educational neglect consequences

• Find a Lawyer
• Legal Topics
• Child Custody
• Educational Neglect: Examples, Effects, and C...

Educational Neglect: Examples, Effects, and Consequences

(This may not be the same place you live)

  What is Educational Neglect?

Generally speaking, you are most likely already familiar with what the terms “educational” and “neglect” mean on their own. Together, however, they might not mean what you assume. Which begs the question, what is the definition of educational neglect?

Educational neglect is a concept found in family law. It can be defined as the failure of a parent (or legal guardian) to provide for their child’s basic educational needs. For instance, when a child reaches a certain age (usually mandated by the laws of their state), that child must be either enrolled in school, homeschooled, or given necessary special education training.

It is entirely up to the child’s parents or guardian on which method to use, so long as the child is learning by the requisite age. Although this rule typically applies to younger children, it may also include any minors that are still dependent on their parents and are under the age of majority in their state (typically around 18 years old).

It should be noted that educational neglect can sometimes be classified as a form of child neglect and/or child abuse under the law. The primary difference between neglect and abuse is that neglect tends to happen accidentally, while abuse usually involves causing intentional harm to a child. Currently, there are twenty four states with statutes that list educational neglect as a type of child abuse.

In order to prove that a parent or guardian is liable for educational neglect, an individual will need to demonstrate that the parent or guardian has failed to educate their child in a manner that is consistent with the requirements of their state. Thus, this standard may be subject to change and may involve additional elements of proof.

Finally, as mentioned, each state has its own laws and procedures concerning age, educational requirements, and what factors constitute educational neglect . Thus, educational neglect laws can vary depending on the circumstances, how the parents or guardians choose to raise their child, and on the educational neglect laws enacted within a particular jurisdiction.

What are Some Forms of Educational Neglect?

Is it illegal to not send your child to school, how do you prove child educational neglect, what are the legal consequences for educational neglect, do i need an attorney for assistance with educational neglect claims.

As discussed above, every state has its own statutes and policies regarding what constitutes educational neglect. One basic form of educational neglect can occur when a parent deliberately interferes with their child’s education. Some other common educational neglect examples include:

• Repeated or chronic absences: If a child chronically misses school or is repeatedly absent from school, then this may constitute educational neglect. A parent or guardian may be at risk of committing child neglect if they allow their child to miss at least five days of school per month, are notified by the school about the issue, and then fail to remedy the situation.
• Failure to enroll in school: Parents and guardians must register their child in school or homeschool them once the child reaches the state mandated age. In general, a child typically cannot miss more than one month of schooling simply because their parent or guardian failed to enroll them in a timely manner. However, there may be some exceptions to this rule if the parent has a valid reason.
• One last example under this category would include refusing to obtain or follow through with providing a child with special educational needs, unless the parent or guardian has a reasonable cause for denial (e.g., financial issues, religious beliefs, etc.).

According to the law, it is illegal to not send a child to school. Again, while these requirements may differ based on the state, every state has a law that requires children to attend school. The original reason that such laws arose was to protect children from having to go to work at a young age.

The way that a child is educated is not normally specified by state laws. Thus, a parent or guardian may choose to send their child to public school, private school, parochial school, charter school, or even homeschool them. The decision is theirs, just as long as they are receiving an education by a certain age and is one that comports with state educational standards.

Additionally, some states have laws that permit parents to take their child out of school by a certain age if it is for religious reasons. For example, children who live in Wisconsin and are brought up in an Amish family can leave school after the eighth grade.

The way in which an individual can prove child educational neglect will be contingent on both state laws and procedural requirements. Thus, while the exact elements of proof can vary widely by state, the following are some basic factors that appear in most cases:

• The child is repeatedly or continuously absent from school for extended periods without a valid explanation;
• The amount of school absences has noticeably impaired or harmed the child’s education; and
• The child’s parent or guardian was put on notice of the problem, but failed or refused to address the child educational neglect issue.

In addition, the person proving child educational neglect must provide sufficient evidence to support their claim. Some examples of evidence that might demonstrate that a child is suffering from educational neglect include:

• Changes in their classroom behavior or academic performance;
• Signs that the child has learning difficulties that are not being addressed or properly treated;
• They are not able to keep up with classroom assignments; and/or
• They receive grades that fall significantly below the class average or exhibit poorer performance skills than other students within their age group.

In general, educational neglect may only apply to children of a certain age. While the age requirement can vary by state, the majority of states impose an age requirement of between seven and fourteen years old. There may also be separate requirements for parents who choose to homeschool their children. Most state statutes contain some form of legal penalties either under state child abuse laws or under a compulsory attendance statute.

Some common examples of educational neglect consequences include:

• Reduction or loss of child visitation rights;
• Increase of child visitation or child custody rights awarded to a non-custodial parent;
• Loss of court-ordered child custody rights; and/or
• In extreme cases, criminal penalties.

In addition, a parent can also face legal consequences for educational truancy. Truancy refers to a situation in which a child is refusing to go to school, despite a parent’s attempts at forcing them to attend.

Although educational truancy matters do not usually terminate a parent’s child visitation or custody rights, if the issue becomes serious enough, a court may impose a time limit to address the problem. After that period of time expires, then the court may intervene and modify child custody and visitation orders.

Claims for educational neglect can have severe and long-lasting consequences for not only the child, but also the child’s parents or guardians. As discussed above, the laws and procedural requirements for educational neglect often vary from state to state, which can sometimes make it difficult to understand when a parent may be at risk of being held liable for educational neglect.

Therefore, if you are facing a claim involving educational neglect, then it is strongly recommended that you hire a local child custody attorney immediately. An experienced child custody attorney who practices in your jurisdiction will already be familiar with state laws and procedural requirements concerning child educational neglect issues.

Your lawyer can provide advice on how you can potentially remedy the situation and if there is anything you can do to retain your parental rights. In addition, it is essential that you hire a child custody attorney if you are facing criminal penalties. Your lawyer can determine whether there are any defenses available that you might be able to raise, can advocate on your behalf to have those penalties reduced or dropped, and can also provide representation in court.

Need a Child Custody Lawyer in your Area?

• Connecticut
• Massachusetts
• Mississippi
• New Hampshire
• North Carolina
• North Dakota
• Pennsylvania
• Rhode Island
• South Carolina
• South Dakota
• West Virginia

Jaclyn Wishnia

LegalMatch Legal Writer

Original Author

Jaclyn started at LegalMatch in October 2019. Her role entails writing legal articles for the law library division, located on the LegalMatch website. Prior to joining LegalMatch, Jaclyn was a paralegal and freelance writer. After several years of working for both criminal defense and entertainment law firms, she enrolled in law school. While in law school, her law journal note was selected for first-round publishing, and can be found on various legal research databases. Jaclyn holds a J.D. from Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law, specializing in both intellectual property law and data law; and a B.A. from Fordham University, majoring in both Journalism and the Classics (Latin). You can learn more about Jaclyn here. Read More

Jose Rivera

Managing Editor

Preparing for Your Case

• How to Prepare for Your Child Custody & Visitation Consultation
• Top 5 Types of Documents/Evidence to Gather for Your Child Custody Case

Related Articles

• Parental Preference Rule
• Third Party or Non-Parent Custody Rights
• Remarriage and Child Custody Rights
• Child-Up Parenting Plan Lawyers
• Child Alienation Lawyers
• How to Change a Child Custody Agreement?
• Parental Rights
• Top Ten Child Custody Issues in the United States
• Affidavit for Child Custody
• Kinship Care Requirements, Benefits, and Responsibilities
• Parenting Plan Lawyers
• Parental Rights Lawyers
• Shared Parenting Laws
• Mother's Rights in Child Custody
• Top Ten Child Custody Questions
• Father's Rights in Child Custody
• Professional Child Custody Evaluator
• Child Custody Negotiations
• Child Custody Presumption in Favor of the Status Quo
• Difference Between Shared Custody and Joint Custody
• Child Removal Law
• Child's Best Interest Standard
• Pet Custody Laws and Agreements
• Colorado Child Custody and Parental Responsibility
• Child Custody Decisions in Maryland
• Child Custody Decisions in Indiana
• Child Custody Decisions in Massachusetts
• Child Custody Decisions in Arizona
• Child Custody Decisions in Washington
• Child Custody Decisions in Virginia

Discover the Trustworthy LegalMatch Advantage

• No fee to present your case
• Choose from lawyers in your area
• A 100% confidential service

How does LegalMatch work?

Law Library Disclaimer

16 people have successfully posted their cases

EDUCATIONAL NEGLECT

What is educational neglect, educational neglect is defined as failure.

to send child to school/prevent child from getting education (Mennen et al. 2010). Educational neglect has not yet achieved the same level of study or recognition as other forms of child abuse, maltreatment, and neglect. Currently, only twenty-four states (including the District of Columbia) include educational neglect in their definitions of abuse.[1]. CHILD USA is fighting to end educational neglect for children across America, regardless of current state laws. The following all fall under the definition of Educational Neglect:

• Allowing a child to miss too much school
• Failing to enrolling a child in school
• Failing to provide comparable home-based education
• Keeping a child from special education services

CHILD USA’s concerns surrounding Educational Neglect

also include children who are not receiving adequate services at schools or in their communities that will ensure they are able to learn when receiving their education. These services include but are not limited to:

• Mental health services
• Medical services
• Adequate food
• Adequate technology and wifi
• Restorative justice/trauma-responsive practices

Additionally, CHILD USA is working to help ban corporal punishment in schools as this is an outdated and antiquated practice that harms students and prevents their learning. Join us today in our fight to end educational neglect for children!

