Mexico is a land of extremes, with high mountains and deep canyons in the center of the country, sweeping deserts in the north, and dense rain forests in the south and east.

Mountains cover much of Mexico. Between the Sierra Madre Oriental mountain range in the east and the Sierra Madre Occidental in the west lie small mountain ranges on the Central Plateau. These regions are rich with valuable metals like silver and copper.

The stretch of land called the Yucatán Peninsula juts into the Gulf of Mexico from Mexico's southeastern tip. It was once the home of the Maya civilization, an ancient culture whose amazing buildings can still be seen today.

Map created by National Geographic Maps

PEOPLE & CULTURE

Mexico is the product of a rich Native American heritage, three centuries of Spanish rule, and a shared border with the world's richest country, the United States . Today, many Mexicans are mestizos, which means they have a mix of Native American and Spanish blood.

Throughout its history, Mexico has been home to great artists. The Maya and other Native Americans made impressive murals, sculptures, and jewelry. Modern Mexican artists include great painters, photographers, sculptors, and muralists.

Mexicans take sports seriously. In ancient times, losers of a ritual ball game were once put to death. In some dangerous sports, like bullfighting and rodeo (which was invented in Mexico), competitors still put their lives on the line.

Few nations on Earth support as many plant and animal species as Mexico does. Located partway between the Equator and the Arctic Circle, it is a refuge for animals fleeing extreme cold in the north and intense heat in the south.

In northern Mexico, deserts are full of plant and animal species that have found ways to survive the harsh environment. On Mexico's west coast, gray whales swim thousands of miles each year from Alaska to breed in the waters off Baja California .

The rain forests and coastal wetlands of eastern Mexico are home to thousands of tropical plant species and elusive animals like jaguars and quetzal birds.

GOVERNMENT & ECONOMY

Mexico is rich in natural resources, like oil, silver, copper, and agricultural products. Its economy boasts a rich diversity of agricultural crops, highly productive oil fields, a growing manufacturing base, as well as strong trade with the United States and Canada .

The Olmec people, Mexico's first complex society, emerged in the southeastern part of the country around 1200 B.C. They were later followed by the Maya, the Toltec, and the Aztec peoples.

Mexico's ancient societies built great cities and huge pyramids, created remarkable works of art, and even studied the stars and planets to determine when to plant crops and hold ceremonies.

In the early 1500s, the Spanish arrived in Mexico. The Aztec people got sick from smallpox and other diseases that the Spanish brought with them. The Spaniards also seized and destroyed the Aztec capital, called Tenochtilán. The Spanish ruled Mexico until 1821.

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History of Mexico

By: History.com Editors

Updated: June 23, 2023 | Original: November 9, 2009

Mexico, Yucatan, Chichen Itza, Maya and Toltec archaeological site Kukulkan Pyramid, aka the 'El Castillo' (the Castle)UNSPECIFIED - CIRCA 1900: Mexico - Yucatan - Chichen Itza, Maya and Toltec archaeological site (UNESCO World Heritage List, 1988). Kukulkan Pyramid, aka the 'El Castillo' (the Castle). 11th century. (Photo By DEA PICTURE LIBRARY/De Agostini via Getty Images)

A country rich in history, tradition and culture, Mexico is made up of 31 states and one federal district. It is the third largest country in Latin America and has one of the largest populations—more than 100 million—making it the home of more Spanish speakers than any other nation in the world. Despite the political and social changes that have occurred over the centuries, evidence of past cultures and events are apparent everywhere in Mexico. Many of Mexico’s rural areas are still inhabited by indigenous people whose lifestyles are quite similar to those of their ancestors. In addition, many pre-Columbian ruins still exist throughout Mexico, including the ancient city of Teotihuacán and the Mayan pyramids at Chichén Itzá and Tulum. Reminders of the colonial past are evident in the architecture of towns like Taxco and Querétaro.

Early History

The Olmecs, Mexico’s first known society, settled on the Gulf Coast near what is now Veracruz . Remembered for the giant head sculptures they carved from native stone, the Olmecs had two main population centers: San Lorenzo, which flourished from about 1200 to 900 B.C., and La Venta in Tabasco , which lasted until about 600 B.C.

Did you know? The three colors of Mexico’s flag hold deep significance for the country and its citizens: green represents hope and victory, white stands for the purity of Mexican ideals and red brings to mind the blood shed by the nation’s heroes.

By 300 B.C., villages based on agriculture and hunting had sprung up throughout the southern half of Mexico . Monte Albán, home to the Zapotec people, had an estimated 10,000 inhabitants. Between 100 B.C. and 700 A.D., Teotihuacán, the largest pre-Columbian city in the Americas, was constructed near present-day Mexico City. The civilization that built it is also called Teotihuacán, and the influence of this culture can be seen throughout the Veracruz and Mayan regions. At its zenith, with a population estimated at 200,000, the civilization is thought to have controlled a large portion of southern Mexico. The empire of Teotihuacán was overthrown in the 7th century, but the spectacular city survives today.

The Mayans, widely considered to be pre-Columbian America’s most brilliant civilization, thrived between approximately 250 and 900 A.D. They developed a calendar and writing system and built cities that functioned as hubs for the surrounding farming towns. The ceremonial center of Mayan cities featured plazas surrounded by tall temple pyramids and lower buildings called “palaces.” Religion played a central role in Mayan life, and altars were carved with significant dates, histories and elaborate human and divine figures. The Mayan civilization collapsed in the early 10th century, likely due to overpopulation and the resultant damage to the ecological balance.

The Toltec civilization also influenced Mexico’s cultural history. Historians have determined that the Toltec people appeared in central Mexico near the 10th century and built the city of Tula, home to an estimated 30,000-40,000 people. Some have speculated that the Toltecs performed human sacrifices to appease the gods. One of their kings, Tezcatlipoca, is said to have ordered mass sacrifices of captured enemy warriors. Because many Toltec architectural and ritualistic influences can be found at the Mayan site of Chichén Itzá in northern Yucatán , many researchers believe that Toltec exiles fled to Yucatán and created a new version of Tula there.

The Aztecs , the last of pre-Columbian Mexico’s great native civilizations, rose to prominence in the central valley of Mexico around 1427 by partnering with the Toltecs and Mayans. This triple alliance conquered smaller cultures to the east and west until the Aztec empire spanned Mexico from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf Coast.

At their height, the Aztecs ruled 5 million people via a tightly-structured system of self-supporting units called calpulli. Each unit had its own governing council, schools, army, temple and land but paid tribute to the supreme leader of the empire. Influenced by earlier Mexican civilizations, the Aztecs conducted extraordinary religious ceremonies that featured dances, processions and sacrifices.

Middle History

Spaniard Hernán Cortés arrived at Veracruz in 1519. Believing that Cortés might be the serpent god Quetzalcoatl, Aztec King Moctezuma II invited the conquistador to Tenochtitlán. This gesture proved disastrous because Cortés formed many allies on his way to the city. In May 1521, Cortés and his followers attacked and conquered the Aztecs. Cortés then colonized the area and named it Nueva España (New Spain).

By 1574, Spain controlled a large portion of the Aztec empire and had enslaved most of the indigenous population. Worse, the diseases brought into the society by the Spaniards devastated the indigenous population of Nueva España, killing an estimated 24 million people between 1521 and 1605.

The Catholic Church’s influence was felt in the region when missionaries began arriving in 1523. The missionaries built many monasteries and converted millions of people to Catholicism.

During this tumultuous time, colonists in Nueva España who had been born in Spain (peninsulares) clashed with Spaniards who had been born in Mexico (criollos). Many criollos had become rich and wanted equal political power, which now resided with the peninsulares.

Concerned about the Catholic Church’s ever-growing power, King Carlos III of Spain expelled the Jesuits from Nueva España in the late 1700s. Napoleón Bonaparte ’s occupation of Spain in 1808 compromised the country’s political and economic structure, which in turn weakened Spain’s grip on Nueva España.

Recent History On September 16, 1810, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a parish priest from the town of Dolores, issued a call to rebellion. In response, rebel leader Vicente Guerrero and defected royalist general Agustín de Itúrbide collaborated to gain Mexico’s independence from Spain in 1821. Together they drafted a Mexican constitution. However, in 1822, Itúrbide declared himself emperor of the country.

