space exploration extended essay

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2 The Standard Case For and Against Space Exploration

• Published: August 2023
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The standard case for and against space exploration is explored in this chapter. Space science and technology have already provided many benefits to humankind. Weather satellites save lives, help agriculture, and facilitate transportation. Land satellites find resources and inform us about environmental impacts on land. Sea satellites find ocean resources and spot environmental impacts. Communication satellites help commerce and make our lives easier. Space-technology spinoffs have created many new technologies and economic opportunities. Future developments may include solar power satellites that would bring abundant clean energy to the entire planet. Social critics accept some of the satellite benefits but argue that space exploration is extremely expensive. They see little benefit in much of the exploration that fascinates space fans (e.g., exploring the moons of Jupiter). Ideological critics fear that big science is unwise and harmful to the planet. They claim we need a moral solution to our problems instead.

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• Clin Neuropsychiatry
• v.18(5); 2021 Oct

The Burden of Space Exploration on the Mental Health of Astronauts: A Narrative Review

Alessandro arone.

1 Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine Section of Psychiatry, University of Pisa, 56100 Pisa, Italy

Konstantin Loganovsky

3 Department of Radiation Psychoneurology, Institute for Clinical Radiology, State Institution “National Research Centre for Radiation Medicine, National Academy of Medical Sciences of Ukraine”

Stefania Palermo

Elisabetta parra, walter flamini, donatella marazziti.

2 Unicamillus—Saint Camillus International University of Medical and Health Sciences, 00131 Rome, Italy

Space travel, a topic of global interest, has always been a fascinating matter, as its potential appears to be infinite. The development of advanced technologies has made it possible to achieve objectives previously considered dreams and to widen more and more the limits that the human species can overcome. The dangers that astronauts may face are not minimal, and the impacts on physical and mental health may be significant. Specifically, symptoms of emotional dysregulation, cognitive dysfunction, disruption of sleep-wake rhythms, visual phenomena and significant changes in body weight, along with morphological brain changes, are some of the most frequently reported occurrences during space missions.

Given the renewed interest and investment on space explorations, the aim of this paper was thus to summarize the evidence of the currently available literature, and to offer an overview of the factors that might impair the psychological well-being and mental health of astronauts.

To achieve the goal of this paper, the authors accessed some of the main databases of scientific literature and collected evidence from articles that successfully fulfilled the purpose of this work.

The results of this review demonstrated how the psychological and psychiatric problems occurring during space missions are manifold and related to a multiplicity of variables, thus requiring further attention from the scientific community as new challenges lie ahead, and prevention of mental health of space travelers should be carefully considered.