[1]  Child Welfare Information Gateway. “Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect”  https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/define.pdf  (last visited 9.10.20)

CHILD USA’s Writings on Educational Neglect

Guest blog: advancing the right to education in 2024 and beyond, written on december 21, 2023 by torah bontrager,, founder and executive director of the amish heritage foundation, torah bontrager was born and raised traditional amish and escaped at age 15. in 2018, she founded the amish heritage foundation, which is a nonprofit committed to empowering amish women and children through education past the 8th grade and fostering public awareness about the crises hidden in amish society. torah graduated from columbia university in nyc and is the author of the memoir amish girl in manhattan. her story and work have been featured on wisconsin public radio, forbes.com, usa today, and the federalist, among other outlets., guest blog: on educational neglect.

Written on January 10, 2022 by Amanda J. Lorentson, Esq.

This blogpost was written for CHILD USA by Amanda Lorentson, a survivor of educational neglect. Despite the immense obstacles in her path, Amanda went on to attend an Ivy League law school and is currently an attorney for a prestigious law firm in Philadelphia. With this blog Amanda hopes to inform the public on the realities of educational neglect, which impacts every aspect of a child’s life.

USA Today oped written in May 2021 by Professor Marci Hamilton and Jillian Ruck on Corporal Punishment.

Data on Educational Neglect

• 8% (Mennen et al. 2010) – 47% of neglected children experience educational neglect (Sedlack et al. 2010).
• Nationally, 3.5% of children (1.7 million) are unenrolled in requisite education (Kelly, 2010)

Important Articles on Educational Neglect

Child neglect: definition and identification of youth’s experiences in official reports of maltreatment.

Ferol E. Mennen*,a, Kihyun Kimb, Jina Sanga, and Penelope K. Tricketta

Objective—The purpose of this study was to describe the nature of neglect in child welfare clients, to describe these experiences, to examine its typologies, and to understand how different types of neglect co-occurred with each other and with other types of maltreatment.

Fourth National Incidence Study of Child Abuse and Neglect (NIS–4)

Andrea J. Sedlak, Jane Mettenburg, Monica Basena, Ian Petta, Karla McPherson, Angela Greene, & Spencer Li

Background and Objectives: The National Incidence Study (NIS) is a congressionally mandated, periodic effort of the United States Department of Health and Human Services. In 1974, Public Law (P.L.) 93–247 mandated the first NIS (NIS–1), which collected data in 1979 and 1980. The NIS–2 was mandated under P.L. 98–457 (1984) and collected data in 1986. The NIS–3, mandated by the Child Abuse Prevention, Adoption, and Family Services Act of 1988 (P.L. 100–294) and the Child Abuse, Domestic Violence, Adoption and Family Services Act of 1992 (P.L. 102–295), collected data in 1993. The Keeping Children and Families Safe Act of 2003 (P.L. 108-36) mandated the NIS–4, which collected data in 2005 and 2006. The principal objectives of the NIS–4 were to provide updated estimates of the incidence of child abuse and neglect in the United States and measure changes in incidence from the earlier studies.

Where are the Children? Educational Neglect across the Fifty States

Phillip Kelly

This paper explores the extent to which states are meeting their obligation to provide adequate educations for their minor citizens. It reveals the current mismatch between children identified in the federal census and those enrolled in any form of schooling. Currently, approximately 1.7 million children (3.5% nationwide) within compulsory education age ranges are not enrolled with any type of educational institution. Hawaii, at 17.5%, has the largest percentage of “missing children.” These “missing” children lie at the intersection of two policy implementing bodies, departments of education and departments of health and welfare. Unfortunately, most states cannot reconcile the number of children that should be educated. At a minimum, this is necessary to meet the democratic intent of compulsory education statutes.

Charts, Maps, & Infographics on Educational Neglect

Pace program addresses racial disparity while saving county funds, michigan students facing educational neglect is a ‘hidden problem’.

by Lily Altavena | March 30, 2022

Former state official alleges Rhode Island neglects vulnerable students’ special-ed needs

by Katie Mulvaney | January 13, 2022

Report: With Omicron, Math App Zearn Reveals a Troubling New Gap in Student Engagement — Even Where Schools Are Open

• Joseph F. Rice School of Law
• Location Location
• Contact Contact
• Colleges and Schools
• Children's Law Center
• Publications and Resources
• Truancy Intervention Guide: A Training and Resource Manual for Responding to Truancy in South Carolina
• Educational Neglect Vs. Truancy

Educational Neglect Versus Truancy

Closely connected to the issue of truancy is educational neglect. Educational neglect is defined by state statute, but is often misunderstood and creates a source of confusion for school personnel faced with dealing with a child who is not attending school regularly.  South Carolina law places the ultimate responsibility for making sure a child attends school on the child’s parent, and educational neglect should be considered as a possible cause of the child’s absences.

Educational Neglect Defined

Child abuse or neglect may exist when parents do not provide their children with education as required by law.  However, a child’s absences from school may not be considered abuse or neglect unless the school has made efforts to bring about the child’s attendance, and those efforts were unsuccessful because of the parents’ refusal to cooperate. § 63-7-20(6)(a)(iii) .

Indicators of Educational Neglect

Specific signs that indicate educational neglect are not included in state law, regulations, or agency policy.  Rather, professional judgment is required on a case-by-case basis.

Educational neglect may be indicated if:

• The child is too young to be held responsible for his or her own regular attendance.
• The parents do not respond to requests by school officials to meet regarding the child’s attendance problems.
• The parents appear apathetic about school attendance and make no effort to work with the school to encourage the child’s future attendance.
• The parents refuse to cooperate with an intervention plan instituted by the school to address the child’s continued absence from school.
• Child is dressed in clothing  inappropriate for the weather.
• Child exhibits poor hygiene as evidenced by continued body odor, untreated head lice, etc.
• Child’s medical needs are not being met; parents are not making sure that the child receives routine or urgent medical care.
• Child exhibits excessive sleepiness during the day.
• Child comes to school hungry or is observed stealing or asking for food.
• Child is acting as caretaker for younger siblings.

Reporting Educational Neglect

School Staff as Mandated Reporters of Child Abuse and Neglect

• School teachers, counselors, principals, assistant principals, school attendance officers, and school resource officers are specifically required by law to report to the SC Department of Social Services (DSS) when they have reason to believe that a child has been abused or neglected. § 63-7-310(A).
• Nurses, mental health professionals, social workers, and law enforcement officers are also mandated to make such reports.  (See § 63-7-310(A) for a complete list of mandated reporters.)
• If efforts to work with the parents have failed to correct the attendance problem due to the parents’ failure to cooperate, school personnel, as mandated reporters, must make a report to DSS in the county of the child’s legal residence.

Making the Report (§ 63-7-310(D))

• The school district is not authorized to petition the court directly for suspected educational neglect or other abuse.  
• School personnel should report such a case to the local DSS.  
• DSS is the designated agency responsible for investigating reports of child abuse and neglect, and it may petition the court to hear the case. (Reports of other types of abuse or neglect can be made to either DSS or law enforcement.)  
• Reports to DSS may be made orally or in writing.  
• The requirement to report suspected child abuse or neglect supersedes all other federal and state confidentiality laws, including HIPAA. 45 C.F.R. sections 160.203(c), 164.502(g)(5), and 164.512.
• In making a report of suspected neglect, the following information is helpful to DSS:  child’s name, age, date of birth, address, and present location if known; names and ages of siblings; and parents’ names and addresses.  
• The report should also include information about the child’s attendance; any other reasons that cause concern about the child; and a detailed account of the school’s efforts to obtain cooperation from the parents, including dates and times of meetings, phone calls, and letters.  
• DSS may summarize the outcome of an investigation to the reporter if the request is made at the time of the report.

Return to Table of Contents

Challenge the conventional. create the exceptional. no limits..

Educational neglect: Understanding 20 years of child welfare trends

Affiliations.

• 1 Centre for Research on Children and Families, McGill University, 3506 University Street Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2A7, Canada. Electronic address: [email protected].
• 2 Factor Inwentash Faculty of Social Work, University of Toronto, 246 Bloor Street W, Toronto, Ontario, M5S 1V4, Canada.
• 3 Centre for Research on Children and Families, McGill University, 3506 University Street Montreal, Quebec, H3A 2A7, Canada.
• PMID: 28528806
• DOI: 10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.04.034

Educational neglect is an understudied phenomenon that is difficult to define and also to address. While it is clear that attending to children's academic needs is important to child development, few studies focus on educational neglect and therefore little is known about its associated risk factors and the outcomes following this form of maltreatment. The purpose of this research was to (a) determine the rate at which child welfare service providers investigate educational neglect in Canada and identify any trends in rates over time, (b) better understand educational neglect and its distinction from other types of neglect and truancy, and (c) understand how child welfare services respond to allegations of educational neglect. Data from five cycles of the Ontario Incidence Studies of Reported Child Abuse and Neglect were examined. A trend analysis was conducted followed by a mixed-method examination of educational neglect investigations. Results indicate that rates of investigated educational neglect in Ontario have been consistently low over time. However, these investigations are significantly more likely to be substantiated and to be transferred to ongoing child welfare services compared to investigations of other subtypes of neglect. Educational neglect investigations involving younger children are more likely to note risk factors for caregivers whereas those involving adolescents are more likely to note functioning issues for youth. The findings are discussed in relation to international trends in educational neglect and policy and practice implications are explored.