A year later, Antonio López de Santa Anna overthrew Itúrbide and drew up a new constitution that established a federal Mexican republic composed of 19 states and four territories. From 1823 to 1836, Santa Anna served as president, squelching Texas’ stand for independence in the battle of the Alamo during his last year in office. He was later defeated by American forces during the Mexican-American War and, by 1855, had gone into exile. Following Mexico’s occupation by the French in the mid-1800s, Porfírio Díaz served as president from 1876 to 1909.

Despite ushering in the industrial age and greatly improving the country’s infrastructure, Díaz was a dictator who bestowed political favors on the very wealthy citizenry, largely ignored the poor and ruled ruthlessly by force.

The Mexican people, tired of the unbalanced distribution of wealth and power, initiated the Mexican Revolution in 1910. The 10-year civil war resulted in at least 2 million casualties. Finally, in 1934, Lázaro Cárdenas became president and reestablished the ancient ejido system, which established communally shared tracts of farmland. The system benefited both the citizens and the economy. World War II further stimulated the nation’s development through the development of roads, the building of factories and the establishment of irrigation systems.

Mexico Today

Mexico’s population has greatly increased since World War II, but the distribution of wealth remains imbalanced. Due to negligible legislative assistance, the poor are generally unable to improve their socio-economic status. The state of Chiapas exemplifies the problems caused by financial imbalance. In 1994, the Zapatista National Liberation Army rose up to challenge discrimination against Chiapas’ poor.

Although their rebellion was unsuccessful, the Zapatistas continue to fight against imbalanced land ownership and power distribution, with little success. Further complicating the already problematic social division is the ever-growing problem of drug trafficking, which has contributed to political and police corruption and helped widen the gap between the elite and the underprivileged.

In recent years, the building of foreign-owned factories and plants (maquiladoras) in some of Mexico’s rural areas has helped draw the population away from Mexico City and redistribute some of the country’s wealth. The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) of 1994 increased Mexico’s financial ties to the United States and Canada, but the Mexican economy remains fragile. Despite its problems, the Mexican economy, with its growing industrial base, abundant natural resources and variety of service industries, remains important to Latin America.

Today, tourism is a major contributor to the Mexican economy. People flock to Mexico from all over the world to sample the country’s cultural diversity, bask in the lush tropical settings and take advantage of relatively low prices.

U.S. tourists constitute the majority of visitors to the country, especially to Mexico City and the world-famous resorts in Acapulco, Puerto Vallarta, Ixtapa-Zihuatanejo, Mazatlán, Cancún and Puerto Escondido.

Facts & Figures

  • Full Name: United Mexican States
  • Capital: Mexico City (Distrito Federal)
  • Major Cities (population): Mexico City (8,720,916), Ecatepec de Morelos (1,688,258), Guadalajara (1,600,940), Puebla (1,485,941), Tijuana (1,410,700), Juárez (1,313,338), León (1,278,087), Zapopan (1,155,790), Nezahualcóyotl (1,140,528), Monterrey 1,133,814
  • Border Countries: Belize and Guatemala to the southeast; United States to the north
  • Size/Area: Total: 758,249 square miles (1,972,550 square kilometers) – Water: 2.5 percent
  • Population: 103,263,388 (2005 Census)
  • Independence: Declared on September 16, 1810 – Recognized by Spain on September 27, 1821
  • Monetary Unit: Pesos
  • The three colors of Mexico’s flag hold deep significance for the country and its citizens: green represents hope and victory, white stands for the purity of Mexican ideals and red brings to mind the blood shed by the nation’s heroes.
  • The flag’s dramatic emblem is based on the legend of how the Mexicas (or Aztecs) traveled from Aztlán to find the place where they could establish their empire. The god Huitzilopochtli advised them that a sign—an eagle devouring a serpent atop a Nopal cactus—would appear to them at the exact spot where they should begin construction. On a small island in the middle of a lake, the Mexicas came upon the scene exactly as Huitzilopochtli had described it. They immediately settled there and founded the city of Tenochtitlán, which is now Mexico City, the country’s capital.
  • Mexico is the third-largest country in Latin America after Brazil and Argentina.
  • At the beginning of the 21st century, Mexico’s population surpassed 100 million.
  • Mexico has the largest population of Spanish speakers in the world.
  • With almost 25 million residents, Mexico City is one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world.
  • Mexico has the world’s second-highest number of Catholics after Brazil.
  • At nearly 2,000 miles, the border between Mexico and the United States is the second-longest in the world, after the border between the United States and Canada.
  • Mexicans comprise the largest group of legal immigrants in the United States.
  • Mexico is located in an area known as the Pacific “Ring of Fire.” This region, one of Earth’s most dynamic tectonic areas, is characterized by active volcanoes and frequent seismic activity. The highest point in the country, Citlaltépetl (also called Orizaba) and the active volcano Popocatépetl are among the many volcanic peaks in Mexico. The Great Ball Court at Chichén Itzá Mexico, which was used for ritualistic sports by the ancient Mayans, is the largest such court the world, measuring 166 by 68 meters (545 by 232 feet). The game, which involved elements similar to those of soccer and basketball, was played by two teams whose number varied according to region.
  • Tequila, a liquor for which Mexico is famous, is made from the native blue agave plant. Named after the city where it originated, Tequila is primarily manufactured near Jalisco, which is 65 kilometers (40 miles) northwest of Guadalajara.
  • Mexico is the world’s leading producer of silver. An area called the Silver Belt—which encompasses Guanajuato and Zacatecas in the Mesa Central, Chihuahua in the Mesa del Norte and San Luis Potosi farther east—saw significant mining activity during the colonial period.
  • Mexico hosted the Summer Olympics in 1968 and the FIFA World Cup soccer championship in 1970 and 1986.
  • The Mexico City Arena—one of the largest bullfighting arenas in the world—seats 50,000. Another 35 arenas are located throughout the country.

Chichén Itzá Chichén Itzá is an ancient Mayan city located on the Yucatán Peninsula. At its peak, around 600 A.D., it was the center of power in the region. Many of the original stone palaces, temples and markets remain throughout the city.

Teotihuacán Teotihuacán, an ancient city possibly built by the Toltecs, is located in the state of Mexico. The city rose to power in 150 A.D. and was a strong influence on Mayan culture. It is also the location of the world’s third largest pyramid, the Pirámide del Sol (Pyramid of the Sun).

Paquimé Ruins Paquimé, located in the state of Chihuahua , was a cultural center in north Mexico for over 300 years. At the height of its power in the 13th century, the city’s population is thought to have reached 10,000, with most of the citizens living in five or six story buildings similar to modern apartments.

Paquimé featured a ceremonial area, temple structures, a ball court, pyramids and effigy mounds, including one that resembled a cross with perfect astronomical orientation. Turkeys and parrots were kept in special cages, possibly to supply feathers used for ceremonial and personal adornment.

Cuarenta Casas Cuarenta Casas (Forty Houses) are cliff dwellings located in the state of Chihuahua and discovered by the Spaniards around the 16th century. Despite the name, only about a dozen adobe apartments are carved into the west cliff-side of a dramatic canyon at La Cueva de las Ventanas (Cave of the Windows). Cuarenta Casas is believed to have been an outlying settlement of Paquimé in the 13th century.

Buildings Palacio Nacional Mexico City is home to the three-story Palacio Nacional (National Palace), built in 1563 on the site of the Aztec leader Moctezuma’s palace. Originally, the palace housed all three branches of the government. Today, however, only the executive branch resides there. Palacio Nacional was destroyed by fire twice, once in 1659 and again in 1692. It was reconstructed in 1693 and remains largely unchanged today.

In the early to mid-1900s, Diego Rivera painted a collection of huge murals on the walls of the palace that illustrate the colorful history of Mexico. The palace is also home to Mexico’s Liberty Bell.

Catedral Metropolitana Located at the north side of Mexico City’s town square, Catedral Metropolitana is the largest and oldest cathedral in all of Latin America. Construction on the building, which blends Baroque and Neoclassical styles, began in 1573 and took three centuries to complete. The cathedral features 14 chapels, five altars and numerous statues, paintings and altarpieces of Christ and the saints.