Introduction

Since its first steps on Earth, the human species has evolved by adapting and shaping the surrounding environment to its needs. Yet nowadays, in a modern era marked by pandemics, social inequalities, wars and in which men still have much to discover despite enormous advances in science and other fields, some environments represent a huge challenge. This is due to some of their features, to the point of being defined as "extreme environments", as they often require challenging physical and mental efforts ( Paulus et al., 2009 ; Ilardo & Nielsen, 2018 ). Extreme environments are manifold, and they include prolonged and marked isolation experiences on Earth, such as polar environments and submarine explorations, but they can also be found beyond our planet’s boundaries, in the case of space. The adjustment from Earth to an environment characterized by the lack of gravity naturally raises the need for physical adaptation primarily, but it may also lead to the search for new horizons and to stimulation of creative thinking ( Amabile & Gryskiewicz, 1987 ; Runco & Charles, 1993 ), thus determining the exploitation of mental resource that, however, in this process as fascinating as rich in implications, must be preserved. Over the decades, the public and scientific interest in space missions has progressively revealed the risks and dangers to health behind this project, in particular in the case of long-duration space missions, as several space hazards, such as microgravity and radiation, can sharp different organs and systems by altering the human physiology ( Clément & Slenzka, 2006 ). From cell damages ( Huang et al., 2009 ; Kawahara et al., 2009 ) to the alteration of the processes maintaining the health of bones and muscles ( Ilyina-Kakueva & Burkovskaya, 1991 ; Kaplansky et al., 1991 ; Davidson et al., 1999 ; Willey et al., 2011 ), the immune system ( Gridley et al., 2009 ), heart and vessels ( Fritsch-Yelle et al., 1996 ; Diedrich al., 2007 ; Boerma et al., 2015 ) and central nervous system (CNS) ( Souvestre et al., 2008 ), space also increases the risk of carcinogenesis ( Kennedy, 2014 ), thus urging the search for drugs and compounds able to prevent or mitigate it ( Burns et al., 2001 ; Zhang et al., 2006 ; Kennedy & Wan, 2011 ). Space missions, particularly of long duration, can put a strain on maintaining an adequate mental well-being, and the role of some personal and interpersonal factors has long been discussed ( Kanas, 1998 ; Flynn, 2005 ; Barr et al., 2007 ; Kalb & Solomon, 2007; Trappe et al., 2009 ; Fitts et al., 2010 ; Kandarpa et al., 2019 ; Marazziti et al., 2021 ). Both individually and in synergy, such factors may determine the onset of mood symptoms ( Gushin et al., 1993 ; Tafforin et al., 2015 ), cognitive issues ( Britten et al., 2012 ; 2016; Rabin et al., 2014 ; Acharya et al., 2019 ; Cacao & Cucinotta, 2019 ; Moore et al., 2019 ), sleep disturbances ( Putcha et al., 1999 ; Barger et al., 2014 ; Wotring, 2015 ) and others. Finally, space missions may cause some significant neuroanatomical effects, with most of the data available coming from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies, and will then be briefly discussed herein.

Therefore, this paper was conceived as a narrative review with the aim of commenting on the current literature on the main psychological conditions affecting astronauts in the course of space missions. We also investigated the possible aetiology of such issues, with a focus on the psychosocial and physical factors involved.

Materials and Methods

The following databases were accessed in order to research and gather data from articles that were published only in English language from 1 January 1963 to 31 August 2021: PubMed, Scopus, Embase, PsycINFO and Google Scholar. Free text terms and MeSH headings were combined as follows: “(space missions OR space travels OR astronauts) AND (psychological OR psychiatric OR psychosocial OR issues OR symptoms)”. All the authors agreed to include in the review conference abstracts, posters and case reports if published in indexed journals. All the authors equally contributed in identifying potential information specific to this topic amongst the titles and abstracts evaluated.

The first selection excluded 2176 titles because: a) duplicates; b) not concerning the scope of the paper; c) not informative enough. The second selection excluded 435 abstracts after being read and reviewed, as the information presented did not fulfill the scope of our paper and/or did not appear to be relevant to the topic of interest. Subsequently, 114 more publications were excluded after further reading and evaluation, as they did not provide enough information and/or resulted sufficiently in line with our review. Finally, 100 papers were included in this paper ( figure 1 ).

Health issues

It has long been known that the health of space travelers can be endangered by various space factors, to the point that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) recognized the existence of a new branch of science called “bioastronautics”, aimed at the study of the biological effects on the astronauts’ bodies ( Charles, 2005 ). In particular, most of the gathered evidence to this day suggests that space microgravity and radiation stand among the most known space perils ( table 1 ).