Keywords: Child welfare service delivery; Child welfare trends; Educational neglect; International comparisons.

Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Publication types

• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
• Caregivers / statistics & numerical data
• Child Abuse / statistics & numerical data*
• Child Protective Services / statistics & numerical data*
• Child Welfare / statistics & numerical data
• Child Welfare / trends
• Child, Preschool
• Cross-Sectional Studies
• Educational Status
• Mandatory Reporting
• Needs Assessment
• Risk Factors

Resource Library

• Info Sessions
• Professional Resources
• 844-CO-4-Kids

What is educational neglect anyway?

It’s never been easy to pin down a definition for educational neglect. Yet here in the era of social distancing, remote learning, hybrid schedules, virtual classrooms and COVID-19, parents, educators and child welfare professionals have more questions than ever before. It is critical for educators to do their best in keeping an eye out for signs of educational neglect in students and make a report to the Colorado Child Abuse and Neglect Hotline – 844-CO-4-Kids – when they have a concern.

So, is educational neglect one or two days of skipping online classes? What about showing up to a virtual classroom but skipping days when in-person learning is planned? The answer depends, said Samantha Garrett, an Education Specialist and Licensed Clinical Social Worker with the Colorado Department of Human Services.

It is important to remember that the pandemic has caused families and educators to adjust to a life we have not ever known and that lack of engagement with education may not always mean that a child is experiencing child abuse or neglect. However, a lack of engagement with education can be indicative of other issues that may be taking place in the home. Teachers genuinely care about their students and have made it a practice to trust their gut and report their concerns when they sense something is not right with a student. Teaching during the pandemic should not change this.

Since remote learning has replaced in-person schooling in many areas of Colorado, identifying and addressing educational neglect in a student continues to be particularly challenging, according to Samantha. Although defining educational neglect is “complicated,” and remote learning has changed the school environment, your instincts are still the same, acknowledges Samantha. 

Educational neglect  involves the failure of a parent or caregiver to enroll a child of mandatory school age in school or provide appropriate homeschooling or needed special education training, thus allowing the child or youth to engage in chronic truancy.

Signs of educational neglect may include:

• habitual absenteeism from school (an average of five days a month, for example) and no attempt from the parent or guardian to change this pattern
• failing to homeschool, register or to enroll a school-age child, causing the child to miss at least one month of school without valid reasons
• refusing to allow or failing to obtain recommended remedial education services
• not obtaining or following  through with treatment for a child’s diagnosed learning disorder or other special education need without reasonable cause
• the ongoing failure to provide a child with the resources and environment they need to learn.

“ A student’s extended absence from school may not be the result of neglect, but rather of a student’s family coping with a COVID-19 health crisis or other unintended consequences from the pandemic, such as making big changes in everyday routines due to financial hardships. It’s vital that teachers and school staff make an effort to distinguish between those situations and genuine educational neglect. ” – Samantha Garrett

The additional clarity that many school districts have provided with their updated remote learning attendance policies in the 2020-21 school year can help families and educators better understand expectations for remote learning during the pandemic. 

During the early stages of the pandemic, schools had no choice but to develop and attempt to enforce policies on the fly, naturally creating confusion as educators and parents worked to adjust to the new norm. According to Samantha, many school officials spent the summer working around the clock preparing thoughtful and comprehensive truancy policies for remote and hybrid learning, in hopes of providing more clarity for teachers and families.

In a remote learning environment, without an opportunity to assess and interact with students face-to-face, the onus is on teachers and others in the educational community to be extra observant for signs of educational neglect — and timely in mobilizing to address it. 

Remember to listen to your instincts. Reporting your concerns to the Colorado Child Abuse and Neglect Hotline is about getting a family connected to the help that they need. In nearly 70% of child welfare cases, counties can provide services and kids can remain safely at home with their parents. Some of these services may include assistance applying for benefits or classes to help parents manage stress.

If you’re concerned about possible child abuse and neglect, call 844-CO-4-Kids .  Dial 9-1-1 if there is an immediate threat . As mandatory reporters of child abuse and neglect, teachers and school staff are required by law to report their concerns.

Resources for Teachers

• Spotting the signs of abuse and neglect in a virtual classroom
• Signs of abuse and neglect

Governor Polis Proclaims April Child Abuse Prevention Month

On the Case: Utilizing Education to Pursue a Career in Child Welfare

On the Case: Hardworking Immigrant Finds Calling as Child Welfare Caseworker in Routt County

Celebration of Educational Excellence

Educational Neglect Statutes

The Child Welfare Information Gateway  defines educational neglect as :

Educational Neglect

Although State statutes and policies vary, both parents and schools are responsible for meeting certain requirements regarding the education of children. Types of educational neglect include:

• Permitted, chronic truancy —permitting habitual absenteeism from school averaging at least 5 days a month if the parent or guardian is informed of the problem and does not attempt to intervene.
• Failure to enroll or other truancy —failing to homeschool, to register, or to enroll a child of mandatory school age, causing the child to miss at least 1 month of school without valid reasons.
• Inattention to special education needs —refusing to allow or failing to obtain recommended remedial education services or neglecting to obtain or follow through with treatment for a child’s diagnosed learning disorder or other special education need without reasonable cause.

According to the Child Welfare Information Gateway , educational neglect is included under the definition of abuse in twenty-four states: Arkansas, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, South Carolina, South Dakota, Utah, West Virginia, and Wyoming. The language of these statutes varies.

States that do not include educational neglect in their definition of neglect still enforce their compulsory attendance statutes but do so through other means than social services. In states that have educational neglect provisions, local school districts generally form the first line in enforcing compulsory attendance and turn matters over to social services only if their attempts to bring families into compliance with the law fails.

Ann. Code § 12-18-103

(13)   (A)  “Neglect” means those acts or omissions of a parent, guardian, custodian, foster parent, or any person who is entrusted with the child’s care by a parent, custodian, guardian, or foster parent . . . which constitute:

. . .  (ii)  Failure or refusal to provide necessary food, clothing, shelter, and  education required by law , excluding the failure to follow an individualized educational program, or medical treatment necessary for the child’s well-being, except when the failure or refusal is caused primarily by the financial inability of the person legally responsible and no services for relief have been offered;

Rev. Stat. § 19-3-102

(1) A child is neglected or dependent if: . . . (d) A parent, guardian, or legal custodian fails or refuses to provide the child with proper or necessary subsistence,  education , medical care, or any other care necessary for his or her health, guidance, or well-being;

Connecticut

Gen. Stat. § 46b-120

The terms used in this chapter shall, in its interpretation and in the interpretation of other statutes, be defined as follows:

(8) a child or youth may be found “neglected” who (A) has been abandoned or (B) is being denied proper care and attention, physically,  educationally , emotionally or morally or (C) is being permitted to live under conditions, circumstances or associations injurious to his well-being or (D) has been abused;

Ann. Code Tit. 10, § 901

(18) ”Neglect” or “neglected child” means that a person:

a. Is responsible for the care, custody, and/or control of the child; and

b. Has the ability and financial means to provide for the care of the child; and

1. Fails to provide necessary care with regard to: food, clothing, shelter,  education , health, medical or other care necessary for the child’s emotional, physical, or mental health, or safety and general well-being;

Idaho Code § 16-1602

(26) “Neglected” means a child:

(d)  Who is without proper education because of the failure to comply with section  33-202 , Idaho Code.

Ann. Code § 31-34-1-1

Sec. 1. A child is a child in need of services if before the child becomes eighteen (18) years of age:

(1) the child’s physical or mental condition is seriously impaired or seriously endangered as a result of the inability, refusal, or neglect of the child’s parent, guardian, or custodian to supply the child with necessary food, clothing, shelter, medical care,  education , or supervision;

Rev. Stat. § 600.020

(1) “Abused or neglected child” means a child whose health or welfare is harmed or threatened with harm when:

(a) His or her parent, guardian, person in a position of authority or special trust, as defined in KRS 532.045, or other person exercising custodial control or supervision of the child:

• Does not provide the child with adequate care, supervision, food, clothing, shelter, and  education  or medical care necessary for the child’s well-being.