Ecotourism The Sea of CortésThe Sea of Cortés, also known as the Gulf of California , is situated between mainland Mexico and the Baja Peninsula. Located on Isla Partida, one of numerous sea islands, is Ensenada Grande beach, which many consider to be the most beautiful beach in Mexico. The Sea of Cortés contains many unique species of marine life, including the mantra-like Flying Mobulas, which can leap from the water and glide through the air, and the Vaquita Marina, the most endangered porpoise in the world.

Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl Located on the eastern rim of the Valle de Mexico, Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl are Mexico’s second- and third-highest volcanic mountains. Craterless Iztaccíhuatl is dormant and a popular site for mountain climbing; however, Popocatépetl, whose Aztec name means Smoking Mountain, has erupted more than 20 times since the arrival of the Spanish. It continues to spout plumes of gas and ash and is carefully monitored by scientists.

Popular Locales Mexico City Mexico City, the second-largest metropolitan area in the world after Tokyo, is home to numerous attractions, including the Palacio Nacional and the Catedral Metropolitana.

AcapulcoWith its golden beaches, tropical jungles and renowned daredevil cliff-divers, Acapulco remains the best-known and most popular resort town in Mexico.

The Baja Peninsula The Baja Peninsula along Mexico’s west coast, is famous for its long coastline of fine white beaches, peaceful bays and imposing cliffs.

Guadalajara Guadalajara, Jalisco , is rich in Mexican culture. The area has become famous for its locally manufactured tequila, mariachi music, sombreros, charreadas (rodeos) and the Mexican Hat Dance.

People Citizens of Mexico highly value their nation, independence and community. Their culture is a composite of influences handed down by countless civilizations. From the early Mesoamerican civilizations to the diverse populations that live there today, Mexico’s citizens have remained proud of their heritage and their country.

Many rural communities maintain strong allegiances to regions, often referred to as patrias chicas (small homelands). The large number of indigenous languages and customs in these regions, especially in the south, naturally accentuate cultural differences. However, the indigenismo (ancestral pride) movement of the 1930s played a major role in unifying the country and solidifying national pride among the various populations.

Family remains among the most important elements in Mexican society, both in private and public life. From infancy to old age, an individual’s status and opportunities are strongly influenced by family ties. Many households, in both rural and urban areas, are inhabited by three or more generations due to the economic advantage (or necessity) of sharing one roof.

Mexicans generally establish strong links to family members, including in–laws and friends of the family, who are generally thought of as aunts and uncles. The elderly, adults, teenagers and small children commonly attend parties and dances together. Weddings are generally lavish family-oriented events as are the traditional quinceañera celebrations given in honor of a young woman’s 15th birthday.

Languages The majority of the Mexican population speaks Spanish, the official national language. However, another 60 indigenous languages are still spoken in Mexico, including Maya in the Yucatán; Huastec in northern Veracruz; Nahuatl, Tarastec, Totonac, Otomí and Mazahua mainly in the Mesa Central region; Zapotec, Mixtec and Mazatec in Oaxaca ; and Tzeltal and Tzotzil in Chiapas.

Religion Catholicism has become the dominant Mexican religion since first being introduced during Spanish colonization in the 16th century. Currently, more than 75 percent of Mexico’s population is Catholic, making Mexico the second-largest Catholic country in the world after Brazil. During the Mexican Revolution of 1917 and the administration of President Plutarco Elías Calles (1924 – 1928), there was a strong anti–clerical movement. This idea became less prevalent in the between 1940 and 1960. In fact that era saw a boom in the construction of new churches.

The Basílica of Guadalupe, built between the 16th and 18th centuries to honor Mexico’s patron saint, is located in Mexico City. Each year, hundreds of thousands of people, many of them peasants, travel from near and far to worship at the shrine. Although this is probably the most important and beloved religious site in Mexico, thousands of other churches, convents, pilgrimage sites and shrines exist throughout the country.

Mexico’s present population consists of Roman Catholics (76.5 percent), Protestants (6.3 percent), Pentecostals (1.4 percent), and Jehovah’s Witnesses (1.1 percent). Another 14.7 percent are non-religious or are of other faiths.

Holidays Many Mexican holidays are Christian in origin, such as Pre-Lenten Carnaval; Semana Santa (Easter week); Christmas , including Las Posadas (the nine–day celebration that begins December 16th); and Día de los Reyes (Three Kings Day), which celebrates the Epiphany. Mexican children receive the bulk of the season’s gifts and toys on Día de los Reyes.

On December 12, El Día de la Virgen De Guadalupe, Mexico honors its patron saint. During January, the city of Morelia celebrates the fiesta of the Immaculate Conception, and on the 17th of that month, pets and livestock are adorned with flowers and ribbons for the fiesta of San Antonio Abad.

Día de los Muertos (Day of the Dead), which occurs on November 1, has ancient Aztec and Mesoamerican roots. This day is set aside to remember and honor the lives of the deceased while celebrating the continuation of life. Halloween (October 31st) and All Souls’ Day (November 2nd) are also locally important holidays. During this period, families celebrate the spirits of departed loved ones in various ways, including erecting ofrendas (small altars) in their houses, decorating tombs and eating skull-shaped candies (calaveras) and sweet breads. It is a time for celebrating ancestors–with whom many believe they can communicate during these events–and embracing death as natural and inevitable rather than as something to be feared.

On October 12 of each year, the Día de la Raza (Race Day) is celebrated in recognition of the mestizo (mixed) character of Mexico’ s indigenous and European population. Widely celebrated patriotic events include Independence Day (September 16) and Cinco de Mayo (May 5), which commemorates the Mexican victory over French invaders in 1862.

Cuisine Mexican cuisine varies greatly by region but depends heavily on an ancient trinity of staples: corn (maize), beans and squash.

Another staple, rice, is usually served alongside beans. Mexicans also tend to make liberal use of avocados (often in the form of guacamole), chili peppers, amaranth, tomatoes, papayas, potatoes, lentils, plantains and vanilla (a flavoring that is pre-Columbian in origin). Salt and hot peppers (often served in a red or green sauce) are the most common condiments; maize tortillas complement most main dishes.

Popular dishes vary by region and individual circumstances, but some of the more widely enjoyed foods are tortillas (flat bread wraps made from wheat or maize flour), enchiladas, cornmeal tamales (cooked within corn husks or banana leaves), burritos, soft–shell tacos, tortas (sandwiches of chicken, pork or cheese and vegetables enclosed in a hard roll), stuffed chili peppers and quesadillas (tortillas filled with soft cheese and meat).

Other favorites are soups and spicy stews such as menudo (made from beef tripe and fresh vegetables) and pozole (stewed hominy and pork). Seafood dishes such as pulpo (octopus), chipachole (spicy crab soup) and ceviche (seafood marinated in lime or lemon juice) are popular in coastal areas. In Oaxaca and a few other states, fried and spiced chapulines (grasshoppers) are considered a delicacy. A favorite among the Nahuatl Indians is huitlacoche (corn fungus) served wrapped in fat–fried quesadillas.

Among the preferred desserts are sweet breads, chocolates and dulce de leche (caramelized milk), which is also called leche quemada or burned milk. On city sidewalks and streets, little bells announce the approach of paleteros, ambulatory vendors whose small insulated carts are filled with frozen paletas (popsicle-like treats made from creams or juices) and ice cream. Sugar–battered flautas (deep–fried filled corn tortillas) are popular with children of all ages.

Meals are often washed down with aguas frescas (watery sweet drinks, usually roselle flowers), horchata (a milky rice–based drink) and drinks flavored with watermelon or other fresh fruit. Also popular are licuados (fruit shakes or smoothies). During the Christmas holidays and on the Day of the Dead, one of the more popular drinks is atole (or atol), a hot combination of corn or rice meal, water, and spices.

Several well-known alcoholic beverages made in Mexico are derived from the maguey and agave plants. Maguey–also known as the Century Plant–is used to make pulque, an inexpensive drink. The plant was cultivated by many small farmers because it could thrive on infertile, rocky soil. Agave, in particular the blue agave, is used to make tequila, Mexico’s national liquor. The drink takes its name from Tequila, Jalisco, where it originated. Another alcoholic drink made from agave is mescal, which is produced primarily in Oaxaca.

