reliable information to guide decision-making.

There is also a need to develop and disseminate national clinical guidance documents to increase the knowledge and understanding of health care professionals related to cannabis for medical purposes. These documents should be informed by experts, available scientific research and build on information already available from other jurisdictions. For example, Israel's national cannabis authority has developed clinical guidance for cannabis for medical purposes that covers topics such as: approved clinical indications, products, quantity or concentration, dosing, and abuse and addiction. This material, which was developed with medical associations, gives health care professionals information on which to base their decisions as clinicians.

Advancing cannabis-based health products

In 2019, Health Canada created an independent Science Advisory Committee on Health Products Containing Cannabis to examine the evidence on the use of cannabinoids to treat short-term minor ailments without health care practitioner oversight. In February 2022, the committee published its Review of cannabidiol: Report of the Science Advisory Committee on Health Products Containing Cannabis .

We understand Health Canada is building on this work and exploring the potential for cannabidiol (CBD) to be used as a medicinal ingredient in certain non-prescription health products authorized under the Food and Drugs Act (for example, products suitable to be used for symptomatic relief of stress or promotion of sleep). Other cannabinoids, including delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), are not being considered for non-prescription use at this time.

Increased availability of cannabis-based health products that have been reviewed and authorized under the existing framework for non-prescription or natural health products would mark an important advancement, because it would provide Canadians with access to legal products that have been reviewed for safety, quality and efficacy.

Health Canada should also establish a scientific advisory committee to review the science on THC and assess the current evidence (including risks and benefits) on the use of THC for medical purposes. This work should be accompanied by targeted research related to THC and its combination with other cannabinoids, in partnership with agencies such as the Canadian Institutes of Health Research. This would help to move beyond the current situation where cannabis for medical purposes is not subject to standard drug approval processes and is viewed by many in the health sector as being outside of evidence-based or conventional practice.

Amending the medical document

There are other issues within the medical access program that we believe should be addressed, with the medical document being a high priority. To support better understanding among patients, the medical document should include specific information from health care professionals related to product format and dose, similar to other substances.

The current requirement that the authorization is provided only in number of grams of dried cannabis per day that can be consumed by the patient is not adequate. It does not provide any guidance on what product format to use (for example, cannabis oil capsule compared to an oral spray), the cannabinoid profile of the product (for example, THC dominant, CBD dominant) or how many times a day the patient should use cannabis. It leaves patients to interpret too much on their own and may encourage patients to use combustible products rather than non-combustible products (such as edibles or topicals). We recognize that permitting greater specificity in the medical document may present challenges for some health care professionals, and not all may opt to be that specific. However, for those that do choose to provide more specificity, knowledge gaps could be addressed by clinical guidance built from existing information on the use of cannabis for medical purposes.

Addressing abuse of the personal and designated production program

The personal and designated production program provides individuals the option to register with Health Canada to grow cannabis or designate someone to grow it on their behalf. The authorization amount on a person's medical document determines how many plants they can grow. In accordance with a formula in the Cannabis Regulations , this generally translates to 5 plants per gram for indoor growing and 2 plants per gram for outdoor growing.

There is currently no limit to how many plants a registered person can grow, as long as it aligns with the authorization amount set out on their medical document. Additionally, the regulations permit up to 4 individuals to grow cannabis for medical purposes at a single site, which has resulted in locations with thousands of plants.

Some patients who rely on personal or designated production to access cannabis for medical purposes consider it to be a more affordable option than purchasing cannabis from licensed sellers. However, for those who choose to grow cannabis for medical purposes, there are cost implications (such as purchasing starting materials, electricity). Others told us that they rely on personal or designated production because it provides them with reliable access to particular strains of cannabis and avoids situations where licensed sellers stop producing the products they want or stop selling entirely.

We believe that patients should continue to have this form of access available to them; however, it is also clear that additional measures are necessary to prevent abuse of the program and reduce its contribution to illicit supply. Law enforcement, municipalities and patients have all raised concerns about abuse of the personal and designated production program, particularly when individuals have authorizations for large plant counts. They indicated that this abuse is a significant contributor to the supply of illicit cannabis in Canada. We note that law enforcement shared this same concern with the Task Force in 2016. We also heard from municipalities about risks to community safety from such criminal activity taking place in residential areas.

The extent of the abuse of the program is unclear as the evidence is not comprehensive. There have been some large-scale police efforts against these activities, with some leading to charges and convictions. However, as noted in Chapter 11 of our What We Heard Report , the number of charges and convictions related to illicit distribution and sale activities has declined every year since legalization.

While the total number of active registrations for personal and designated production has declined in recent years, there are still thousands of locations where cannabis is being grown under this program. Further, the ability for multiple individuals to locate their production at a single site leads to situations that are comparable to commercial cultivation operations, yet without any of the safeguards applied to commercial licence holders (for example, security requirements and odour control measures). We understand that these types of sites pose particular challenges for law enforcement because of the size of the activities and difficulties in assessing whether individual registrants are complying with the law. We believe that Health Canada should restrict the number of registrations at a single location from 4 to 1, building on information from law enforcement partners about the risks posed by co-location and the extent of illicit activity occurring at these sites.

In addition to risks associated with co-location, the ability to obtain authorizations to grow large quantities of cannabis creates an avenue for patients to use quantities of cannabis that are well over clinical guidance and may be harmful to their health. These health harms may include short-term adverse effects such as cannabis poisoning, or long-term effects such as addiction or impacts on mental health. Additionally, cannabis grown under personal or designated production registrations is not subject to quality controls or mandatory testing. Registered persons could consider making use of licensed analytical third-party testing facilities to ensure the quality and safety of their cannabis.

As of September 2023, the average amount of cannabis authorized for daily use by those buying from licensed medical sellers was 2.3 grams per day. This amount has remained relatively constant since October 2018. In comparison, the average daily amount authorized for those registered for personal or designated production was 33 grams per day as of September 2023, a 28% decrease from the peak of 45 grams per day in September 2021. We note that the average daily amount in British Columbia is well above this, at 59 grams per day. Footnote 59

Health Canada has made progress in addressing high authorization applications (that is, where a health care professional has authorized an amount that would lead to a large number of plants being grown) by seeking additional justification from the health care professional for the amount in question. In the absence of additional evidence or information to support the amount, the department can refuse or revoke the application on the grounds it poses a risk to public health or public safety. However, while Health Canada has held these authorities since 2018 when the Cannabis Regulations came into force, it only began to seek additional justifications in 2021.