Ann. Stat. Tit. 22, § 4002

“Jeopardy to health or welfare” or “jeopardy” means serious abuse or neglect, as evidenced by:

B. Deprivation of adequate food, clothing, shelter, supervision or care or  education when the child is at least 7 years of age and has not completed grade 6 ;

Ann. Stat. § 626.556, Subd. 2

(f) “Neglect” means the commission or omission of any of the acts specified under clauses (1) to (9), other than by accidental means:

(4) failure to ensure that the child is  educated as defined in sections  120A.22  and  260C.163, subdivision 11 , which does not include a parent’s refusal to provide the parent’s child with sympathomimetic medications, consistent with section  125A.091, subdivision 5 ;

Mississippi

Citation: Ann. Code § 43-21-105

( l ) “Neglected child” means a child:

(i) Whose parent, guardian or custodian or any person responsible for his care or support, neglects or refuses, when able so to do, to provide for him proper and necessary care or support, or  education as required by law , or medical, surgical, or other care necessary for his well-being;

Ann. Stat. § 210.110

As used in sections 210.109 to 210.165, and sections 210.180 to 210.183, the following terms mean:

(12) “Neglect”, failure to provide, by those responsible for the care, custody, and control of the child, the proper or necessary support,  education as required by law , nutrition or medical, surgical, or any other care necessary for the child’s well-being;

Ann. Code § 41-3-102

21) (a) “Physical or psychological harm to a child” means the harm that occurs whenever the parent or other person responsible for the child’s welfare: 

(iv) causes malnutrition or a failure to thrive or otherwise fails to supply the child with adequate food or fails to supply clothing, shelter,  education , or adequate health care, though financially able to do so or offered financial or other reasonable means to do so;

Rev. Stat. § 432B.140

Negligent treatment or maltreatment.   Negligent treatment or maltreatment of a child occurs if a child has been abandoned, is without proper care, control and supervision or lacks the subsistence,  education , shelter, medical care or other care necessary for the well-being of the child because of the faults or habits of the person responsible for the welfare of the child or the neglect or refusal of the person to provide them when able to do so.

New Hampshire

Rev. Stat. § 169-C:3

XIX. “Neglected child” means a child:

(b) Who is without proper parental care or control, subsistence, education as required by law, or other care or control necessary for his physical, mental, or emotional health, when it is established that his health has suffered or is very likely to suffer serious impairment; and the deprivation is not due primarily to the lack of financial means of the parents, guardian or custodian;

Ann. Stat. § 9:6-8.21

c. “Abused or neglected child”  means a child less than 18 years of age whose parent or guardian, as herein defined,

(4) or a child   whose physical, mental, or emotional condition has been impaired or is in imminent danger of becoming impaired as the result of the failure of his parent or guardian, as herein defined, to exercise a minimum degree of care (a) in supplying the child with adequate food, clothing, shelter,  education , medical or surgical care though financially able to do so or though offered financial or other reasonable means to do so,

Ann. Stat. § 32A-4-2

E.     “neglected child” means a child:

(2)     who is without proper parental care and control or subsistence,  education , medical or other care or control necessary for the child’s well-being because of the faults or habits of the child’s parent, guardian or custodian or the failure or refusal of the parent, guardian or custodian, when able to do so, to provide them;

Soc. Serv. Law § 371

4-a. “Neglected child” means a child less than eighteen years of age (i) whose physical, mental or emotional condition has been impaired or is in imminent danger of becoming impaired as a result of the failure of his parent or other person legally responsible for his care to exercise a minimum degree of care (A) in supplying the child with adequate food, clothing, shelter,  education , medical or surgical care, though financially able to do so or offered financial or other reasonable means to do so; 

North Dakota

Cent. Code § 27-20-02

“Deprived child” means a child who:

a. Is without proper parental care or control, subsistence,  education as required by  law , or other care or control necessary for the child’s physical, mental, or emotional health, or morals, and the deprivation is not due primarily to the lack of financial means of the child’s parents, guardian, or other custodian;

Rev. Stat. § 2151.03(A)

(A) As used in this chapter, “neglected child” includes any child:

(3) Whose parents, guardian, or custodian neglects the child or refuses to provide proper or necessary subsistence, education, medical or surgical care or treatment, or other care necessary for the child’s health, morals, or well being;

South Carolina

Citation: Ann. Code § 63-7-20

(4) “Child abuse or neglect” or “harm” occurs when the parent, guardian, or other person responsible for the child’s welfare: 

(c) fails to supply the child with adequate food, clothing, shelter, or education as required under Article 1 of Chapter 65 of Title 59, supervision appropriate to the child’s age and development, or health care though financially able to do so or offered financial or other reasonable means to do so and the failure to do so has caused or presents a substantial risk of causing physical or mental injury. However, a child’s absences from school may not be considered abuse or neglect unless the school has made efforts to bring about the child’s attendance, and those efforts were unsuccessful because of the parents’ refusal to cooperate. For the purpose of this chapter “adequate health care” includes any medical or nonmedical remedial health care permitted or authorized under state law; 

South Dakota

Ann. Laws § 26-8A-2

Abused or neglected child defined. In this chapter and chapter 26-7A, the term, abused or neglected child, means a child:

(4) Whose parent, guardian, or custodian fails or refuses to provide proper or necessary subsistence, supervision,  education , medical care, or any other care necessary for the child’s health, guidance, or well-being;

Ann. Code § 78A-6-105

(27) (a) “Neglect” means action or inaction causing:

(iii) failure or refusal of a parent, guardian, or custodian to provide proper or necessary subsistence,  education , or medical care, or any other care necessary for the child’s health, safety, morals, or well-being; or

(b) The aspect of neglect relating to education, described in Subsection (27)(a)(iii), means that, after receiving a notice of compulsory education violation under Section  53A-11-101.5 , or notice that a parent or guardian has failed to cooperate with school authorities in a reasonable manner as required under Subsection  53A-11-101.7   (5)(a), the parent or guardian fails to make a good faith effort to ensure that the child receives an appropriate education.

West Virginia

Ann. Code § 49-1-3

(11) (A) “Neglected child” means a child:

(i) Whose physical or mental health is harmed or threatened by a present refusal, failure or inability of the child’s parent, guardian or custodian to supply the child with necessary food, clothing, shelter, supervision, medical care or  education , when such refusal, failure or inability is not due primarily to a lack of financial means on the part of the parent, guardian or custodian; or

(B) “Neglected child” does not mean a child whose education is conducted within the provisions of  section one, article eight, chapter eighteen of this code .

Ann. Stat. § 14-3-202

(a)(ii)(D)(vii)   “Neglect” means a failure or refusal by those responsible for the child’s welfare to provide adequate care, maintenance, supervision,  education  or medical, surgical or any other care necessary for the child’s well being. Treatment given in good faith by spiritual means alone, through prayer, by a duly accredited practitioner in accordance with the tenets and practices of a recognized church or religious denomination is not child neglect for that reason alone;

• For Parents
• For Policymakers
• For Researchers
• Abuse & Neglect

Stay Informed

• Make a Gift
• Take Action
• Bill of Rights
• Find Your State
• Homeschooling’s Invisible Children

Copyright © 2024 · All Rights Reserved · Coalition for Responsible Home Education

Nonprofit Website by GivingPress · RSS Feed · Log in

Interventions to Support Children’s Recovery From Neglect: A Systematic Review

Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester

Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

Learn about our Editorial Process

Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc

Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education

Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

Child neglect involves a consistent failure to meet a child’s basic physical, medical, supervisory, emotional, or educational needs. Research overwhelmingly shows neglect impedes development in cognitive skills, self-regulation, learning, mental and physical health, and relationships. These impacts arise from the absence of essential stimulation and nurturing during sensitive brain growth periods. Children affected struggle with disruptive behaviors, depression, attachment issues, and chronic diseases extending into adulthood. This review aimed to identify any interventions used to help children recover from the negative sequelae of neglect in any of its forms . It was hoped this would shed light on possible mechanisms leading to recovery and inform a theory of change to support the development and use of interventions.

• Child neglect is extremely common globally with deeply concerning impacts, yet few studies exist on helping children recover.
• This systematic review found very limited research on interventions for children after neglect, despite extensive prevention focus.
• Of six reviewed studies, four tentative approaches showed some benefits: foster care, attachment parenting, community-based support and behavioral modification.
• Positive impacts were found in areas like mental health symptoms, cortisol regulation, neuroconnectivity, and disruptive behaviors.
• There remains an urgent need to prioritize research on interventions to ameliorate harm after children experience neglect.

Child neglect has severe emotional, physical, cognitive, and social consequences, requiring major public health focus (Jackson et al., 2022; Krug et al., 2002).

However, past reviews found gaps in research testing interventions to help children after neglect, compared to prevention studies (Allin et al., 2005; Taussig et al., 2013).

Additionally, neglected children frequently experience other adversities like poverty, parental mental illness, or abuse. Disentangling specific developmental pathways requires considering the timing and interactions of cumulative risks (Lanier et al., 2018).

Trauma from chronic neglect may also show different brain patterns compared to acute violence (Lim et al., 2022).

This systematic review revisited the state of knowledge on existing or emerging efforts to support children following neglect, to elucidate ideas toward a theory of change.

The premise was understanding causal mechanisms behind children’s difficulties can optimize targets and techniques in interventions (Bush et al., 2016; Center on the Developing Child, 2016).

Understanding complex pathways to functional impairments is essential to build evidence-based recovery approaches for this prevalent child welfare challenge.