Culture: Arts & Music – Theater & Film – Literature

Arts & Music In every major city in Mexico, universities and museums provide institutional support for art and cultural events. Among Mexico’s internationally acclaimed museums are the Museum of Folk Art, the sprawling National Museum of Anthropology and its offshoot, the National Museum of History.

Art Post-revolutionary artists Frida Kahlo, Diego Rivera, José Clemente Orozco, Rufino Tamayo and David Alfaro Siqueiros made significant contributions to Mexico’ s artistic and cultural heritage. Though diverse in their styles and subject matter, each drew upon personal and social experiences to create their work, which informed the sensibilities of worldwide audiences and inspired generations of young artists.

Murals, an ancient art form, grace the walls of public and private buildings throughout Mexico. Generations of muralists–influenced by artistic legacies traceable to the Aztecs, Mayans and other pre-Hispanic civilizations–have added their stories to those of their ancestors, captivating passersby with evocative figures and landscapes captured in rich colors and bold strokes.

Diego Rivera, whose mural Man at the Crossroads graces the lobby of New York’s 30 Rockefeller Plaza, is the most renowned of Mexico’s muralists. His works are also displayed at the Mexican National Palace and the Palace of Fine Arts.

Music Music, like food, is a mainstay of Mexican social life. The styles are diverse and include both traditional and modern genres. Perhaps the best-known Mexican genre is the ranchero. Popularized after the revolution, the ranchera came to symbolize the new national consciousness and focuses largely on love, patriotism and nature. Because of its familiar themes and rhythms, this song style has become popular among mariachi musicians. Highly recognizable in their customary silver–studded charro (cowboy) outfits and wide–brimmed hats, mariachi groups have enjoyed notable commercial success and are often featured at festivals, banquets and wedding.

Another popular genre is norteño (northern), which relies on the accordion and 12–string bass guitar for its characteristic stylizations. More recent musical innovations include banda, which is similar to norteño music, and cumbia, which is heavily influenced by music from the Caribbean islands. Becoming increasingly popular among Mexican youths are modern genres such as pop, hip–hop and rock–musical forms that gained popularity during the last century in the United States.

Theater & Film Mexico has a strong theatrical tradition kept alive by many professional, academic and indigenous groups. Although the theater’ s popularity diminished with the rise of television and film, groups still perform all over the country in large and small venues. In Mexico City, theater lovers can visit El Palacio de las Bellas Artes, Mexico City’s famous opera house, to see the Ballet Folklorico, a famous dance performance that blends various types of native music and dance.

Some regions feature plays that recount events from local history. In other cases, plays drawn from universal themes or celebrate such common concerns of daily life as love, marriage, joy, betrayal and hope.

During Semana Santa (the holy week from Easter until Palm Sunday), many communities enact a full passion play that depicts the events surrounding the life, death and resurrection of Jesus Christ. Many of these performances are impressively staged and draw large crowds.

Several Mexican actors and filmmakers have been internationally recognized, including directors Alejandro González Iñárritu (Amores Perros, 2000; Babel, 2006), Alfonso Cuarón (Y Tu Mamá También, 2001) and Guillermo del Toro (El Laberinto Del Fauno/Pan’s Labyrinth, 2006). Spanish director Luis Buñuel and French Surrealist André Breton both spent many years in Mexico, and their influences are seen in the works of current Mexican directors. Based on her 2002 theatrical portrayal of the internationally recognized Mexican painter Frida Kahlo, Salma Hayek became the first Mexican actress to be nominated for an Academy Award.

Literature Mexican writers have gained reputations by dealing with questions of universal significance. One of the best known is Samuel Ramos, whose philosophical speculations on humanity and culture in Mexico influenced post–1945 writers in several genres. Many consider Mexico’s Octavio Paz to be the foremost poet of Latin America. The novels of Carlos Fuentes are honored throughout the world, and Juan José Arreola’s fantasies are widely admired.

Culture: Sports

Fùtbol (Soccer) Soccer is the favorite sport of the vast majority of the population. Unlike other Mexican sports, soccer can emotionally divide the country, especially when Mexican rivals meet each other. People from all over the country attend matches, which are usually held on Sundays. Winning the coveted Copa Libertadores, the Latin American equivalent of the European Cup, is an honor that motivates both players and fans alike.

In 1970, Mexico’s Azteca Stadium was host to the FIFA World Cup finals. This event was one of the most memorable in sports history as Pele and his Brazilian team won for the third time, making them the first country ever to win the tournament more than twice. Mexico hosted the event again in 1986.

Well–known soccer players from Mexico include Hugo Sanchez, Cuahtemoc Blanco, Rafael Marques, Alberto Medina, Omar Bravo, Enrique Borja, Antonio Carvajal, Manolo Negrete, Jorge Gutierrez, Luis Flores, Salvador Reyes, Horacio Casarin, Alberto García Aspe, Jorge Campos and Luís Garcia.

Boxing Mexico’s boxing tradition is well established and it has been home to some of the world’s most renowned fighters including: Carlos Zarate, Vincente Saldivar, Salvador Sanchez, Erik Morales, Ricardo Lopez and Julio Cesar Chavez , who is considered one of the greatest sports heroes in Mexican history. CharreadaA charreada is a Mexican–style rodeo. Unlike American rodeo in which participants are awarded prizes according to how quickly they perform, charreada focuses primarily on style and skill. In a circular arena approximately 40 meters (44 yards) in diameter, Mexican cowboys and cowgirls wearing traditional charro (cowboy) clothing participate in a series of events involving bulls and horses. Today’s charros are ranchers, business people and professionals who share an interest in preserving Mexico’s charreada traditions.

Baseball Along the Gulf of Mexico and in the northern Mexican states, baseball is very popular. The Mexican professional league is named the Liga Mexicana de Béisbol, and the season runs from March to July with playoffs held in August. Equally popular is the Liga Mexicana del Pacífico, a high–level winter league that features players from Japan, Korea and the United States. The champion of this league participates in the “ Caribbean Series” with teams from Venezuela, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic.

Bullfighting Also known as fiesta brava, bullfighting has been popular in Mexico for the last 400 years. Like Spanish bullfighters, Mexican matadores perform specific moves, occasionally using a piece of red cloth to attract a bull in a graceful manner. Bullfights are often preceded by festivities such as rodeos, pig chases and dances.

Lucha Libre Mexican style professional wrestling, called Lucha Libre (free fight) embraces all styles of wrestling: submission, high flying comedy and brawling. The sport achieves an extraordinary level of artistic expression through costuming and bravado performance. El Santo, possibly the most famous Lucha Libre wrestler, often starred in films, wore his silver mask throughout his life and was eventually buried in it. Other famous Luchadores include The Blue Demon, Mil Máscaras, and Rey Mysterio, who eventually moved on to American wrestling where he became even better known.

Mexico is made up of 31 states and one federal district.

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Vibrant culture , community and customs of mexico.

Mexico has many cultural traditions, a lot of history, and a big population of people and land mass. Mexico is known for the amazing sights, the incredible food, and family oriented traditions. Mexico is a rapid growing country that is run by states and a...

Cultural Background of the Day of the Dead in Mexico and U.S.

After reading the three out of five articles; Mexico's Special Relationship with Day of the Dead, What we can learn from U. S Day of the Dead Celebration, and An Ancient and Modern Festival. All three articles mentioned many similar factual information and descriptions, but...

Running a Family Business in Mexico

Family businesses in Mexico are mostly companies, which are very small or do not have the success expected, due to the large amount of competition that exists in Mexico; Mexican companies that thrive, have planning from the first generation which are referred to the grandparents...

  • Family Business

The Lack of Social Mobility and Equality Theories in Mexico

The ranks in witch people are viewed in a society can be reffered to as a social staus. The status can be created by the presence or lack of wealth, prestige or career. This status can either be ascribed or achived. Ascribed meaning that it...

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My Personal Experience in Subculture in Mexico

In the subculture, there are many qualities that make subculture an important group in society. We learn each other with diverse characteristics that when we born is more personal and we raise with that. Knowing a subculture could be learned by parents, the environment or...