Health Canada officials indicated that as of November 2023, there have been 2,942 refusals and revocations, compared to 431 in September 2021, with the majority having been refused or revoked on the basis of risks to public health or public safety. Footnote 60

Health Canada also provides regular reports to provincial and territorial regulatory authorities on health care professionals authorizing over 25 grams per day. Notably, as of September 2023, there were 226 health care professionals associated with authorizations between 25 and 100 grams per day, concentrated in Ontario (104) and British Columbia (72). Footnote 59 While there may be a legitimate medical need for larger amounts, such exceptional cases should be investigated by the relevant regulatory authorities for physicians and nurse practitioners in these provinces. It is our understanding that some regulatory authorities have followed up on the reports and started investigations into the practices of the physicians and nurse practitioners.

The added scrutiny appears to have reduced both the number of individuals registered for personal and designated production of cannabis, and the average amount authorized by health care professionals. Health Canada should continue this work, and extend this additional scrutiny to more registration applications to deter and reduce abuse.

Health Canada should continue to conduct inspections of sites with registrations for personal or designated production. Inspections are an important oversight tool for the department. We understand that findings from inspections can support revocations of registrations and referral to law enforcement (for example, situations where the registered person is growing more plants than they are authorized for).

In our review, law enforcement representatives suggested the elimination of the personal and designated production program. However, we also heard from patients and health care professionals about those who rely on it and carry out their production activities without risk to public health and public safety. If Health Canada contemplates significant changes or elimination of the program in the future, it should carefully consider the potential impacts on patients and have measures in place to address concerns about affordability. It would also need to consider the interests of patients who reside in provinces where the cultivation of cannabis outside the medical access program is prohibited (such as in Quebec and Manitoba).

Supporting innovative approaches within the current system

The current medical access system does offer some flexibility for innovation, enabling support for harm reduction and vulnerable or marginalized populations, when under health care professional supervision and using regulated products. We hope that in the near future, models such as the High Hopes Foundation will be the subject of more evaluation and research.

The High Hopes Foundation is a non-profit initiative focused on harm reduction programming for substance users in Vancouver's Downtown East Side. In 2022, the Foundation was issued a medical sales licence from Health Canada. High Hopes offers compassionate cannabis pricing and aims to minimize costs to patients. The Foundation is the pickup site for individuals who are authorized to use cannabis for medical purposes but who do not have a fixed address or who experience homelessness. We had the opportunity to visit High Hopes in March 2023 to see their model in action.

Ensuring affordability of cannabis products for medical purposes

The cost of cannabis for medical purposes continues to be a major concern for patients. We heard that in some cases, products in the medical market are more expensive than in the non-medical market. This may encourage patients to buy cannabis from a retail store or an illicit source rather than through the medical access program. In doing so, they may not seek out medical oversight and put themselves at risk of receiving products that may cause harm.

Patients want cannabis for medical purposes to be treated like prescription drugs, which are generally covered by insurance or benefit programs and are exempt from excise and sales taxes. Finance Canada should examine the excise tax as it relates to cannabis for medical purposes, especially if pharmacy access is permitted as recommended.

Most patients who use cannabis for medical purposes do not have insurance coverage. Approximately 3% of respondents who completed the medical portion of the 2023 Canadian Cannabis Survey indicated they had full insurance coverage and 4% said they were partially covered. Footnote 61 We heard from several patients that the lack of coverage created a significant cost burden for them. As discussed earlier in this chapter, cannabis for medical purposes does not meet the same standards as prescription medications that are routinely covered under drug insurance plans and is generally not covered by private insurers.

Some participants in our consultations noted the insurance coverage for cannabis for medical purposes for Canadian veterans provided by Veterans Affairs Canada. We also heard about the lack of coverage for First Nations and Inuit under the Non-Insured Health Benefits program, which is administered by Indigenous Services Canada.

The impact of Veterans Affairs Canada's program on the health and well-being of veterans is unclear, and we also heard about the rapid increase in the costs of this program. In 2021-2022, benefits of over $153 million were paid for cannabis, which is nearly double the amount paid for all prescription drugs combined ($79 million). The department has forecast that costs for cannabis for medical purposes will rise to over $380 million by 2026-2027, compared to prescription drugs costs which are forecasted to rise to $124.5 million. Footnote 62 We understand that Veterans Affairs Canada is looking into cost-effective ways to manage the growth in the program.

The Standing Senate Committee on Indigenous Peoples (the Standing Senate Committee) published a report on the implementation of the Cannabis Act and its effects on Indigenous Peoples, and recommended that Indigenous Services Canada cover cannabis for medical purposes under the Non-Insured Health Benefits program. The Standing Senate Committee gave several examples of potential harm reduction initiatives involving cannabis and how lack of access to cannabis for medical purposes may hamper these initiatives. The Standing Senate Committee also reported that individuals may not have the resources to purchase cannabis for medical purposes, which can detrimentally impact their substance use treatment.

Some members of the Panel were supportive of the Standing Senate Committee's recommendation related to benefit coverage for cannabis for medical purposes through the Non-Insured Health Benefits program. These Panel members recognize that many Indigenous Peoples assert that health benefits are an inherent Aboriginal and Treaty right. Without deciding the scope or validity of this assertion, they recognize the Government of Canada's fiduciary duties to Indigenous Peoples generally, and that the program is a means of better ensuring registered First Nations and recognized Inuit achieve an overall health status that is comparable to other Canadians. Understanding the impacts of historical colonialist policies upon Indigenous Peoples, the resultant losses to traditions, cultures, identities and languages, and the ensuing intergenerational traumas, they recognize that many Indigenous People experience disproportionate levels of negative health outcomes. Efforts to redress these health inequities should employ all available and indicated treatments, including cannabis as deemed appropriate by a health care professional. It is the position of these Panel members that it would be an unjustifiable and inequitable error for the Non-Insured Health Benefits program not to provide coverage. These inequities are magnified when compared with the Government of Canada's current coverage for veterans. Acknowledging the concerns presented in the Veterans Affairs Canada coverage model, these members believe coverage as part of the Non-Insured Health Benefits program could be provided on an exceptional basis, rather than as an open benefit.