Both social justice and economic arguments compel investing in research and services focused on ameliorating neglect’s marked human and societal costs.

This systematic review followed PRISMA guidelines (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Statement) (Page et al., 2021), registering its protocol publicly.

Search terms were based on a past seminal review by Allin et al. (2005), but expanded beyond their searched databases.

The final search occurred in May 2022, with 3897 initial records distilled down to 8 reports meeting all inclusion criteria through a systematic screening process involving multiple independent coders.

Five key databases were searched for English studies from 2003-2022 reporting interventions and child outcomes after neglect.

Search Terms

• Primary search terms: “child* AND neglect* AND (treatment OR therapy OR intervention)”
• Additional search terms from past seminal review by Allin et al. (2005): ‘child neglect’, ‘treatment’, ‘therapy’, ‘intervention’
• Did not use ‘maltreatment’ due to being overly broad
• Sociological Abstracts
• Cochrane Library
• Campbell Library

Inclusion criteria

• Published in English
• Published between 2003-2021
• Primary study using any research design
• Includes any subtype of neglect alone or with other maltreatment
• Distinguishes outcomes for neglected children
• Children 0-18 years old
• Living in any setting
• Intervention involves child and/or family
• Reports child-specific outcomes

Exclusion criteria

• Not published in English
• Not human research
• Does not distinguish neglect from other maltreatment
• Focuses only on neglect prevention
• Editorials, commentaries, literature reviews
• Conference presentations

Samples ranged from 10 kindergarteners (Pino et al., 2019) to 351 youths (Scivoletto et al., 2011) in Brazil. Most were young, vulnerable children in foster care or institutions.

Neglect definitions varied, frequently lacking detail on subtypes.

Bucharest Early Intervention Program (BEIP) – 3 studies

• Children who received enriched foster care showed more secure attachments, fewer symptoms of reactive attachment disorder, and fewer internalizing difficulties compared to standard institutional care (Bos et al., 2011).
• Children in enriched foster care scored higher in verbal comprehension and overall IQ, especially if placed before 26 months old (Fox et al., 2011).
• Children who received enriched foster care showed more typical neural connectivity patterns involving cognitive functioning than standard care (Stamoulis et al., 2017).

Attachment and Biobehavioral Catchup (ABC) – 1 study

• Neglected children whose parents received attachment coaching showed more typical/healthier cortisol regulation patterns compared to standard parent training (Bernard et al., 2015).

The Equilibrium Project (TEP) – 1 study

• 63.5% of homeless youth completed this tailored community intervention, with 68.3% reuniting with family, attending school, avoiding drugs and behavior problems (Scivoletto et al., 2011).

Fostering Healthy Futures (FHF) – 1 study

• No evidence that skills training and mentoring were more effective for severely physically neglected foster youth (Taussig et al., 2013).

Incredible Years (IY) and Collaborative Co-Parenting – 1 study

• Trend for fewer behavior problems when biological and foster parents received IY parenting training and coparenting support, but not statistically significant (Linares et al. 2006).

Say-Do-Say Correspondence Training – 1 study

• Teachers rapidly reduced neglected kindergarteners’ classroom disruption through correspondence training at peer levels (Pino et al., 2019).

The review confirms an alarming gap in quality research on interventions to help children overcome developmental, emotional, relational, and other harms from neglect.

Very few studies exist that test ways to help children recover from neglect. However, early findings suggest things like high-quality foster care, attachment coaching for parents, intense support services, and simple behavior skills training show some benefits.

What’s missing is research that tracks different types of neglect and other hardships these children face. Understanding these differences can help match the best help to the specific needs.

Overall, the review shows an urgent need to prioritize research investment and policy focus on the lives of children affected by this prevalent issue. Both prevention and recovery approaches are essential to support healthy development.

• Established systematic review methodology with registered protocol
• Breadth of inclusion criteria on interventions, outcomes and neglect types
• Multiple independent coders and bias assessment
• Built on past seminal review of the topic

Limitations

• Did not search all relevant databases like Cochrane or Sociological Abstracts
• Excluded potentially relevant non-English reports
• Did not search reference lists for additional sources
• Lacked in-depth critical analysis on methodology factors

Implications

Findings provide a rationale to continue studies on enriched caregiving, neurobiology-informed interventions, tailored community approaches, and simple behavioral modification following neglect. The key will be parsing impacts and mechanisms specific to neglect subtypes and co-occurring adversities.

Involving communities in participatory research can optimize the cultural relevance of interventions with marginalized groups.

• Consider enhanced foster care placements prioritizing stable, nurturing caregiver relationships and enrichment activities tailored to the child’s developmental needs. The multiple studies on the Bucharest Early Intervention Program model showed significant cognitive, attachment, and neural benefits compared to regular institutional care.
• Attachment-informed parenting programs like Attachment and Biobehavioral Catchup (ABC) seem promising for helping young children regain biological regulation capacities through explicit coaching of caregivers on responsive, synchronous behaviors. Assessing stress reactivity via cortisol sampling could track impacts.
• Explore intensive wraparound community services drawing on multiple disciplines for older youth, perhaps with mentors who have lived experience. Scivoletto et al. showed such approaches may reconnect marginalized teens with family and education, reducing risk behaviors.
• Even brief, focused interventions like Say-Do-Say Correspondence Training in classrooms could swiftly remediate disruptive conduct in neglected students to peer norms. This minimizes the need for family coordination while problems persist.
• In the future, routinely track and report intervention impacts specific to neglect subtypes and co-occurring adversities. This parsing will sharpen recommendations on which approaches work best for whom. Tracking recovery using biometric markers, neuroimaging and epigenetics may further elucidate change mechanisms.

Primary reference

Jackson, A. L., Frederico, M., Cleak, H., & Perry, B. D. (2023). Interventions to Support Children’s Recovery From Neglect – A Systematic Review.  Child Maltreatment , 0(0), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1177/10775595231171617

Other references

Allin, H., Wathen, C. N., & MacMillan, H. (2005). Treatment of child neglect: A systematic review. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 50 (8), 497-504.

Arruabarrena, M. I., de Paúl, J., & Torres, B. (1993). Criterios de valoración de riesgo en situaciones de maltrato y/o abandono Infantil. Dirección General de Protección Jurídica del Menor Ministerio de Asuntos Sociales.

Barnett, D., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (1993). Defining child maltreatment: The interface between policy and research. In D. Cicchetti & S. L. Toth (Eds.), Child abuse, child development, and social policy (Vol. 8, pp. 7-73). Ablex Publishing.

Bernard, K., Dozier, M., Bick, J., & Gordon, M. K. (2015). Intervening to enhance cortisol regulation among children at risk for neglect: Results of a randomized clinical trial. Development and Psychopathology, 27 (3), 829-841.

Bos, K., Zeanah, C. H., Fox, N. A., Drury, S. S., McLaughlin, K. A., & Nelson, C. A. (2011). Psychiatric outcomes in young children with a history of institutionalization. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 19 (1), 15-24.

Brunk, M., Henggeler, S., & Whelan, J. P. (1987). Comparison of multisystemic therapy and parent training in the brief treatment of child abuse and neglect. Journal of consulting and clinical psychology, 55 (2), 171–178.

Bush, N. R., Lane, R. D., & McLaughlin, K. A. (2016). Mechanisms underlying the association between early life adversity and physical health: Charting a course for the future. Psychosomatic medicine, 78 (9), 1114-1119.

Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University (2016). From Best Practices to Breakthrough Impacts: A Science-Based Approach to Building a More Promising Future for Young Children and Families. http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu

Committee for Children (2001). Second Step. Committee for Children.

Culp, R. E., Heide, J., & Richardson, M. T. (1987). Maltreated children’s developmental scores: Treatment versus nontreatment. Child Abuse & Neglect, 11 (1), 29–34.

Daniel, B., Taylor, J., & Scott, J. (2011). Recognizing and helping the neglected child: Evidence-based practice for assessment and intervention. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

DePanfilis, D. (2006). Child neglect: A guide for prevention, assessment, and intervention. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau, Office on Child Abuse and Neglect.

Di Cola, K., & Clayton, M. (2017). Using arbitrary stimuli to teach say-do correspondence to children with autism. International Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy, 17 (2), 149–158.

Dubowitz, H., Pitts, S.C., Litrownik, A.J., Cox, C.E., Runyan, D., & Black, M.M. (2005). Defining child neglect based on child protective services data. Child Abuse & Neglect, 29 (5), 493-511.

Fallon, B., Lefebvre, R., Filippelli, J., Joh-Carnella, N., Trocmé, N., Carradine, J., & Fluke, J.D (2021). Major findings from the Ontario incidence study of reported child abuse and neglect 2018. Child Abuse & Neglect , 111.

Fantuzzo, J. W., Sutton-Smith, B., Atkins, M., Meyers, R., Stevenson, H., Coolahan, K., Weiss, A., & Manz, P. (1996). Community-based resilient peer treatment of withdrawn maltreated preschool children. Journal of Clinical and Consulting Psychology, 64 (6), 1377-1386.

Fox, N. A., Almas, A. N., Degnan, K. A., Nelson, C. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2011). The effects of severe psychosocial deprivation and foster care intervention on cognitive development at 8 years of age: findings from the Bucharest Early Intervention Project. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52 (9), 919–928.