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How Volunteers Help Others in Mexico and Japan

Mexico City volunteers formed human chains and rescued people trapped in the remains of apartments that collapsed after a massive earthquake. Mexico City mayor Miguel Angel Mancera said about 40 buildings were destroyed by a magnitude 7.1 earthquake that struck the city on Tuesday. The...

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Drug Trafficking Problems Between Mexico and the USA and the Ways of Their Solution

Drug Trafficking is a problem in the criminal justice system. All the drugs are smuggled to get in the U.S and the big problem is how are they getting in the U.S. Plenty of drugs from different countries get in the U.S. There's plenty of...

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Declaration Of Independence Of Mexico

Introduction The significance of a country's independence is the act of fighting for liberty and the capacity to act against a colonial external influence. The Spanish, for 300 years influenced almost all aspects of life in Mexico, from the social, economic and political aspects to...

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Implementation of Modernization and Progress in Colombia and Mexico

In both Colombia and Mexico, various initiatives were put in place which backfired and damaged the quality of life of the citizens by the hand of the state. Specifically, urban renewal projects and privatization of public utilities were the main contributors in this decline. Urban...

Critical Analysis Of The Study About Children In The Street

This essay will critically analyse an ethnographic study which discussed the issues about children in the street. The location of the study originates from Mexico, Ciudad Juárez. The uncovering from the study showed crucial concern on how it has affected in establishing childhood. Factors such...

Mythology Around The World: From Mexico And Japan

Theres 100’s of cultures on Earth, each with their own ancient stories and ways of explaining unusual natural phenomenon Introduction. What myths do you know? Most of us have grown up in the United States of America, so we probably know of Johnny AppleSeed, Paul...

Representation Of Gender Roles In Mexico In Paintings Of Olga Costa

Although the field of art was dominated by men during the Mexican Cultural Revolution of 1910-1948, Olga Costa was one of the few female artists that was recognized for her paintings. Olga Costa is from German, however her and her family fled to Mexico to...

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Screening And Diagnosis Of Depression In Rural Chiapas, Mexico

The purpose of the study was to validate the use of the (PHQ)‐2 and PHQ‐9 designed for Screening and Diagnosis of Depression. It began by providing details into why this research was necessary ,stating the necessity of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ)‐2 and PHQ‐9 for...

The Female Comic Books Industry

From the very appealing book title to an eye-catching cover, you know this book is bound to keep your attention induced. It gives you a window into the cultural and political impact of comic books in the new worlds of ‘Modern Mexico’. Her examination of...

The Analysis Of The Program "Improving Worker Well-Being" On The Factory Levi Strauss In Mexico City

Summary On the factory floors of one of Levi Strauss Suppliers in Mexico City, a program called “Improving Worker Well-Being” is implemented amongst its garment workers. The program is a 10-week course that teaches about health, hygiene and sanitation, and also communication and critical thinking....

Best topics on Mexico

1. Vibrant Culture , Community And Customs Of Mexico

2. Cultural Background of the Day of the Dead in Mexico and U.S.

3. Running a Family Business in Mexico

4. The Lack of Social Mobility and Equality Theories in Mexico

5. My Personal Experience in Subculture in Mexico

6. How Volunteers Help Others in Mexico and Japan

7. Drug Trafficking Problems Between Mexico and the USA and the Ways of Their Solution

8. Declaration Of Independence Of Mexico

9. Implementation of Modernization and Progress in Colombia and Mexico

10. Critical Analysis Of The Study About Children In The Street

11. Mythology Around The World: From Mexico And Japan

12. Representation Of Gender Roles In Mexico In Paintings Of Olga Costa

13. Screening And Diagnosis Of Depression In Rural Chiapas, Mexico

14. The Female Comic Books Industry

15. The Analysis Of The Program “Improving Worker Well-Being” On The Factory Levi Strauss In Mexico City

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World Society and Culture in Mexico Essay

Between the cultures.

Understanding another culture, takes a lot of effort and a lot of knowledge in different spheres. A person who tries to understand the culture that he or she does not belong to must be ready that his ideas of life will be confronted by what he or she will see in that culture’s customs and traditions. But the most important thing for a person studying a foreign culture is the history of its development, i. e. history of the nation because it helps to understand modern processes in the culture and society.

Concerning Mexico, these points are true as well. I mean that to understand Mexico and Mexicans, it is not enough to examine their modern life. Merrel and Riding single out history as the key to the understanding of the Mexican mentality. These authors state that Mexicans are such a nation that has no resemblance either to Europeans or to other Latin Americans due to their history.

They combine in themselves the features of indigenous Mexicans, Spanish conquerors and the result is the nation called “mestizo” which is the mixture of different types of blood and characters (Insight, 2007). Thus, even Mexicans themselves do not have an exact definition of their own nation. They are mestizos but many of them neglect it saying that they are a complete nation, while there being a mixture of other nations is offensive for their concepts of honor, masculinity, and “machismo” (Riding, 1984).

What is intriguing about Mexican culture is the attitude towards time, as Mexicans do not see birth and death as limits of life. But their fatalist view of life is confusing, as they do not like to plan things thinking that that will happen what is destined. Thus, we should study this culture as it is special, and presents great interest due to its originality and richness.

This New World, Conquest, and Colony

The history of the territory later called Mexico is rich and roots deep into the centuries when the so-called Pre-Hispanic Civilizations existed. That epoch is divided into Pre-Classical (2500 B. C. – 300 A. D.), Classical (300 – 900 A. D.), and Post-Classical Periods (900 – 1521 A. D.) During these periods the Pre-Hispanic civilizations of Inca, Maya, Aztec, and others developed. These were huge Empires and flourished until the Spanish Conquistadores headed by Hernan Cortez came to explore their lands at the beginning of the 16th century (Insight, 2007).

The arrival of strangers was met differently by Aztecs. Some of them were hostile to the Spaniards, others sought their friendship. Other people saw the omen of the Aztec God returning in the coming of the conquerors, because when they arrived different evil signs like comets in the sky, floods and fires, stressed the Aztec Empire. Aztecs considered Spaniards to be the bringers of the legend they believed in and that had to come true one day (Merrel, 2003).

Spaniards, in their turn, came looking for riches but at first, they were cautious as their number was too little. But after the Aztec King Moctezuma had sent rich gifts to the Spaniards they saw that they can become rich if they conquer the land of Aztecs. Cortez was a rather enterprising person and decided not to lose such a chance. He signed an agreement with the tribe of Totonacs who were suppressed by Aztecs and started the conquest of the Aztec Empire. Their first steps were converting Indians into Christianity. Then, military raids against Aztecs towns and cities, especially the Capital city of Tenochtitlan, were started. Some Aztecs preferred the Spanish way of life to be exterminated and took up marriages with Spaniards thus giving birth to the first mestizos in Mexico (Leon-Portillo, 1992).

Cultural Hybridity

Defining race and ethnicity in Mexico is a rather difficult matter because of a number of reasons, some of which have been listed above. All scientists agree that in Mexico it is so difficult to define people belonging to the Indigenous population and “mestizos” on the basis of race that it is preferable to define them based upon their cultural traditions and identity they have (Merrel, 2003).

Cultural Hybridity is an important phenomenon present in modern Mexico. Cultural Hybridity is a process of the interrelation of two or more cultures that appears during the conquest of one nation by another one. It emphasizes that the conquered culture is not destroyed, both cultures, conquered and conquering, develop together and influence each other. In Mexico, such cultures are Indigenous Aztec culture and Hispanic culture that conquered the original one. But neither of the cultures destroyed another, even vice versa, they both enriched each other and formed what is now called Mexican culture (Insight, 2007).

In the past, a lot of people were ashamed of their racial heritage, especially if they had some indigenous roots, as Spanish culture was very popular. But nowadays things are changing, people are proud of being a part of the indigenous population of Mexico, and the experiences of Felicia Mercado are one of the best examples proving this point. The modern Mexican population consists of a large number of ethnic and racial groups, but the largest of them are Indigenous people (Indians), descendants of Europeans who settled in Mexico after its Spanish Conquest, and mestizos who are children of mixed marriages between Indians and Europeans. All these groups have their own peculiarities in respect of culture, traditions, and ethnic identity (Merrel, 2003).