Other members of the Panel felt it is premature to recommend benefit coverage for cannabis for medical purposes under this program, or any other Government of Canada insurance program. First, as officials noted to the Standing Senate Committee in 2018, there are gaps in the evidence about the use of cannabis for therapeutic reasons. Second, effort needs to be made to understand why the Veterans Affairs Canada insurance program grew so quickly and what this might mean for other benefit programs that might consider providing coverage of the costs of cannabis for medical purposes. Third, further consideration would need to be given to the projected costs and the impacts on the overall budget for the Non-insured Health Benefits program. Fourth, the federal government provides insurance coverage to other groups, including members of the Canadian Armed Forces and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police; Panel members questioned if it would be feasible to extend coverage under the Non-Insured Health Benefits program without accounting for and considering these other federal programs.

All Panel members agree that there are both equity and state of evidence considerations related to the issue of insurance coverage for cannabis for medical purposes. However, we could not find consensus on the issue of whether the Non-Insured Health Benefits program should provide coverage for cannabis for medical purposes.

All Panel members agree that more information would be helpful in finding a way forward. In this regard, the Panel supports further analysis of the recommendation from the Standing Senate Committee, on a priority basis, with Indigenous representatives being meaningfully involved in this work. The Panel also welcomes Veterans Affairs Canada's effort to review ways to manage the growth in its program. Both of these initiatives would also help inform the larger question of whether and under what conditions there should be insurance coverage for cannabis for medical purposes more broadly.

Improving oversight of licence holder and health care professional financial relationships

We heard concerns about conflicts of interest between health care professionals and cannabis clinics receiving funding from the cannabis industry, including federal licence holders. For this reason, provincial and territorial regulatory authorities should require health care professionals to disclose any financial relationships with licence holders (for example, whether they receive payments from licence holders in exchange for authorizing specific products).

A century of prohibition significantly limited cannabis research. While some initial investment was made and there have been meaningful improvements in the state of knowledge about cannabis, we believe that insufficient attention and resources have been committed to support research, surveillance and monitoring. Footnote 63 Five years after the legalization of cannabis in Canada, many critical knowledge gaps remain, and some gaps may take decades to close. These gaps will only be filled through continued study of Canadians' experience with legal access to cannabis and of the evolution in social norms associated with this dramatic shift in drug policy.

Identification of knowledge gaps

Some of the knowledge gaps that were raised with us, as noted throughout this report, include:

• cannabis-related poisonings among children (including the source of the cannabis)
• the amount of cannabis that constitutes a single serving (that is, a standard dose) to guide consumer decision-making
• the impacts and effects of cannabis and legalization, including high-potency and novel cannabis products, on mental health (such as psychosis) and substance use in diverse populations
• the health risks associated with the use of different types of cannabis products, including the emissions of smoked and vaped cannabis
• the impacts of cannabis use or exposure during different stages of life (including prenatal, perinatal and neonatal exposure; among individuals who are pregnant, breastfeeding or chestfeeding; and among seniors)
• long-term or longitudinal studies examining consequences of cannabis and legalization (including a focus on youth)
• the prevalence of people living with cannabis use disorders, and, for those wishing to seek help, their ability to access different types of interventions, including targeted prevention and treatment programs
• the impact of delivering different types of interventions, including targeted prevention and treatment programs and interventions for frequent consumers and those at risk
• the impact and effects of cannabis and legalization on First Nations, Inuit and Métis, as well as equity-deserving groups and different subpopulations (including disparities in enforcement)
• the impacts of different policy approaches by provinces and territories on cannabis use and harms
• the impacts associated with possible changes to product regulations, including potential modification to the delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) limit for edible cannabis products, including the effects on adult consumers, those who might be unintentionally exposed (especially children), and the displacement of the illicit market
• the use of cannabis for medical purposes, including the benefits and harms associated with using cannabis for different conditions

An additional area for research that was not raised extensively in our consultations but we feel is important to note, is the lack of supports and services for individuals with problematic use or who have cannabis use disorder. We anticipate a need for improved services and treatment, but recognize that cannabis is one of many substances that can lead to problematic use, and that data is lacking on the extent of demand for treatment, the use of treatment services and the efficacy of different interventions. To support further improvements in this area, we would encourage further research on best practices for screening, interventions and treatment for problematic cannabis use and cannabis use disorder.

All of these areas are important. However, we recognize that choices need to be made about which research needs should be prioritized for investment. We encourage the federal departments and agencies involved in funding and using the results of research to work with stakeholders, including those with lived and living experience and from marginalized communities, to identify priorities to guide research activities over the next few years. We understand that the Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction will be convening a workshop with experts in 2024 and suggest that this may be a good place to start a discussion on this topic. Of all these areas, we feel there is an urgent need to examine the factors that are contributing to the observed increases in child poisonings.

Bolstering surveillance and monitoring

In addition to supporting research to fill knowledge gaps, it is important that a robust surveillance system be maintained to monitor the impacts of legalization. This includes the ability to access and use different sources of data, including population surveys, health data, findings of research projects, market data and other information sources that can provide insights into cannabis-related behaviours and cannabis-related health effects over time.

In population surveys and other sources, data on differences between sexes, across age groups and between regions was generally available. However, there was a lack of data available to assess the effects of the new cannabis framework on different racial and ethnic groups, gender minorities, sexual minorities and other subpopulations. We note that additional demographic questions have been, or will be added to some of the data collection tools used by Health Canada and Statistics Canada so that these gaps will be filled to provide better information in the future.

Our understanding of the impacts of cannabis on subpopulations and communities will not improve until sufficiently detailed data is made available to inform research and interpretation of findings.

Surveillance and monitoring activities should also be responsive to the variety of potential impacts of cannabis legalization, including monitoring the state of the cannabis market, social equity impacts and environmental consequences of cannabis legalization (see Chapter 8).

Emphasizing the need for regular reviews of the Cannabis Act

Section 151.1 of the Cannabis Act (the Act) only requires the Minister to cause a single review and does not mandate any future reviews of the implementation or administration of this important piece of legislation. However, it will take years to understand the impact of the Act and other elements of the cannabis framework.