Frederico, M., Jackson, A., & Jones, S. (2006). Child death group analysis: Effective responses to chronic neglect. Office of the Child Safety Commissioner, Melbourne.

Funnell, S.C. & Rogers, P.J. (2011). Purposeful program theory: Effective use of theories of change and logic models . John Wiley & Sons.

Gershater-Molko, R.M., Lutzker, J.R., & Wesch, D. (2003). Project SafeCare: Improving health, safety, and parenting skills in families reported for, and at-risk for child maltreatment. Journal of Family Violence, 18 (6), 377-386.

Gunnar, M. R., Morison, S. J., Chisholm, K., & Schuder, M. (2001). Salivary cortisol levels in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. Development and psychopathology, 13 (3), 611-628.

Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence–from domestic abuse to political terror. Basic Books.

Horwath, J. (Ed.). (2013). Child neglect: Planning and intervention. Springer.

Jackson, A. L., Frederico, M., Cleak, H., & Perry, B. D. (2022). Childhood neglect and its implications for physical health, neurobiology and development—a scoping review of the literature. Developmental Child Welfare, 4 (2), 114-135.

Krug, E. G., Dahlberg, L. L., Mercy, J. A., Zwi, A. B., & Lozano, R. (Eds.). (2002). World report on violence and health. World Health Organization.

Kusché, C. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (1994). The PATHS Curriculum . Developmental Research and Programs.

Lanier, P., Maguire-Jack, K., Lombardi, B., Frey, J., & Rose, R. A. (2018). Adverse childhood experiences and child health outcomes: Comparing cumulative risk and latent class approaches. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 22 (3), 288-297.

Lederman, N. G., & Lederman, J. S. (2016). Publishing findings that are not significant: Can non-significant findings be significant?. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 27 (4), 349-355.

Linares, L. O., Montalto, D., Li, M., & Oza, V. S. (2006). A promising parenting intervention in foster care. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74 (1), 32–41.

Lipsey, M. W., & Pollard, J. A. (1989). Driving toward theory in program evaluation: More models to choose from. Evaluation and Program Planning, 12 (4), 317-328.

Maguire, S. A., Williams, B., Naughton, A. M., Cowley, L. E., Tempest, V., Mann, M. K., Teague, M., & Kemp, A. M. (2015). A systematic review of the emotional, behavioural and cognitive features exhibited by school-aged children experiencing neglect or emotional abuse. Child: Care, Health and Development, 41 (5), 641-653.

Naughton, A. M., Cowley, L. E., Tempest, V., Maguire, S. A., Mann, M. K., & Kemp, A. M. (2017). Ask Me! Self-reported features of adolescents experiencing neglect or emotional maltreatment: A rapid systematic review. Child: Care, Health and Development, 43 (3), 348-360.

Nelson, C.A., Fox, N.A., & Zeanah, C.H. (2014) . Romania’s abandoned children . Harvard University Press.

Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., … & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372.

Perry, B. D. & Pollard, R. (1998) Homeostasis, stress, trauma, and adaptation. A neurodevelopmental view of childhood trauma. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 7 (1), 33-51.

Pino, M. J., Herruzo, J., & Herruzo, C. (2019). A new intervention procedure for improving classroom behavior of neglected children: say do say correspondence training. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16 (15), 2688.

Proctor, L. J., & Dubowitz, H. (2014). Child neglect: Challenges and controversies. In J. E. Korbin & R. D. Krugman (Eds.), Handbook of child maltreatment (pp. 27-61). Springer.

Reams, R., & Friedrich, W. (1994). The efficacy of time-limited play therapy with maltreated preschoolers. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 50 (6), 889-899.

Sanders, M. R., Pidgeon, A. M., Gravestock, F., Connors, M. D., Brown, S., & Young, R. W. (2004). Does parental attributional retraining and anger management enhance the effects of the Triple P-Positive Parenting Program with parents at risk of child maltreatment?. Behavior therapy, 35 (3), 513-535.

Scivoletto, S., da Silva, T. F., & Rosenheck, R. A. (2011). Child psychiatry takes to the streets: A developmental partnership between a university institute and children and adolescents from the streets of São Paulo, Brazil. Child Abuse & Neglect, 35 (2), 89-95.

Semsar, N., Mousavi, Z., Tran, M.-L. M., & Kuhlman, K. R. (2021). Dysregulated arousal as a pathway linking childhood neglect and clinical sleep disturbances in adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 122.

Stamoulis, C., Vanderwert, R. E., Zeanah, C. H., & Nelson, C. A. (2017). Early psychosocial deprivation negatively impacts brain development: A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study. Progress in Neuro- Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 80, 113-119.

Tanner, K., & Turney, D. (2006). Therapeutic interventions with children who have experienced neglect and their families. In C. McAuley, P. J. Pecora, & W. Rose (Eds.), Enhancing the well-being of children and families through effective interventions. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Taussig, H. N., & Culhane, S. E. (2010). Impact of a mentoring and skills group program on mental health outcomes for maltreated children in foster care. Archives of pediatrics & adolescent medicine, 164 (8), 739-746.

Taussig, H. N., Weiler, L. M., Garrido, E. F., Rhodes, T., Boat, A., & Fadell, M. (2019). A positive youth development approach to improving mental health outcomes for maltreated children in foster care: replication and extension of an RCT of the fostering healthy futures program. American journal of community psychology, 64 (3), 411-422.

Taussig, H. N., Culhane, S. E., & Petrenko, C. L. M. (2013). Does severity of physical neglect moderate the impact of an efficacious preventive intervention for maltreated children in foster care? Child maltreatment, 18 (1), 56-64.

Tinker, E. C. (2019). Exploring the mechanisms of a family-centered behavioral intervention for behavioral sleep problems in young children [Doctoral dissertation, Loyola University Chicago]. Loyola eCommons Dissertations.

Udwin, O. (1983). Imaginative play training as an intervention method with institutionalised preschool children. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 53 (1), 32–39.

Webster-Stratton, C. (2001). The Incredible Years: Parents, teachers and children training series . Carolyn Webster-Stratton.

Webster-Stratton, C., & Reid, M. J. (2010). Adapting the Incredible Years, an evidence-based parenting programme, for families involved in the child welfare system. Journal of Children’s Services, 5 (1), 25-42.

Widom, C. S. (2013). Translational research on child neglect: Progress and future needs. Child Maltreatment, 18 (1), 3-7.

Keep Learning

• What theories of change show most promise in guiding interventions for different neglect subtypes?
• How can technology like mobile apps or telehealth improve access and quality of interventions with neglected children?
• What unique ethical dilemmas exist in conducting experimental research with neglected youth compared to other clinical trials?
• How might concepts like structural competency or antiracism be incorporated into interventions with marginalized families?
• What role can lived experience play in research codesign and peer delivery models for child neglect support services?

• News stories
• Blog articles
• NSPCC Learning podcast
• Why language matters
• Sign up to newsletters
• Safeguarding in Education Update
• CASPAR email alert
• Key topics home
• Safeguarding and child protection
• Child abuse and neglect
• Child health and development
• Safer recruitment
• Case reviews
• Online safety
• Research and resources home
• NSPCC research
• Safeguarding resources
• How Safe conference
• Self-assessment tool
• Schools and colleges
• Training home
• Basic safeguarding courses
• Advanced training
• Elearning courses
• Designated person training
• Schools and education courses
• Services home
• Direct work: children and families
• Talk Relationships
• Consultancy
• Library and Information Service
• Support for local communities
• NSPCC Helpline
• Speak out Stay safe schools service
• My learning
• Self-assessment
• /g,'').replace(/ /g,'')" v-html="suggestion">

Protecting children from neglect

Neglect is not meeting a child’s basic physical and psychological needs (Department for Education, 2023; Department of Health, 2017; Scottish Government, 2023; Wales Safeguarding Procedures Project Board, 2020).

It is a form of child abuse that can have serious and long-lasting impacts on a child’s life - it can cause serious harm and even death.

The four main types of neglect are:

• physical neglect : not meeting a child’s basic needs, such as food, clothing or shelter; not supervising a child adequately or providing for their safety
• educational neglect : not making sure a child receives an education
• emotional neglect : not meeting a child’s needs for nurture and stimulation, for example by ignoring, humiliating, intimidating or isolating them
• medical neglect : not providing appropriate health care (including dental care), refusing care or ignoring medical recommendations (Horwath, 2007).

Neglect can happen at any age, sometimes even before a child is born. If a mother has mental health problems or misuses substances during pregnancy, for example, she may neglect her own health and this can damage a baby’s development in the womb (Haynes et al, 2015).

> Find out more about parental substance misuse

> Find out more about parental mental health problems

Impact of child neglect

"I am at home on my own a lot. Things are difficult at home and mum is really struggling - she gets stressed and angry a lot. I have to do a lot of the house work and help with chores. I feel lonely and have not got anyone to talk to."

Childline counselling session with a girl aged 10

Children can experience neglect at any age – from birth to adolescence. Neglect can cause a range of short- and long-term effects which may vary depending on the age of the child affected.