Independence

The war of Independence took place in Mexico in 1810 – 1821 and was the war against Spanish rule in the country. The conflict appeared as a struggle of all ethnic groups of Mexico against the so-called peninsulares, who were Spaniards born in Spain. Their main opponents were criollos – Spaniards born in Mexico, whose status was lower due to their birth-place. After the war, the power in the country was taken by caudillos who were the military leaders of Mexico. This kind of ruling was typical also for other Latin American countries. This kind of ruling was viewed as the most effective due to its military nature and concentration of power in the hands of a single person important in a period of instability (Oster, 1989).

The most important image in the War of Independence was the Virgin of Guadalupe. Her image is considered to be the symbol of Mexico since the time of the war. The Virgin herself appeared to a Mexican monk in the 16th century, he built a church in her honor and since then her image is very important for Mexican.

Among the real leaders of the War of Independence there are such names as Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a priest of criollo origin who was the founder of the anti-Spanish movement and the leader of the war; Jose Maria Morelos who was also a priest and took the lead after Hidalgo; Vicente Guerrero who was one of the leaders of the war and then became the 2nd President of Independent Mexico; Agustin de Iturbide who was another leader of the Independence war but then joined the royalists and became the first Emperor of Mexico (1822 – 1823); Antonio Santa Anna who took part in the war and then became president of Mexico. All these people were the heroes of Mexico as they fought for its Independence and won it. They changed the course of Mexican history and helped it to develop as a history of an independent nation (Insight, 2007).

The Mexican Mind

The central place in the Mexican Mind is taken by such fundamental notions as personalismo, machismo, and caudillismo. These notions reflect the way of Mexican thinking. Personalism is the practice in politics when a political party or the whole country is glorifying their leader. This was evident in Mexico in the early years of Independence when Santa Anna and Iturbide ruled Mexico. A kind of more particular reflection of personalism is machismo, which can be defined as the cult of masculinity in Mexico and many other Latin American countries. Caudillismo is the most radical form of personalism which usually appears during revolutions and rebellions (Oster, 1989).

All these notions affected greatly the thinking of Mexicans, especially machismo. From early Mexican history, Mexican men were absorbed by the idea of honor and masculinity. But when Spanish conquerors began to marry their wives, the concept of anger appeared. This concept developed into the idea of full control over women in society. Thus, ideas of gender and sexuality were always forbidden for Mexican women who had to obey men.

But with time and with the development of feminist movements in the whole world, and in Mexico in particular, the state of things started changing. Fighters for equal rights for men and women, for example, Rosa Maria Ortega, the author of “La Feminista”, have achieved considerable progress in their activities. Their work gave great results that allow women to be elected to the political institutions, even become President, as well as have equal rights with men in day-to-day life and feel as rightful citizens of the country and rightful representatives of the Mexican culture (Insight, 2007).

Revolution and Continuing Problems

In 1846 the war between Mexico and the United States of America broke out. The main reasons for the war are two factors – the expansion of the US territory to the west which was proclaimed as the national policy, and the document called Manifest Destiny. The essence of it lied in the idea that the USA had to embrace the territory from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean.

In 1858 another war, the War of Reform broke out in Mexico. The reasons for the war were the constitutional initiatives of the Liberal Government. The new Constitution was adopted in 1858 and according to it, the Catholic Church was not recognized as the only and leading church in Mexico. The war began in which liberals stood for limiting the power of the church with their government in

Veracruz; conservatives wanted things to stay the same with their Government in Mexico City. As a result of a bloody war, liberals won and Benito Juarez became President.

In 1910 another civil war in Mexico broke out. Its main reason was the caudillismo of President Porfirio Diaz. He was a dictator and wanted to be re-elected for another term. Diaz sent his opponent Madero to jail and proclaimed his victory at the election. Madero’s supporters were unsatisfied with it and started an armed rebellion against the Diaz government (Insight, 2007).

During all this time the relations with the US stayed cold and were on the verge of another armed conflict. At first, the USA pretended for the territory of Mexico, then it opposed the governments that ruled in Mexico after the revolution of 1910. Although instability is typical for all developing countries, caudillismo is a specifically Mexican trait. Namely, these problems were the ones that could not be overcome by Mexican governments (Merrel, 2003).

Mexican Ways and Two Mexicos

In his work, Floyd Merrel uses certain specific notions and definitions that can be applied to Mexico exclusively. The author speaks about ejido, maquiladora, and other notions. The special place in the 10th and 11th chapters of his work is taken by the idea of “aguantar”. Ejido is used to indicate the system of communal property that was in use until Mexico entered the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and was abolished according to the constitutional amendments in 1992. Maquiladora is a result of entering NAFTA. It is the name for a great number of factories created for Mexican workers where the owners are foreigners and they use the cheap labor force and mild tax climate of Mexico.

This notion is connected with the image of poverty and hard, almost slave work which Mexicans have to do because of the policy of neoliberalism and being a member of NAFTA. The special place among these notions is taken by “aguantar” which is translated as “to stand/to bear” in English. This word is widely used to define Mexican policy of last years, built upon patience and standing of interests of other countries (Insight, 2007).

Due to these very notions, scientists can speak about the two Mexicos. They single out the rich industrial north and poor agricultural south of the country. Here, also the idea of Mexico being modern and not modern can be speculated on. Numerous examples show how different are parts of Mexico according to their economic development, as well as the layers of society according to their profit. The brightest example is the city of Cuernavaca which combines the industrial economy with agriculture that exists there since the Spanish Conquest. It, as well as Mexico City, is one of the largest cities in the country, and due to this, the difference between the development of its parts and between the levels of profit of its citizens is one of its typical features (Merrel, 2003).

Political Rollercoaster

The Mexican miracle that is to be discussed in this entry is rather fake than real. The official governmental sources claimed at the end of the 1990s – at the beginning of the 2000s that Mexico’s economy experienced a great rise and the standards of living in the country were constantly growing. This was connected with NAFTA’s influence, but the actual effect of NAFTA was different. The real profit of the main part of the population fell, and the gap between the small pert of rich people and the large rest of poor people increased drastically due to the new policies and effect of NAFTA (Merrel, 2003).

The famous organization that fights with the neoliberal policies of the Government of Mexico, with globalization and activities of NAFTA is called Zapatista National Liberation Army. This group is based in the poorest state of Mexico, Chiapas. It is no wonder that such an organization appeared in Chiapas, as this state has always been described as a rich land of poor people. The agricultural sphere dominates in Chiapas but the Government has always ignored it and developed the northern industrial areas. At the same time, rich deposits of natural minerals are taken out from Chiapas for the well-being of the rest of the country, while the population of Chiapas does not benefit from them.

According to this state of things the EZLN has always tried to draw the attention of the international community to the problem of Chiapas in Mexico. Their activities include peaceful demonstrations, political actions, and even armed conflicts with the governmental forces. The current aims of EZLN are further fighting for Chiapas autonomy, for the development of its agriculture and economy. EZLN claimed last year to call the meeting of all the indigenous people of Mexico but also stated that they will not take part in the coming Presidential Elections (Insight, 2007).

Pre-Postmodern Mexico and the Future

In the modern politics of Mexico, there are several interesting notions that help to develop democracy in this country. The first one no longer exists, as the politicians claim. It is the so-called “dedazo”, i. e. the right of the head of the ruling party (PRI) to choose and appoint the candidate from the party for the next presidential elections. To make Mexican society democratic this phenomenon is proclaimed to not be used anymore as it contradicts the basic democratic principles.

The notions of “politicos” and “technicos” are also very important for modern politics in Mexico. Politicos are the politicians of the old kind, i. e. the people who prefer caudillismo and communist ideals of ruling to the democratic principles of the society. Technics are those progressive politicians of the new kind who support the free market economy and private property but do not support the overall expansion of neoliberalism and NAFTA (Merrel, 2003).

One of the most interesting things in modern Mexican politics is the “pendulum” policy, which means that every next president of the country changes the direction of its politics. If one President supported the conservative methods and state property ownership, then the next one would always try to implement market economy and private property ownership. But these politics gave results, as the policy of Tepoztlan, where people get money for their own use if they have no medical and educational problems. Even the New York mayor Bloomberg visited the city to learn the details of the program for its possible usage in New York.