Physical factors in space and their effects on health

Several studies have pointed out how microgravity may alter cell physiology by compromising its structure or its survival ( Crawford-Young, 2006 ; Huang et al., 2009 ; Kawahara et al., 2009 ). Furthermore, a relationship has been described between microgravity and the immune system ( Woods & Chapes, 1994 ; Sonnenfeld, 2002 ; Gridley et al., 2009 ) that might lead to the onset of infections, immune disorders and CNS alterations that might affect the health of astronauts, with the consequent impairment of the positive mission’s outcome. Microgravity may also negatively impact the mechanisms of tissue repair in skeletal muscles and bones ( Ilyina-Kakueva & Burkovskaya, 1991 ; Kaplansky et al., 1991 ; Davidson et al., 1999 ). The cardiovascular system may be affected as well, since several studies showed an important decrease in heart rate during spaceflights ( Fuller, 1985 ), the possible onset of potentially fatal dysrhythmias ( Fritsch-Yelle et al., 1996 ) and several changes in blood and plasma volume ( Bao et al., 2007 ; Diedrich al., 2007 ). Post-flight orthostatic intolerance has been frequently reported in astronauts ( Fritsch-Yelle et al., 1996 ). Finally, the sensory-motor system appears to be deeply affected by microgravity. Indeed, the CNS needs to adapt to microgravity since different spatial information, such as somatosensory, visual and vestibular stimuli, has to be elaborated ( Souvestre et al., 2008 ). A syndrome known as space adaptation syndrome (SAS) may occur as a consequence of a sensory conflict between inputs from visual and tactile senses and vestibular organs ( Lackner & Dizio, 2006 ). The eye is another organ that may be affected by the effects of microgravity, with damages to either its structure and/or its functions. Optic nerve swelling, flattening of the posterior globe, periorbital edema and increased intraocular pressure have all been reported ( West, 2000 ; Kramer et al., 2012 ). Hypobaric hypoxia, a microgravity-induced condition caused by a decreased partial pressure of oxygen in space, may also occur, potentially causing further eye diseases such as retinal and vitreous hemorrhages or papilledema ( Russo et al., 2014 ).

Health professionals have long been warned about the negative and potentially catastrophic consequences for the human body following radiation exposure ( Meyers, 2000 ) and, in the course of space missions, different organs may be deeply affected by radiation. Bone loss and fractures may occur as a consequence of a disruption of the skeleton ( Willey et al., 2011 ). The cardiovascular system is also at risk, since it was found to be particularly sensitive to the effect of ionizing radiation ( Boerma et al., 2015 ). Nevertheless, when it comes to radiation, the focus is primarily on the risk of carcinogenesis, with the focus being shifted over the years to the search of potential surrogate endpoint biomarkers (SEBs) to explain this phenomenon ( Kennedy, 2014 ). Regardless, it has been suggested that radiation exposure may lead to oxidative stress, which in turn may be behind the mechanisms of carcinogenesis ( Kennedy & Wan, 2011 ). Therefore, unsurprisingly, antioxidants, along with protease inhibitors and retinoids, have been proposed as chemopreventive agents to oppose the risk of carcinogenesis ( Burns et al., 2001 ; Zhang et al., 2006 ; Kennedy & Wan, 2011 ), albeit further studies on the field are required to draw definitive conclusions.

Psychological and psychiatric problems

Emotional and interpersonal issues.

Emotion regulation seems to need appropriate countermeasures during long-duration space flights, as emotion training can play an important role in the success and safety of missions ( Liu et al., 2016 ). Mood issues of the astronauts have long been reported, and they may also compromise the fulfillment of the mission task, as in the case of the abrupt abort of the Soyuz T14-Salyut 7 mission in 1985, which was suggested to have been partly caused by crew's depression ( Morris, 2014 ). Symptoms of reduced resilience may occur, ranging from decreased drive and energy levels to passiveness ( Gushin et al., 1993 ). Anxiety symptoms have been reported and linked to negative interpersonal interactions, as well ( Tafforin et al., 2015 ). Indeed, the heterogeneity of the space crew in terms of size, ethnic background, languages and roles may result in tension and communication issues among the crew members ( Kanas, 1998 ). Prolonged isolation from loved ones and routine on Earth also pose a risk for the mental wellbeing of cosmonauts ( Kandarpa et al., 2019 ), along with sharing a confined environment with the same people around ( Harrison et al., 1989 ). Indeed, isolation may lead to monotony, which has been conceptualized as a three-fold model of spatio-temporal, sensory and social isolation and has been proven to be potentially detrimental for the success of the mission ( Peldszus et al., 2014 ). Evidence from space analogues would also suggest that such factors may be responsible for a wide range of symptoms, including fatigue, altered circadian rhythms, sleep disturbance and neurocognitive impairments ( Pagel & Choukèr, 2016 ; Deming & Vasterling, 2017 ). Moreover, the features of the spacecraft, which constitute the so-called “habitability” ( Musso et al., 2018 ) represent a fundamental element of space missions, for reasons exceeding far beyond its sole role as a means of transport, and may represent another stressor to the overall well-being of the astronauts. According to Kanas and Manzey (2008) , these include light, noise, vibration and temperature. As for the light, since it represents the main stimulus of the circadian rhythms, its excessive exposure may then lead to a deep alteration of the latter. Therefore, it has been suggested how either its removal from the settings and the spaces dedicated to sleep or the creation of an environment where alternating light and dark in the spaces shared by the astronauts may be desirable ( Caddick et al., 2017 ). Excessive exposure to noise, mainly due to the equipment and the crew activities, may represent a further stress factor for cosmonauts. Both wakefulness and sleeping may be compromised, to the point that cosmonauts have been instructed to wear protection devices to counteract the potential damages induced by high levels of noise ( Limardo et al., 2017 ).