Therefore, we believe the Act should be reviewed at regular intervals by independent experts, to ensure the impacts of the framework are assessed over time. We suggest a 5-year interval for these reviews, and that the Government of Canada amend the Act to require such reviews. Moreover, we believe that there should be some continuity from one review to the next. Our review addressed a number of areas where we made recommendations for reform. The starting point for the next independent review should be to assess the degree of progress made in implementing the recommendations of this review. We would expect Health Canada, in collaboration with other federal departments, to keep track of work done to implement our recommendations and to share this work with the experts leading the next independent review.

As noted in the discussion on social equity in Chapter 8, we believe that an examination of the impact on social equity should be given particular attention in future reviews, in light of historical disparities in cannabis criminalization and the ongoing challenges and inequities faced by marginalized communities.

While periodic reviews of the Act would provide important opportunities to assess progress, we also encourage federal, provincial and territorial governments to evaluate, on an ongoing basis, their cannabis frameworks, including laws, regulations, policies, programs and interventions. Regular evaluation and changes are important to ensure the successful implementation of any initiative. In some instances, it may be appropriate for the monitoring and evaluating to be performed by an independent body. Regardless of the nature of the evaluation, reviews should adequately assess the effectiveness of a given program or initiative to determine if its intended objectives are being met. These evaluations should be made public to ensure transparency and accountability.

Summary of engagement

We engaged with stakeholders between December 2022 and January 2024. We used a range of methods to conduct our engagement. These activities occurred with stakeholders throughout Canada, through one-on-one, sectoral and multi-sectoral meetings conducted in-person, via videoconference and in a hybrid format. We also heard from individuals and organizations who took the time to put their views in writing. While significant effort was made to ensure a broad range of voices were incorporated in our engagement activities, we acknowledge that not all perspectives were heard.

We would like to recognize the many individuals and organizations who shared their time and expertise with us. To protect privacy and confidentiality, individual names will not be disclosed, unless otherwise stated.

We met with over 600 individuals from over 250 organizations in nearly 140 meetings.

The names of all the organizations and experts we engaged with are listed below:

• 1286455 BC Ltd
• 420 Cannabis Court
• Adams Lake Indian Band
• Afro BudSistas
• Aitchelitz First Nation
• Alberta Alliance Who Educates and Advocates Responsibly
• Alberta Gaming, Liquor and Cannabis Commission
• Alberta Municipalities
• Alcohol and Gaming Commission of Ontario
• All Nations
• Anishinabek Nation
• Antidote Processing
• Dr. Michael Armstrong, Brock University
• Arthritis Society
• Assembly of First Nations
• Association pour la santé publique du Québec
• Association québécoise de l'industrie du cannabis
• Atlegay Fisheries
• AUBE Patients
• Dr. Lynda Balneaves, University of Manitoba
• Dr. Daniel Bear, Humber College
• Dr. Neil Boyd, Simon Fraser University
• British Columbia Assembly of First Nations
• Dr. Paula Brown, British Columbia Institute of Technology
• Dr. Jason Busse, McMaster University
• C-45 Quality Association
• CAFCAN: Caribbean African Canadian Social Services
• Canada House Wellness Group Inc.
• Canadian Association of Chiefs of Police
• Canadian Association of Elizabeth Fry Societies
• Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives
• Canadian Chamber of Commerce
• Canadian Health Food Association
• Canadian Hemp Farmers Alliance
• Canadian Hemp Trade Alliance
• Canadian Mental Health Association
• Canadian Paediatric Society
• Canadian Pharmacists Association
• Canadian Police Association
• Canadian Psychological Association
• Canadian Public Health Association
• Canadian Students for Sensible Drug Policy
• Canadian Therapeutic Cannabis Partners Society
• Canadian Vaping Association
• Canadian Women in Cannabis
• Cannabis Council of Canada
• Cannabis Health Products Coalition
• Cannabis NB
• Cannaworld Ventures
• Cannibble Foodtech Ltd.
• Canopy Growth Corporation
• Dr. Alexander Caudarella, Canadian Centre on Substance Use and Addiction
• Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
• Centre on Drug Policy Evaluation
• Chiefs of Ontario
• City of Calgary
• City of Toronto
• City of Yellowknife
• Dr. Hance Clarke, University Health Network
• CommPharm Consulting
• Community Futures Central Kootenay
• Dr. Cecilia Costiniuk, McGill University
• Council of Yukon First Nations
• Covenant House
• Data Communications Management
• Dr. David Décary-Hétu, Université de Montréal
• Diplomat Consulting
• DiversityTalk
• Dr. Jennifer Donnan, Memorial University of Newfoundland and Labrador
• Ekosi Health
• Faded Living 420
• Federation of Sovereign Indigenous Nations
• Dr. Yaron Finkelstein, University of Toronto, The Hospital for Sick Children
• Fire & Flower Holdings Corp.
• First Nations Leadership Council
• Food, Health & Consumer Products of Canada
• Dr. Chelsea Gabel, McMaster University
• Government of Alberta
• Government of British Columbia
• Government of Canada (Canada Border Services Agency)
• Government of Canada (Canada Revenue Agency)
• Government of Canada (Canadian Institutes of Health Research)
• Government of Canada (Department of Justice Canada)
• Government of Canada (Finance Canada)
• Government of Canada (Health Canada)
• Government of Canada (Innovation, Science and Economic Development Canada)
• Government of Canada (Privy Council Office)
• Government of Canada (Public Health Agency of Canada)
• Government of Canada (Public Prosecution Service of Canada)
• Government of Canada (Public Safety Canada)
• Government of Canada (Royal Canadian Mounted Police)
• Government of Canada (Statistics Canada)
• Government of Canada (Veterans Affairs Canada)
• Government of Manitoba
• Government of New Brunswick
• Government of Newfoundland and Labrador
• Government of Northwest Territories
• Government of Nova Scotia
• Government of Nunavut
• Government of Ontario
• Government of Prince Edward Island
• Government of Quebec
• Government of Saskatchewan
• Government of Yukon
• Great Gardener Farms
• Dr. Lorraine Greaves, Centre of Excellence for Women's Health
• Green Wynds Farm Ltd
• Greenleaf Medical Clinic
• GreenPort Global
• Greentone Cannabis
• Gwa'sala-Nakwaxda'xw
• Habitus Consulting Collective
• Haisla Nation
• Dr. David Hammond, University of Waterloo
• High Hopes Foundation
• High Tide Inc.
• Dr. Carol Hopkins, Thunderbird Partnership Foundation
• Amy House, York University
• HRVSTR Cannabis Inc.
• Dr. Elaine Hyshka, University of Alberta, Royal Alexandra Hospital
• Institut national de santé publique du Québec
• Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami
• Inuvialuit Regional Corporation
• Israeli Medical Cannabis Agency
• IWK Health Centre
• John Howard Society of Canada
• John Howard Society of Ontario
• Justice for Children and Youth
• Dr. Didier Jutras-Aswad, Centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal
• Kahnawà:ke Policing Functions
• Kahnawà:ke Shakotiia'takehnhas Community Services
• Dr. Lauren Kelly, The Canadian Collaborative for Childhood Cannabinoid Therapeutics
• Khowutzun Development Corporation – Cowichan Tribes
• Dr. Beau Kilmer, RAND Drug Policy Research Center
• Kootenay Aeroponic
• Kwaw-kwaw-Apilt First Nations
• Labstat International
• Lasqueti Cannabis Corp
• Claude Lavoie
• Les Femmes Michif Otipemisiwak
• Liquor, Gaming and Cannabis Authority of Manitoba
• London Drugs Commission
• Los Angeles Department of Cannabis Regulation
• Dr. James MacKillop, McMaster University
• Manitoba Liquor and Lotteries
• Manitoba Métis Federation
• Media Smarts
• Medical Cannabis Canada
• Mental Health Commission of Canada
• Métis Nation – British Columbia
• Métis Nation of Alberta
• Métis Nation of Ontario
• Métis Nation – Saskatchewan
• Métis National Council
• Mohawk Council of Akwesasne
• Mohawk Council of Kahnawà:ke
• Munsee-Delaware Nation
• Mynd Life Sciences
• Nanoose First Nation
• Nathan Richards Legal
• National Association of Pharmacy Regulatory Authorities
• National Indigenous Economic Development Board
• Neskonlith Indian Band
• New Jersey Cannabis Regulatory Commission
• New York Office of Cannabis Management
• Nipissing First Nation
• NORML Canada
• Nunalituqait Ikajuqatigiitut Inuit Association
• Nunatsiavut Government
• Nunavik Health Board
• Nunavik Police Services
• Nunavik Regional Board of Health and Social Services
• Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated
• Oceanic Releaf
• Okanagan Indian Band
• Okpik Consulting
• Ontario Cannabis Store
• Ontario Provincial Police
• Ontario Public Health
• Origine Nature
• Eugene Oscapella, University of Ottawa
• Ottawa Inner City Health
• Ottawa Public Health
• Dr. Akwasi Owusu-Bempah, University of Toronto
• Dr. Rosalie Pacula, University of Southern California, International Society for the Study of Drug Policy
• Partners for Youth Inc.
• Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada
• Penticton Indian Band
• Pine River Institute
• Premo Packaging and Design Co.
• Pure Sunfarms
• Qarjuit Youth Council
• Québec Craft Cannabis
• Dr. Andrew Reid, Douglas College
• Retail Cannabis Council of Ontario
• Retired Ontario Court of Justice
• Rosebud Cannabis Farms
• Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada
• Samson Cree Nation
• Santé Cannabis
• Saskatchewan Liquor and Gaming Authority
• Secluded Wellness Centre
• Service de police de la Ville de Gatineau
• Shoppers Drug Mart Inc.
• Shxwhà:y Village
• Shxw'ōwhámel First Nation
• Siska Indian Band
• Six Nations Cannabis Commission
• Six Nations of the Grand River
• Six Nations Police
• SOLID Outreach
• Squamish Nation
• Sûreté du Québec
• Sweetgrass Trading
• Tantalus Labs
• The Cannabis Nurses
• The Cronos Group
• Dr. Phil Tibbo, Dalhousie University
• Timixw Holdings
• Tl'azt'en Nation
• TRACE Youth Cannabis Research Program
• Transform Drug Policy Foundation
• Ts'il Kaz Koh First Nation
• Tyendinaga (Mohawks of the Bay of Quinte)
• Tyendinaga Police Service
• Union of British Columbia Indian Chiefs
• Upstream Ottawa
• Valhalla Craft Cannabis
• Victoria Cannabis Buyers Club
• Victoria Cannabis Company
• Village Bloomery
• Ville de Laval
• Washington State Liquor and Cannabis Board
• We Wai Kai Nation
• Weaving Wellness Centre
• Western Arctic Youth Collective
• Wholeland Enterprises
• Wikwemikong
• Williams Lake First Nation
• World Class Extractions
• YMCA Youth Cannabis Awareness Program
• Youth Leadership Team (Tobacco Control and Vaping)

Morris Rosenberg (Chair)

Morris Rosenberg, C.M., is a Canadian lawyer and former senior civil servant with the Government of Canada.

Mr. Rosenberg served as Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs (2010–2013), Deputy Minister of Health (2004–2010), and Deputy Minister of Justice and Deputy Attorney General of Canada (1998–2004). He began his public service career with the Department of Justice in 1979. From 1989–1993, he served as Assistant Deputy Minister in the Department of Consumer and Corporate Affairs. From 1993–1996, he served as Assistant Secretary to the Cabinet, Economic and Regional Development Policy, Privy Council Office. He was appointed Deputy Secretary to the Cabinet (Operations) in 1996. After retiring from the government in 2013, Mr. Rosenberg served as President and CEO of the Pierre Elliott Trudeau Foundation from 2014–2018.

Mr. Rosenberg holds a B.A. from McGill University, an LL.L. from the  Université de Montréal  and an LL.M. from Harvard University. He was appointed Member of the Order of Canada in 2015.

Dr. Oyedeji Ayonrinde

Dr. Oyedeji Ayonrinde is an Associate Professor in the departments of Psychiatry and Psychology at Queen's University. He is also a Consultant Psychiatrist and Clinical Director at Providence Care, where he has provided community mental health care over the past five years. Prior to these roles, he was a consultant at the Bethlem Royal and Maudsley Hospitals (UK) and lectured at the Institute of Psychiatry for nearly 20 years. He holds a specialist Fellowship in both general Psychiatry and Addictions from the Royal College of Psychiatrists (UK), an MSc (Research in Psychiatry) from University College London, and an Executive MBA from Imperial College, London. Dr. Ayonrinde is a member of the Canadian Psychiatric Association, Fellow of the American Psychiatric Association and Royal College of Psychiatrists. His peer-reviewed publications focus on risks with gestational cannabis use, cannabis and psychosis, and safety issues with cannabinoid-based medicines. Dr. Ayonrinde has received healthcare and university education awards, as well as national and international awards for cannabis-related scholarship.