As for the current state of things, I think that Mexico is on the right way because it has limited its contacts with NAFTA, and has developed a good policy to reach the aim of becoming a highly developed country of the world (Insight, 2007).

Works Cited

“In a Mexican Town Lies a Key to Ending Poverty”. NewYorkTimes, 2007.

Insight Guides. Mexico. APA Publications (Langenscheidt). 2007.

Leon-Portillo, M. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Beacon Press; Exp Upd Su edition, 1992.

Merrel, Floyd. The Mexicans: A Sense of Culture. Westview Press. 2003.

Oster, Patrick. The Mexicans: A Personal Portrait of a People. NY: Harper Perennial. 1989. Vivid personal vignettes are used to illustrate the contemporary Mexican social situation. A good introduction to applying the sociological imagination in bridging between biography and society. (Ch 18 -19 pages 247 – 270).

Riding, Alan. Distant Neighbors: A Portrait of the Mexicans. A classic account of Mexican society by a journalist who was immersed in the events described. (pages 1 -21) NY: Knopf. 1984.

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Essay On Mexico

Type of paper: Essay

Topic: Government , Christians , Church , Population , Diversity , Mexico , European Union , Spain

Published: 11/13/2019

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Mexico is located to the south of North America. It borders USA to the North, Pacific Ocean to the west, and Guatemala to the Southeast and Belize to the East. The country measures 1,972,550 in square kilometers, making it the 15th country in the world in terms of size. Its main ethnic groups are Indian-Spanish, Indians and Caucasians. The Spanish colonized Mexico for three centuries, starting from the sixteenth century to the nineteenth century. A catholic priest, father Hidalgo first proclaimed Independence on 1810, but was later executed in July 1811 by the Spanish officials (Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, 2010). Jose Maria Morelos, who on Nov. 6, 1812 declared the second independence but was also executed by a firing squad in 1815, replaced him (Reilly, & Jermyn, 2002).

Mexico became officially independent on 1824, with its first president being Guadalupe Victoria. Mexico is a federal republic. It has three arms of governance, the executive that has the chief of state and leader of government business. The legislative arm is bicameral while the judiciary consists of the Supreme Court and other federal legal branches (Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs, 2010). Under economics, Mexican currency is the Mexican pesos and its current exchange rate against the dollar is at 11.5975. In addition, the GDP of the country is at $ 1 trillion with a growth rate of 5 %.

On the side of religion, The Roman Catholic holds the largest population of 76.5% of the entire population followed by Protestants at 6. 3% (Vatican, 2000). The rest consist of unspecified religions. Mexico is widely known for its diversity in arts. These range from woodcarvings, pottery, and weaving among others. In addition, there are many notable authors and poets in Mexico; for example, Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz is a renowned poet of the seventeenth century who used her work to advocate for women rights. Mexico is also rich in food diversity at which there are numerous available cuisines present around the country (Reilly, & Jermyn, 2002).

The richness in culture, arts and traditions makes Mexico a very special country. In addition, the strong economy has enabled the country to rise above other major competitors in its bid to increase revenues and GDP from the citizens.

Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs. (2010). Background Note: Mexico. Retrieved from http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35749.htm Reilly, M., & Jermyn, L. (2002). Mexico. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish. Vatican. (2000). Homily Of His Holiness Pope John Paul Ii :Canonization Of 27 New Saints. Retrieved from http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/homilies/documents/hf_jp-ii_hom_20000521_canonizations_en.html#top

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mexico essay

To Go to War with Mexico?

mexico essay

Written by: A. James Fuller, University of Indianapolis

By the end of this section, you will:.

  • Explain the causes and effects of westward expansion from 1844 to 1877

Suggested Sequencing

Use this Decision Point alongside the  Chapter 7 Introductory Essay: 1844–1860  and the  Debating the Mexican-American War, May 1846  Primary Source to explore the United States’ and James K. Polk’s decision to declare war on Mexico.

On May 11, 1846, President James K. Polk sent a special message to Congress asking for a declaration of war against Mexico. In his message, the president outlined a series of grievances, including the complaint that the government of Mexico had refused to receive an envoy from the United States whom he had sent to try to negotiate a peaceful solution to the problems between the two countries. Worse, he said, the Mexicans, “after a long series of menaces, have at last invaded our territories and shed the blood of our fellow-citizens on our own soil.” Polk pointed to an alleged attack made on American soldiers in southern Texas and argued that the Mexicans had started a war. Now the United States had no choice but to defend itself. Congress responded by declaring war two days later, but the debate over whether to fight Mexico had been going on for some time, and the conflict was not simply an American response to an unprovoked Mexican attack.

The question whether to go to war with Mexico was rooted in the American idea of Manifest Destiny. This concept had deep roots but flourished within the dynamic society and culture of the early American republic. It held that the United States was fated to spread across the continent of North America and extend the ideals of liberty, equality, and democracy into new territories. Different people pointed to different origins for this national purpose. Some believed it was God’s plan for the country, whereas others preferred to see it as part of a natural design, and still others thought of it as continuing the historical march of progress. Manifest Destiny also stemmed from economic considerations. The United States had experienced rapid population growth in the decades after the American Revolution, and Americans had an insatiable desire for more land for agriculture. Thus, it seemed to many both necessary and right that a bigger population needed more territory.

Painting showing a much larger-than-life woman in the center with a star on her head and wearing a flowing white garment. She moves from the light-skied east to the dark west, leading white settlers who follow her either on foot or by stagecoach, horseback, Conestoga wagon, wagon train, or riding steam trains. She lays a telegraph wire with one hand and carries a school book in the other. As she moves westward, indigenous people and a herd of buffalo are seen fleeing her and the settlers.

This allegorical painting by John Gast, titled  American Progress , shows Lady Columbia leading American civilization westward. It is one interpretation of the idea of Manifest Destiny.

Many American Indians and Mexicans disagreed that the destiny of the United States was so manifest, and some Americans saw U.S. expansion as conquest. This was certainly the view among the leaders of the Mexican republic in regard to Texas, California, and other regions in northern Mexico. In the 1820s, thousands of Americans had moved south to Texas, welcomed by the Mexicans who wanted them to help develop the area and serve as a buffer against attacks by American Indian tribes like the Comanche. But the Texans rose up against the Mexican government and won their independence in 1836. Soon there were calls for the new Texas republic to be annexed to the United States. Several attempts to do so failed, but President John Tyler led a successful annexation effort, and Texas joined the Union in 1845.

There was disagreement over the location of the southern border of the new state. The Mexicans argued that it was the Nueces River, and the American settlers insisted it was farther south at the Rio Grande. When Democrat James K. Polk took office as president in 1845, he promised to acquire more land from Mexico and also hoped to settle the boundary issue in favor of the United States. Meanwhile, more American settlers were making their way into Mexican territories, including California, where there was talk of a revolution to establish an independent Bear Flag Republic. Settlers were also increasingly interested in New Mexico, and many Mormons had moved to Utah. Certainly, the Mexicans had reason to be wary of their northern neighbor.

Although most Americans favored westward expansion, many were not convinced it was a good thing. Some northerners, in particular, worried that territorial expansion was the goal of southerners who actually wanted to preserve their interest in expanding and protecting slavery. Southern planters did require more land for their ever-expanding cotton kingdom. Cotton was the foundation of the American economy: it accounted for some two-thirds of the nation’s exports, and northern industrialists relied on the crop for their textile mills. To grow cotton in the early 1800s required land and labor. Slavery provided the labor and territorial expansion provided the land. Although many northerners happily supported expansion into new territories like Oregon, they feared movement into Mexican lands to the south meant the expansion of slavery, especially when Texas joined the union as a slave state.

White southerners enthusiastically supported taking more land from Mexico, and some of them also wanted to expand into the Caribbean and Central America. Adding new territory south of 36°30’ latitude, which had marked the boundary between free and slave states since the Missouri Compromise in 1820, indeed, would allow for the expansion of the South’s plantation economy and slavery. It would also give southerners more political power. New slave states would have at least one seat in the House of Representatives and two in the Senate, which would allow the South to protect slavery against the growing criticism in the North. No wonder, then, that so many antislavery northerners feared a war with Mexico would be fought to build an empire for slavery.