Brain development

If a baby is malnourished, neural cells can become weak or damaged and this can cause lowered brain function. If a child has little interaction with their caregiver, it can change how emotional and verbal pathways develop and impact their ability to learn. This may have consequences for brain functioning in later life.

> Read more about how neglect can impact child brain development and how you can encourage healthy brain growth

> Sign up for our training course on understanding child brain development and the impact of trauma

Physical development

Parents and carers need to help young children to develop gross motor skills. If they are being neglected, or if parents don’t know how to stimulate their child, this process may not happen effectively and the child’s development may be delayed (Horwath, 2013).

Physical health

If a child isn’t given enough food, they will immediately experience hunger and discomfort and may have trouble concentrating. But longer-term malnourishment will also affect their physical health and development.

Having an unhealthy diet can also lead to obesity-related health problems.

Not receiving appropriate medical care can result in poor health, dental decay and in some circumstances, death.

Mental health

Children who have experienced neglect are more likely to experience mental health problems, including:

• post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
• dissociative disorders
• memory impairments
• panic disorder
• attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2015).

Relationships and attachment

Children who don’t get the love and care they need may develop problems with attachment – they may struggle to form a strong relationship or bond with their caregiver. This can lead to a child becoming isolated and affect their ability to maintain healthy relationships with others later in life (including their own children).

> Find out more about child attachment and how to support parents and carers in building positive relationships with their children

Risk-taking behaviour

Young people who have experienced neglect may take more risks, such as:

• running away from home
• breaking the law
• abusing drugs or alcohol
• becoming involved in unhealthy and/or abusive relationships.

If children and young people aren’t being supervised appropriately by their parents and carers they may have accidents which can cause injury, illness, disfigurement, disability or even death.

Recognising child neglect

Signs and indicators.

There’s often no single indicator that a child is being neglected. You may notice more than one sign and your concerns might become more frequent if problems are mounting up. This could indicate that a child and their family need support.

Children who are neglected may:

• live in an unsuitable home environment, for example in a house that isn’t heated throughout winter
• be left alone for a long time
• be smelly or dirty
• wear clothing that hasn’t been washed and/or is inadequate (for example, not having a winter coat)
• seem particularly hungry, seem not to have eaten breakfast or have no packed lunch/lunch money.

They may suffer from poor health, including:

• untreated injuries
• medical and dental issues
• repeated accidental injuries due to lack of supervision
• untreated and/or recurring illnesses or infections 
• long term or recurring skin sores, rashes, flea bites, scabies or ringworm

Babies and young children may:

• have frequent and untreated nappy rash
• be failing to thrive (not reaching developmental milestones and/or not growing at an appropriate rate for their age).

A child who is experiencing neglect may display unusual behaviour, or their behaviour may change. You may notice or become aware that a child:

• has poor language, communication or social skills
• withdraws suddenly or seems depressed
• appears anxious
• becomes clingy 
• is aggressive
• displays obsessive behaviour
• shows signs of self-harm
• is particularly tired
• finds it hard to concentrate or participate in activities
• has changes in eating habits
• misses school 
• starts using drugs or alcohol
• isn’t brought to medical appointments such as vaccinations or check-ups.

Risk and vulnerability factors

Any child can suffer neglect, but research shows that some children are more vulnerable including those who:

• have a disability
• are born prematurely or with a low birth weight
• have complex health needs
• are in care
• are seeking asylum.

> Find out more about children in care

> Find out more about safeguarding d/Deaf and disabled children

All families come under pressure from time to time. Although many parents are able to provide loving care for their children during difficult periods, increased or continued stress can affect how well a parent can look after their child.

Research shows that parents with a low income, or living in poorer neighbourhoods, are more likely to feel chronically stressed than other parents (Jütte et al, 2014); and parents who are facing complex problems such as domestic abuse or substance misuse can struggle to meet their children’s needs (Haynes et al, 2015).

If parents are feeling particularly isolated, this can make it harder for them to ask for help and increases the risk of child abuse or neglect (Jütte et al, 2014).

Responding to child neglect

If you think a child is in immediate danger, contact the police on 999 . If you're worried about a child but they are not in immediate danger, you should share your concerns.

• Follow your organisational child protection procedures . Organisations that work with children and families must have safeguarding policies and procedures in place.
• Contact the NSPCC Helpline on 0808 800 5000 or by emailing [email protected] . Our child protection specialists will talk through your concerns with you and give you expert advice. 
• Contact your local child protection services . Their contact details can be found on the website for the local authority the child lives in. 
• Contact the police.

Services will risk assess the situation and take action to protect the child as appropriate either through statutory involvement or other support. This may include making a referral to the local authority.

> See our information about recognising and responding to abuse

If your organisation doesn't have a clear safeguarding procedure or you're concerned about how child protection issues are being handled in your own, or another, organisation, contact the Whistleblowing Advice Line to discuss your concerns.

> Find out about the Whistleblowing Advice Line on the NSPCC website

When you're not sure

The NSPCC Helpline can help when you're not sure if a situation needs a safeguarding response. Our child protection specialists are here to support you whether you're seeking advice, sharing concerns about a child, or looking for reassurance.

Whatever the need, reason or feeling, you can contact the NSPCC Helpline on 0808 800 5000 or by emailing [email protected]

Our trained professionals will talk through your concerns with you. Depending on what you share, our experts will talk you through which local services can help, advise you on next steps, or make referrals to children's services and the police.

> Find out more about how the NSPCC Helpline can support you

Recording concerns

Neglect is a long-term pattern of behaviour. Adults who are concerned that a child’s needs are not being met should record individual incidents to build up an overview of the child’s lived experience. These records should be shared with other agencies as appropriate and used to decide what support a child and their family need.

Assessing neglect

Assessment tools can help practitioners get a clear picture of how well parents are able to look after their children. This helps professionals make timely evidence-based decisions to improve the child’s quality of life.

The NSPCC uses assessment tools in our work with families where neglect may be taking place.

Graded Care Profile 2 (GCP2) helps professionals measure the quality of care a child is receiving. We’ve evaluated GCP2 and found that it’s successful in helping to identify neglect. We’re now supporting other organisations to deliver GCP2 in local areas. 

> Find out more about how to deliver Graded Care Profile 2 (GCP2)

Infant and Family Teams  helps social workers and judges decide whether a child should stay with their birth family or enter care permanently.

> Find out more about Infant and Family Teams

Preventing child neglect

By identifying circumstances that put parents and carers under stress and getting them the right help at the right time, people who work with children can protect them from possible neglect.

Protective factors that can reduce the risks to children’s wellbeing include:

• a strong social support network for the family
• income support, benefits and advice
• good community services and facilities (Cleaver, Unell and Aldgate, 2011).

Practitioners have a key role to play in providing early help and empowering parents to care for their families. This includes:

• developing long-term positive relationships with parents
• encouraging parents to seek help when problems first emerge
• talking to a child and their parents and carers to understand what support they need
• sharing information about a child and their family with relevant agencies
• identifying which services are best placed to help a family 
• monitoring a child’s situation
• providing direct practical and emotional support to a child and/or their parents
• signposting families to other specialist services where necessary. Successful early intervention can improve the attachment bond a child has with their caregivers, reduce harm and help children form positive relationships in adulthood (Howe, 2011).

NSPCC services that support parents to provide safe and loving care for their families include:

• Domestic Abuse, Recovering Together (DART) - helps children and their mothers talk to each other about domestic abuse, learn to communicate and rebuild their relationship. We're also supporting other organisations to deliver DART in local areas.
• Pregnancy in Mind - d esigned to support parents who are at risk of, or are experiencing, mild to moderate anxiety and depression during their pregnancy
• Together for Childhood - an innovative, evidence-informed approach to bring local partners and families together to make our communities safer for children.

> Find out more about our services for children and families

We are also working with communities and local authorities across the UK to provide tailored support to professionals, children and families to help prevent neglect.

> Find out more about how we can help you develop a campaign in your area

Giving children a voice

It’s vital to build safe and trusting relationships with children so they can speak out about any problems they are experiencing. This involves teaching children what neglect is and how they can get help.

Our Speak out Stay safe service for schools teaches children how to recognise abuse and neglect in all its forms and empowers them to speak out if they are worried about anything.

> Find out more about Speak out Stay safe

Legislation and guidance

Statutory guidance across the UK highlights the responsibility of those in the education, community and care sectors to safeguard children from all forms of abuse and neglect.

• Child protection in England
• Child protection in Northern Ireland
• Child protection in Scotland
• Child protection in Wales

See also Key guidance for schools in the UK

Prevention strategy

The Safeguarding Board for Northern Ireland (SBNI) has developed a Multi-Agency Neglect Strategy for 2018-2022 . This aims to help agencies in Northern Ireland who are involved with children, young people and parents to take actions to prevent, reduce and manage effects of neglect on children and families (SBNI, 2018).

Cruelty and neglect

Legislation across the UK makes it an offence to neglect children and young people under the age of 16.

In England and Wales the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 specifies when someone can be prosecuted for child cruelty or neglect.

In Northern Ireland this is covered by the Children and Young Persons Act (Northern Ireland) 1968 .

In Scotland it is Part II of the Children and Young Persons (Scotland) Act 1937 .