Dr. Patricia J. Conrod

Dr. Conrod is a registered clinical psychologist, a Full Professor in the Department of Psychiatry and Addiction at the University of Montreal, and researcher at the Sainte-Justine Mother and Child University Hospital Centre (CHUSJ), where she holds a Tier 1 Canada Research Chair in Preventative Mental Health and Addiction and runs a research laboratory focusing on understanding, preventing and treating neurodevelopmental risk factors and consequences of substance use and misuse. She co-leads the Fonds de recherche du Québec (FRQS) Research Network on Suicide, Mood Disorders and Related Conditions, the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) Canadian Cannabis and Psychosis Research Team, and the CHUSJ IMAGINE Centre for pediatric neuroimaging. She is also Director of the University of Montreal Neuroscience and Mental Health Strategy. She holds a PhD in Psychology (clinical) from McGill University and has published over 247 articles.

Lynda L. Levesque

Lynda Levesque is a proud nehiyaw iskwew and member of the Fisher River Cree Nation in Manitoba, Treaty Five territory.

Ms. Levesque is a criminal lawyer, with experience practicing from both the prosecution and defence perspectives. Since 2018, she has worked as a Crown Prosecutor in Calgary and surrounding rural areas. From 2014–2018, she worked as a duty counsel lawyer with Legal Aid Alberta, serving Calgary and surrounding rural areas. From 2005–2014, she worked as a duty counsel lawyer with Legal Aid Ontario in Toronto. Throughout her legal career, she has maintained a passion for Indigenous justice issues and an interest in better ensuring access to justice for marginalized persons.

Ms. Levesque holds a B.A. from the University of Calgary and an LL.B. from the University of Windsor.

Dr. Peter Selby

Dr. Selby is the Giblon Professor, Vice Chair of Research, and Advisor to the Head of the Mental Health and Addictions Division in the Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto. He is cross appointed in the departments of Psychiatry and the School of Public Health. As a Senior Scientist at CAMH, his research focuses on innovative methods to understand and treat addictive behaviours and their comorbidities. To support these research initiatives, Dr. Selby has received grants totaling over 100 million dollars from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the National Institutes of Health, the Ministry of Health, as well as others. Dr. Selby has held more than 145 grants as Principal or Co-Principal Investigator. He has more than 150 peer-reviewed publications, including 74 as first or senior author. He is also an expert presenter and educator in addiction and mental health especially in primary care and community settings.

A distinctions-based approach acknowledges that each community has a unique culture, territory, history and relationship with the Government of Canada, as well as unique strengths to build on and challenges to face. A distinctions-based approach means working independently with First Nations Peoples, Inuit, Métis Peoples and Intersectional Peoples in recognition of their unique attributes.

Return to footnote 1 referrer

SGBA Plus is an analytical process that uses an intersectional approach to assess how factors such as sex, gender, age, race, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, disability, sexual orientation, cultural background, migration status and geographic location interact and intersect with each other and broader systems of power.

Return to footnote 2 referrer

The Task Force on Cannabis Legalization and Regulation. (2016). A Framework for the Legalization and Regulation of Cannabis in Canada . Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/content/dam/hc-sc/healthy-canadians/migration/task-force-marijuana-groupe-etude/framework-cadre/alt/framework-cadre-eng.pdf.

Return to footnote 3 referrer

Indigenous affiliation can include: any person or persons of First Nation, Inuit or Métis descent and any community, corporation or business associated with a First Nation, Inuit and Métis government, organization or community.

Return to footnote 4 referrer

THC refers to delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the cannabinoid mainly responsible for the psychoactive and intoxicating effects of cannabis.

Return to footnote 5 referrer

More information on the legislative and regulatory controls designed to minimize the harms associated with cannabis use can be found in Chapter 5.

Return to footnote 6 referrer

The Cannabis Act defines a young person as an individual who is under 18 years of age and establishes criminal prohibitions for possession of more than 5 grams of dried cannabis (or its equivalent in other classes of cannabis) by a young person. Provinces and territories can establish higher age limits; most jurisdictions have established a minimum legal age of 19, except Alberta (age 18) and Quebec (age 21).

Return to footnote 7 referrer

Varin, M., Champagne, A., Venugopal, J., Li, L., McFaull, S. R., Thompson, W., Toigo, S., Graham, E., & Lowe, A.-M. (2023). Trends in cannabis-related emergency department visits and hospitalizations among children aged 0–11 years in Canada from 2015 to 2021: spotlight on cannabis edibles. BMC Public Health (23, 1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16987-9.

Return to footnote 8 referrer

Health Canada. (2024). Canadian Cannabis Survey 2023: Summary . Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-medication/cannabis/research-data/canadian-cannabis-survey-2023-summary.html.

Return to footnote 9 referrer

Health Canada monitors the percentage of youth (grade 10-12) who report frequent (daily to weekly) cannabis use in the past 30 days as part of public reporting of departmental results. However, this reporting does not identify or establish targets to reduce youth and young adult cannabis use. See: https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/corporate/transparency/corporate-management-reporting/departmental-performance-reports/2022-2023-departmental-results-report.html.

Return to footnote 10 referrer

Fischer, B., Russell, C., Sabioni, P., van den Brink, W., Le Foll, B., Hall, W., Rehm, J., & Room, R. (2017). Lower-Risk Cannabis Use Guidelines: A Comprehensive Update of Evidence and Recommendations. American Journal of Public Health (Vol. 107, Issue 8, pp. e1–e12). https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2017.303818.

Return to footnote 11 referrer

Fischer, B., Robinson, T., Bullen, C., Curran, V., Jutras-Aswad, D., Medina-Mora, M. E., Pacula, R. L., Rehm, J., Room, R., Brink, W. van den, & Hall, W. (2022). Lower-Risk Cannabis Use Guidelines (LRCUG) for reducing health harms from non-medical cannabis use: A comprehensive evidence and recommendations update. International Journal of Drug Policy (Vol. 99, p. 103381). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.drugpo.2021.103381.