With tensions mounting, President Polk sent troops to the Rio Grande under General Zachary Taylor to protect the border. The Mexicans saw this as an invasion, and so did some Americans. Ulysses S. Grant, an officer under Taylor’s command, saw the coming conflict as an unjust war being fought to expand slavery. Although he did his duty, he later said, “We were sent to provoke a fight, but it was essential that Mexico should commence it. It was very doubtful whether Congress would declare war; but if Mexico should attack our troops,” then the president could say that the war had already begun and Congress would support the conflict. In other words, Polk wanted political cover for his actions, and he sent Taylor into the disputed territory in hope the Mexicans would attack and he could blame them for starting the war. And that was exactly what happened.

Daguerreotype of General Zachary Taylor.

An 1840s daguerreotype of General Zachary Taylor, made a few years before the beginning of the Mexican-American War.

At first, the Mexicans did not respond to the American troops moving into the disputed territory south of the Nueces River, although the Mexican government declared it would fight a defensive war against the United States. General Taylor had his men build a fort on the banks of the Rio Grande across from the Mexican town of Matamoros. On April 25, 1846, a large force of Mexican soldiers attacked a U.S. Army patrol and killed 11 Americans. A few days later, Mexican artillery began to bombard the U.S. fort on the Rio Grande. Taylor retaliated, and hostilities commenced. When news of the fighting reached Washington, DC, President Polk had what he wanted. He asked the members of Congress to declare war, and they did.

Although the war had now begun, not everyone went along with the decision. Poet and philosopher Henry David Thoreau went to jail for refusing to pay taxes that would help fund the war and wrote his famous essay, later known as “Civil Disobedience,” to assert the freedom of the individual to resist government policy. Some tried to stop the war from expanding slavery. In 1846, David Wilmot, a Democratic representative from Pennsylvania, tried to prohibit slavery in any territory taken from Mexico, with a rider attached to a bill funding part of the war. The Wilmot Proviso passed the House of Representatives, but it failed in the Senate. Another antiwar representative was Abraham Lincoln of Illinois, who entered Congress after the combat was essentially over but who still delivered a scathing attack on the president in a speech on the floor of the House of Representatives on January 12, 1848. Lincoln denounced the plan to take the northern half of Mexico, saying he hoped that Polk realized that “the blood of this war, like the blood of Abel, is crying to Heaven against him”. But the United States had clearly won the war and gained a huge swath of territory in the final treaty negotiations, taking in California, New Mexico (which included what is now Arizona), and Utah (which included what later became Nevada).

Lithograph showing a battle between two groups of soldiers. American flags fly on the left and soldiers are shown retreating on the right; some have fallen and are wounded or dead.

A hand-tinted 1847 lithograph by John Cameron showing a battle during the Mexican-American War.

As the war was ending, gold was discovered in California. Many Americans saw the ensuing Gold Rush as evidence of the validity of Manifest Destiny, because the wealth of California had not been fully discovered until it became part of the United States. It seemed that the war was truly a triumph. But things did not turn out as expected. As the poet and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson predicted, “The United States will swallow Mexico, but it will be as the man who swallows arsenic, which brings him down in turn. Mexico will poison us.” California’s population soon grew large enough for the territory to become a state. Its application to enter the union as a free state set off a political firestorm between the North and the South, however, because part of it lay south of the 36°30’ line. Although the Compromise of 1850 had temporarily eased political tensions over the territorial expansion of slavery, the issue remained unresolved. Ironically, although it started in the name of the nation’s collective destiny, the Mexican-American War helped set the stage for the Civil War that ripped the country apart.

Review Questions

“The untransacted destiny of the American people is to subdue the continent—to rush over this vast field to the Pacific Ocean—to animate the many hundred millions of its people, and to cheer them upward—to set the principle of self-government at work—to agitate these herculean masses—to establish a new order in human affairs”.

Address to the U.S. Senate (March 2, 1846); quoted in  Mission of the North American People, Geographical, Social, and Political  (1873), by William Gilpin, p. 124.

This quotation best summarizes the concept of

  • republican motherhood
  • Manifest Destiny
  • imperialism

2. Critics of the Mexican-American War believed the conflict was escalated a war for the purpose of

  • expanding slavery
  • acquiring land
  • acquiring mineral resources
  • gaining access to water
“Mexico has passed the boundary of the United States, has invaded our territory and shed American blood upon the American soil. She has proclaimed that hostilities have commenced, and that the two nations are now at war. As war exists, and, notwithstanding all our efforts to avoid it, exists by the act of Mexico herself, we are called upon by every consideration of duty and patriotism to vindicate with decision the honor, the rights, and the interests of our country.”

President Polk’s message to Congress, 1846

In this excerpt, President Polk is asking Congress to

  • ignore the Mexican government’s actions along the border
  • reconsider the annexation of Texas
  • exercise its constitutional authority to declare war
  • recognize the Mexican request to adjust territorial boundaries

Cartoon of a man in the attire of an admiral sitting atop a pile of skulls. Below the pile of skulls is the text “An available candidate. The one qualification for a Whig president.”

A political cartoon published before the Whig party convention in 1848. Consider who the candidate is and why there are so many skulls in the picture.

4. Refer to the image provided. The sentiment portrayed in the cartoon suggests that a leading Whig presidential nominee was negatively viewed because of his connection to the

  • Mexican-American War
  • Kansas-Nebraska Act
  • opening of Japan to U.S. trade
  • settlement of the Oregon Territory

Map of the United States depicting the region from the eastern seaboard and continuing west to the middle of the country.

A map of the westward expansion of the United States.

5. Refer to the map provided. The map best illustrates the United States’ continental expansion in the aftermath of

  • the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory
  • the annexation of Texas
  • the conclusion of the Mexican-American War
  • the resolution of the Oregon Territory boundary

6. Which of these expressed overwhelming support for acquiring territory from Mexico?

  • Henry David Thoreau
  • Abraham Lincoln
  • David Wilmot

Free Response Questions

  • Explain why expansion into the Oregon Territory had more support in the North than expansion into areas held by Mexico in the 1840s.
  • Explain the connection between the decision to go to war with Mexico and the concept of Manifest Destiny.

AP Practice Questions

“The government itself, which is only the mode which the people have chosen to execute their will, is equally liable to be abused and perverted before the people can act through it. Witness the present Mexican war, the work of comparatively a few individuals using the standing government as their tool; for, in the outset, the people would not have consented to this measure. . . . Unjust laws exist: shall we be content to obey them, or shall we endeavor to amend them, and obey them until we have succeeded, or shall we transgress them at once?”

Henry David Thoreau, Civil Disobedience, 1849

Refer to the excerpt provided.

1. This excerpt was written in response to the

  • annexation of Texas
  • admission of California as a free state
  • passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act

2. What group would most likely agree with the point of view expressed?

  • Expansionists
  • Northern Whigs
  • Southern slaveholders

Primary Sources

Lincoln, Abraham. “The War With Mexico: Speech in the United States House of Representatives. January 12, 1848.”  http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/the-war-with-mexico-speech-in-the-united-states-house-of-representatives/

Polk, James K. “President James K. Polk, To the Congress of the United States: A Special Message Calling for a Declaration of War against Mexico, Washington, May 11, 1846.”  https://www.gilderlehrman.org/sites/default/files/inline-pdfs/Lesson%201%20Polk%20Message%20Complete.pdf

Thoreau, Henry David. “Civil Disobedience.” 1849.  http://xroads.virginia.edu/~hyper2/thoreau/civil.html

Suggested Resources

Dusinberre, William.  Slavemaster President: The Double Career of James Polk . New York: Oxford University Press, 2003.

Frangaviglia, Richard V., and Douglas W. Richmond, eds.  Dueling Eagles: Reinterpreting the U.S-Mexican War, 1846-1848 . Fort Worth, TX: Texas Christian University Press, 2000.

Greenberg, Amy S.  A Wicked War: Polk, Clay, Lincoln, and the 1846 U.S. Invasion of Mexico . New York: Knopf, 2012.

Merry, Robert W.  A Country of Vast Designs: James K. Polk, The Mexican War, and the Conquest of the American Continent . New York: Simon & Schuster, 2009.

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