In all parts of the UK, a person over 16 could be prosecuted for child cruelty if they:

• ill-treat a child
• neglect a child
• abandon a child
• expose or cause a child to be ill-treated, neglected or abandoned
• expose a child in a manner likely to cause unnecessary suffering or injury to physical or mental health.

Prosecution guidance

The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) has guidance for prosecuting non-sexual child abuse offences in England and Wales (CPS, 2020). This guidance defines a child or young person as anyone aged under 18. This states that the four generally accepted categories of child cruelty are assault and ill-treatment, failure to protect, neglect and abandonment.

Guidance for medical professionals

The Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH) has published guidance on the delivery of child protection medical assessments . The guidance for all UK nations sets out 13 standards to promote equitable, high-standard medical assessments where there are concerns about physical abuse and neglect (RCPCH, 2020).

Keep up-to-date with new legislation and guidance by   signing up to CASPAR , our current awareness service for policy, practice and research

References and resources

Child Welfare Information Gateway (2015) Understanding the effects of maltreatment on brain development (PDF) . Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Health and Human Services.

Cleaver, H., Unell, I. and Aldgate, J. (2011) Children's needs: parenting capacity: child abuse: parental mental illness, learning disability, substance misuse, and domestic violence. 2nd ed. (PDF) . London: The Stationery Office.

Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) (2020) Child abuse (non-sexual) – prosecution guidance . [Accessed 10/09/2021].

Department for Education (DfE) (2023) Working together to safeguard children 2023: a guide to multi-agency working to help, protect and promote the welfare of children. [Accessed 15/12/2023].

Department of Health (2017) Co-operating to safeguard children and young people in Northern Ireland . [Accessed 10/09/2021].

Haynes, A., et al (2015) Thriving communities: a framework for preventing and intervening early in child neglect. London: NSPCC.

Horwath, J. (2007) Child neglect: identification and assessment. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Horwath, J. (2013) Child neglect: planning and intervention. London: Palgrave.

Howe, D. (2011) Attachment across the lifecourse: a brief introduction. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.

Jütte, S., et al (2014) How safe are our children? 2014. London: NSPCC.

Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH) (2020) Child Protection service delivery standards . [Accessed 10/09/2020].

Safeguarding Board for Northern Ireland (SBNI) (2019) Safeguarding Board for Northern Ireland’s multi-agency neglect strategy 2018-2022 . Belfast: SBNI.

Scottish Government (2023) National guidance for child protection in Scotland - updated 2023 . [Accessed 20/11/2023].

Wales Safeguarding Procedures Project Board (2020)   Wales Safeguarding Procedures . [Accessed 10/09/2020].

Our elearning courses will help develop your understanding of how to protect children from neglect and other types of abuse: 

• Introduction to safeguarding and child protection
• Child protection in schools .

Support for children and young people

If a child or young person needs confidential help and advice direct them to Childline. Calls to 0800 1111 are free and children can also contact Childline online or read about neglect on the Childline website . You can also download or order Childline posters and wallet cards .

Related resources

Read our  neglect: learning from case reviews  thematic briefing summarising risk factors and learning for improved practice around neglect.

Further reading

For further reading about neglect, search the NSPCC Library catalogue  using the keywords "child neglect", "emotional neglect" and "neglected children".

> Find out more about the Library and Information Service

Looking for research and resources?

Find out how our Library and Information Service can help.

Find research and resources in the NSPCC Library using the keywords child neglect , emotional neglect  and neglected children

Sign up to CASPAR

Subscribe to our weekly email keeping you up to date with all the developments in child protection policy, research, practice and guidance.

Poverty and Child Neglect: How Did We Get It Wrong?

Poverty and child neglect are highly correlated and often impact families simultaneously; but poverty does not cause neglect.

Prevention is a hot topic in child welfare policy conversations, and for good reason. Preventing child maltreatment helps families thrive and reduces the frequency of tragic outcomes. The Family First Prevention Services Act of 2018 propelled prevention efforts forward and launched a national conversation about keeping children out of foster care except when absolutely necessary.

The State of Child Welfare

Child maltreatment rates have declined dramatically over the past 30 years. Between 1992 and 2019 , physical abuse declined by 56% and sexual abuse declined by 62%. Public policy, awareness programs and decreased stigma associated with seeking help contributed to these changes.

By contrast, rates of child neglect remain high. Neglect is the most common type of child maltreatment in the U.S. Until recently, federal child welfare policies primarily responded to maltreatment without much attention to addressing risk factors. The outcome was to inadvertently punish struggling families more than help them.

More than 480,000 children were impacted by neglect in 2020 , and it was a primary or contributing factor for 64% of children entering foster care the same year. By comparison, 13% of children entering foster care in 2020 were victims of physical abuse and 4% were victims of sexual abuse.

What Is Neglect?

Most experts agree child neglect occurs when the needs of a child are unmet by their primary caregivers. Inadequate clothing, food, shelter, medical and emotional care, along with unsafe environments, exposure to substance abuse and lack of supervision, are often included in definitions of neglect. Even with these definitions, pinpointing cases of neglect can be challenging. Policymakers and researchers are rethinking historical definitions, which often are intertwined with poverty . States have authority to define exactly what neglect means through legislation, and there is considerable variation .

Research shows the presence of one or more child maltreatment risk factors , such as poverty, can make a child more vulnerable to experiencing neglect. While risk factors do not cause maltreatment, buffering or reducing them is a promising prevention pathway .

Poverty Is a Risk Factor for Neglect

Poverty, much like neglect, is a complex problem. Census data show that rates of child poverty vary widely among the states, ranging from 8% to nearly 28% in 2021 . Childhood poverty is associated with a range of negative outcomes across the lifespan, such as poor health, lower educational attainment and more risk-taking behaviors.

Poverty and child neglect are highly correlated and often impact families simultaneously; but poverty does not cause neglect. Experts say it’s more complicated than that. Poverty produces material hardships for families. Such hardships often result in families experiencing toxic stress , which can impede children’s cognitive development and parents’ capacity to meet the needs of their children. Incapacity to provide is not the same as an unwillingness to provide. This distinction is at the crux of the challenge policymakers face to disentangle poverty from neglect.

Want to Go Deeper? The report Policy Levers for Preventing Child Maltreatment outlines strategies to reduce child abuse and neglect. NCSL offers a child welfare fellows program focused on preventing child maltreatment and reforming child welfare systems.

Poverty is experienced at higher rates by people of color and people living in rural areas , which can contribute to racial disparities within the child welfare system. Policies like redlining and the discriminatory use of home lending provisions in the GI Bill, for example, have had lasting generational effects, shaping the landscape of poverty across the country. While all children encounter  teachers, doctors and others required to report maltreatment, higher rates of poverty in a community are often associated with more reports of abuse . This doesn’t necessarily lead to more confirmed cases of child maltreatment, raising questions about whether over-surveillance of poor families contributes to disproportionate child welfare system involvement.

Some states have reworked their definition of neglect to recognize parents’ capacity or clarify that conditions of poverty alone do not constitute neglect. Iowa ( H 2507; 2022 ) defined neglect as “the failure on the part of a person responsible for the care of a child to provide for adequate food, shelter, clothing, medical or mental health treatment, supervision, or other care necessary for the child’s health and welfare when financially able to do so or when offered financial or other reasonable means to do so.”

Updating mandatory reporting and training policies to better respond to complex situations and relationships, such as those involving poverty and neglect, is another option. Colorado (H 1240; 2022 ) attempted to make mandatory reporting systems fairer, given evidence of disproportionate impacts of reporting systems on under-resourced communities. At least eight states enacted legislation in 2022 addressing mandatory reporting.

Evidence-Based Policy Options

Some policies appear to be particularly effective at reducing risk factors associated with neglect; examples include child care subsidies , affordable housing , home visiting and enhanced primary care . Preventing child maltreatment almost certainly requires diverse and integrated strategies. Nebraska ( L 1173; 2022 ) established a work group and called for an integrated, evidence-informed approach to transform its child welfare system to “support the well-being, permanency, and safety of children and families in Nebraska’s communities.”

Former Colorado Rep. Tonya Van Beber (R) and Rep. Jason Hughes (D) of Louisiana toured the Warren Village program in Denver as part of NCSL fellows programs last year. Warren Village provides resources, tools and a supportive environment for single parents with children to build skills and create the lives they want for their families. “When we see a public-private partnership of this quality that has actual outcomes and evidence-based processes that literally show us this does work, it was a wonderful thing to see,” Van Beber said at an NCSL Town Hall after the tour.

Hughes said the Warren Village tour reminded him that “poverty has to be addressed in a holistic way.” As states incorporate more comprehensive strategies to prevent child maltreatment, addressing neglect is especially pertinent.

Jill Yordy is a senior policy specialist in NCSL’s Children and Families Program.

This publication was made possible in collaboration with Casey Family Programs, whose mission is to provide, improve and ultimately prevent the need for foster care. The findings and conclusions presented in this report are those of the author alone, and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of Casey Family Programs.

Contact NCSL

For more information on this topic, use this form to reach NCSL staff.

• What is your role? Legislator Legislative Staff Other
• Admin Email