Return to footnote 12 referrer

More information on efforts to disseminate information can be found in Chapters 5 and 6 of our What We Heard Report . See: https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-medication/cannabis/laws-regulations/cannabis-act-legislative-review/expert-panel/legislative-review-cannabis-act-report.html.

Return to footnote 13 referrer

Brief, personality-targeted, cognitive-behavioral interventions refer to therapeutic approaches that focus on addressing specific aspects of an individual's personality, often in a time-limited and structured manner. These interventions combine principles from cognitive-behavioral therapy with a targeted emphasis on personality traits and patterns.

Return to footnote 14 referrer

THC is an intoxicating cannabinoid, whereas CBD is not intoxicating but does have psychoactive effects. See Appendix A for more information.

Return to footnote 15 referrer

Myran, D. T., Pugliese, M., Roberts, R. L., Solmi, M., Perlman, C. M., Fiedorowicz, J., Tanuseputro, P., & Anderson, K. K. (2023). Association between non-medical cannabis legalization and emergency department visits for cannabis-induced psychosis.  Molecular psychiatry , 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-023-02185-x.

Return to footnote 16 referrer

Myran, D. T., Gaudreault, A., Konikoff, L., Talarico, R., & Pacula, R. L. (2023). Changes in cannabis-attributable hospitalizations following nonmedical cannabis legalization in Canada.  JAMA network open ,  6 (10), e2336113-e2336113. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2023.36113.

Return to footnote 17 referrer

Cannabinoids are a group of structurally-related chemical compounds initially identified in the Cannabis sativa plant.

Return to footnote 18 referrer

More information on the provincial, territorial and municipal roles and authorities can be found in Chapter 5.

Return to footnote 19 referrer

More information on the core promotion, packaging and labelling controls can be found in Chapter 5.

Return to footnote 20 referrer

THCA (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid) is the non-active cannabinoid precursor to THC found in raw cannabis, which converts to THC when heated.

Return to footnote 21 referrer

In this context, terpenes are naturally occurring aromatic chemical compounds found in cannabis plants. Terpenes contribute to the smell and taste of different strains of cannabis.

Return to footnote 22 referrer

Trauma-informed refers to approaches that recognize the connection between trauma and negative health outcomes and behaviours. These approaches aim to minimize the potential for harm and re-traumatization, and to enhance safety, control and resilience for those involved.

Return to footnote 23 referrer

Health Canada. (2023). Data on commercial cannabis licence applications and licences . Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-medication/cannabis/research-data/commercial-applications-licences.html.

Return to footnote 24 referrer

Return to footnote 25 referrer

Lamers, M. (2023, February 24). Indigenous cannabis entrepreneurs underrepresented in Canada, data suggests. MJBizDaily . Retrieved from https://mjbizdaily.com/indigenous-cannabis-entrepreneurs-underrepresented-in-canada/.

Return to footnote 26 referrer

The child welfare legislation ( An Act respecting First Nations, Inuit and Métis children, youth and families , see https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/acts/f-11.73/FullText.html) affirms the rights of First Nations, Inuit and Métis to self-government, which includes jurisdiction in relation to child and family services. The legislation ensures that decisions or actions in respect of providing child and family services must be done in accordance with principles set out at the national level, including the principle of the best interests of the child. It includes a set of factors to be considered when making this determination, including the child's needs and the child's preferences. This child welfare legislation is an example of legislation that supports Indigenous groups, communities or people to determine their own solutions for their children and families. It provides for the exercise of this jurisdiction, resulting in First Nations, Inuit and Métis laws prevailing over federal laws and laws of provinces and territories (in situations where the group, community or people requests to enter into a tripartite agreement with the federal government and the relevant provinces and territorial governments). For further detail, see: Affirming and recognizing Indigenous jurisdiction over child and family services: An Act respecting First Nations, Inuit and Métis children, youth and families https://www.canada.ca/en/indigenous-services-canada/news/2019/06/an-act-respecting-first-nations-inuit-and-metis-children-youth-and-families-has-received-royal-assent.html.

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New proposed legislation ( Bill C-61, An Act respecting water, source water, drinking water, wastewater and related infrastructure on First Nation lands, see: https://www.parl.ca/DocumentViewer/en/44-1/bill/C-61/first-reading) affirms the inherent right of First Nations to self-government, which includes jurisdiction in relation to drinking water, wastewater and related infrastructure on First Nation lands. This proposed legislation sets out principles, such as reliable access to water services and substantive equality, to guide the provision of clean and safe drinking water for First Nations and the effective treatment and disposal of wastewater on First Nation lands. It would establish minimum national standards for the delivery of drinking water and wastewater services on First Nation lands, based on First Nation choice (that is, the First Nations governing body can choose to meet the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality or the drinking water standards of the province or territory where their lands are located). For further detail, see: Bill C-61: First Nations Clean Water Act (short title), or an Act respecting water, source water, drinking water, wastewater and related infrastructure on First Nation lands https://www.canada.ca/en/indigenous-services-canada/news/2023/12/bill-c--first-nations-clean-water-act-short-title-or-an-act-respecting-water-source-water-drinking-water-wastewater-and-related-infrastructure-on-f.html.

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Attorney General of Québec, et al. v. Attorney General of Canada, et al. , 2024 SCC 5. See: https://decisions.scc-csc.ca/scc-csc/scc-csc/en/item/20264/index.do.

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A micro-cultivation licence allows licence holders to produce cannabis plants and seeds, fresh and dried cannabis within a grow surface area (plant canopy) of up to 200 square metres. A micro-processing licence allows licence holders to produce all types of cannabis; these licence holders can possess up to 600 kilograms of dried cannabis (or its equivalent amount) in a calendar year.

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Statistics Canada. (2023). Detailed household final consumption expenditure, provincial and territorial, annual (x 1,000,000) . Retrieved from: https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/cv.action?pid=3610022501.

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Separate from Health Canada's cannabis licensing regime, under the excise duty framework, companies that cultivate, produce or package cannabis must obtain a Canada Revenue Agency cannabis licence, with corresponding obligations to report and pay taxes. For more information, see: https://www.canada.ca/en/revenue-agency/campaigns/cannabis-taxation.html.

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Farmgate programs allow a licensed processor of cannabis to operate a retail storefront that allows customers to purchase cannabis products directly from the processor.

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Tax policy, including excise taxes, is developed and evaluated by Finance Canada.

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At the time of legalization, the retail price of dried cannabis was approximately $10 per gram. Retail prices have decreased substantially over time and consequently, the excise tax represents a larger share of the price.

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Cannabis biomass generally refers to the stalks, stems and leaves of the plant.

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In developing this program, the department should establish social equity eligibility criteria to ensure the program is not exploited (such as through the provision of false information or the misrepresentation of eligibility) by those not from under-represented groups.

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Health Canada requires applicants to submit evidence that demonstrates that they have a site which is fully built and meets all applicable requirements of the Cannabis Regulations at the time of application. See: https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/Regulations/SOR-2018-144/FullText.html.

Return to footnote 39 referrer

The Black Entrepreneurship Loan Fund is a partnership between the Government of Canada, Black-led business organizations and the Business Development Bank of Canada providing a total of $160 million to support Black entrepreneurs and business owners. For more information, see: https://ised-isde.canada.ca/site/black-entrepreneurship-program/en/black-entrepreneurship-loan-fund-frequently-asked-questions.

Return to footnote 40 referrer

The legislation that made these amendments is entitled An Act to provide no-cost, expedited record suspensions for simple possession of cannabis. See: https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/annualstatutes/2019_20/FullText.html.

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A record suspension is a means of keeping records separate and apart from other criminal records so that they will no longer show up in a criminal record search.

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As of December 2023, the Parole Board of Canada had ordered 798 suspensions, out of approximately 1200 applications received. The Government of Canada had previously estimated that 10,000 Canadians would be eligible.

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The enabling legislation for this process is An Act to amend the Criminal Code and the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. See: https://laws-lois.justice.gc.ca/eng/annualstatutes/2022_15/FullText.html.

Return to footnote 44 referrer

A record sequestration is similar to a record suspension, in that it keeps records separate and apart from other criminal records so that they will no longer show up in a criminal record search. However, sequestrations are automatic; that is, they do not require applications.

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More information on the legislative and regulatory measures that control access to cannabis for adults of legal age can be found in Chapter 5.

Return to footnote 46 referrer

Pepin, L. C., Simon, M. W., Banerji, S., Leonard, J., Hoyte, C. O., & Wang, G. S. (2023). Toxic Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) Dose in Pediatric Cannabis Edible Ingestions. Pediatrics , 152(3). https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2023-061374.

Return to footnote 47 referrer

Ingestible cannabis extracts refers to a subcategory of products with some characteristics that are similar to edible cannabis products. In 2023, Health Canada issued guidance for licence holders to help them determine whether products are considered edible cannabis, and thus subject to a limit of 10 milligrams of THC per package, or extracts, which have a limit of 1000 milligrams of THC per package, but more restrictions on the ingredients that can be used to manufacture them. See Classification of edible cannabis for more information https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/cannabis-regulations-licensed-producers/classification-edible-cannabis.html.

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Hammond, D., Corsetti, D., Fataar, F., Iraniparasat, M., Danh Hong, D., Burkhalter, R. (2023 ). International Cannabis Policy Study – Canada 2022 Cannabis Report . June 2023. Retrieved from https://cannabisproject.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/06/2022-Canada-Report-June-26.pdf.

Return to footnote 49 referrer

Wadsworth, E., Rynard, V., Driezen, P., Freeman, T. P., Rychert, M., Wilkins, C., Hall, W., Gabrys, R. & Hammond, D. (2023). Legal sourcing of ten cannabis products in the Canadian cannabis market, 2019–2021: a repeat cross-sectional study. Harm Reduction Journal , 20, 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12954-023-00753-6.

Return to footnote 50 referrer

More information on these measures can be found in Chapter 5.

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Law enforcement is responsible for enforcing the criminal offences set out in the Cannabis Act , such as offences related to unauthorized sale or unauthorized production. These criminal offences carry the full range of criminal sanctions, including incarceration, as described in Chapter 5. In comparison, Health Canada is responsible for regulatory enforcement, which involves monitoring the compliance of licence holders and other regulated parties with rules that relate to their authorized activities (for example, rules related to how products must be labelled). Regulatory enforcement tools include warning letters, public advisories, product recalls, administrative monetary penalties, licence suspensions and licence revocations.

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According to the Canadian Substance Use Costs and Harms 2007-2020 report, cannabis-related costs of policing, courts and correctional services fell from $1.6 billion in 2017 to just over $1 billion in 2020. See: https://csuch.ca/documents/reports/english/Canadian-Substance-Use-Costs-and-Harms-Report-2023-en.pdf.

Return to footnote 53 referrer

Statistics Canada. (2024). Detailed household final consumption expenditure, Canada, quarterly (x 1,000,000) . Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=3610012401.

Return to footnote 54 referrer

Health Canada. (2024). Canadian Cannabis Survey 2023 Data Tables. Retrieved from https://epe.bac-lac.gc.ca/100/200/301/pwgsc-tpsgc/por-ef/health/2023/149-22-e/index.html.

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Government of British Columbia. (2023). Community Safety Unit - cannabis enforcement . Retrieved from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/safety/public-safety/csu.

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The public possession limit for medical purposes is up to 150 grams of dried cannabis or its equivalent in other classes of cannabis, compared to the 30 gram public possession limit for adults.

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In this case a health care professional means a medical practitioner or nurse practitioner.

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Health Canada. (2024). Data on cannabis for medical purposes. Retrieved from https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada/services/drugs-medication/cannabis/research-data/medical-purpose.html.

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Health Canada. (2023). Unpublished analysis of data on cannabis for medical purposes .

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Health Canada. (2024). The Canadian Cannabis Survey 2023. Retrieved from https://epe.bac-lac.gc.ca/100/200/301/pwgsc-tpsgc/por-ef/health/2023/149-22-e/index.html.

Return to footnote 61 referrer

Veterans Affairs Canada. (2022). Veterans Affairs Canada Statistics – Facts and Figures, Health Care Programs. Retrieved from https://www.veterans.gc.ca/eng/about-vac/news-media/facts-figures/5-0.

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In this context, the term surveillance refers to the systematic collection, analysis and reporting of data (including data about the market and industry) related to public health and public safety consequences of cannabis and cannabis use.

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