Finally, habitability includes the need for privacy that, considering the spaces available and the peculiar environment, may not be always sufficiently respected, thus leading to possible psychological effects ( Winisdoerffer & Soulez-Larivière, 1992 ).

Cognitive problems

Although fascinating, space poses as a seriously stressful environment, and may therefore represent a danger to cognitive functions that, along with motor performances, have long been known to undergo some kind of deterioration under stress conditions ( Hockey, 1983 ; Albery & Goodyear, 1989 ; Lieberman et al., 2002 ).

Space radiation is one of the factors most involved in the onset of these issues, and its potential biological effects are broad, even at a low-dose rate exposure, that has been demonstrated to induce significant neurocognitive complications associated with an impairment in neurotransmission ( Acharya et al., 2019 ).

Originally, back to the 1960s, the general assumption was that the brain is not sensitive to the effect of cosmic radiation, and even the consequences on other body areas, such as the lens of the eye, were thought to be minimal ( Curtis, 1963 ). However, a few decades after the original assumptions of Curtis (1963) , it was demonstrated that high linear energy transfer (LET) particle irradiation of the brain may cause capillary hemorrhages, and that both neuroglia and blood-brain barrier may be vulnerable to damage following ionizing radiation. Since DNA repair in neural cells has a certain amount of mispair, such damages may produce different notable effects, including myelin degeneration, a reduction in local metabolism, and alterations in both synaptic density and microcirculation. Scientists and health professionals have long warned about adverse consequences following radiation exposure ( Meyers, 2000 ), as well as many secondary effects in cognition and mood due to a decrease in neuronal structural complexity ( Parihar et al., 2015 ; 2016).

As a result, it is not surprising that the radiation matter has gone under the lens of NASA, since the safety of space travellers and the success of missions may indeed be compromised by the neurocognitive effects induced by radiation ( Cucinotta et al., 2014 ). Indeed, radiation exposure is massive during space missions. The estimated average astronaut’s radiation exposure to Mars per year is equivalent to a cumulative dose of 672 millisieverts (mSv), and, in International Space Station (ISS) orbit, around 182.5 mSv. In order to get an estimate of the extent of such numbers, it should be highlighted that the average background radiation exposure on Earth per year is, instead, of 3 mSv ( Jones et al., 2012 ).

A large amount of data on the matter comes from rodent models strongly, suggesting potentially significant consequences of radiation on cognition ( Britten et al., 2012 ; 2016; Rabin et al., 2014 ; Cacao & Cucinotta, 2019 ). Furthermore, other researchers recently demonstrated that several alterations in the intrinsic electrophysiological features of CA1 superficial layer pyramidal neurons in the dorsal hippocampus may represent a consequence of the exposure to a prolonged 18 cGy dose of neutron radiation. These changes may persist after six months from the completion of irradiation ( Acharya et al., 2019 ). They also found that chronic (6 months) radiation exposure to low-dose (18 cGy) and dose rate (1 mGy/day) exposures to a mix of neutrons and photons caused an impairment in cellular signaling both in the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus. This caused learning and memory impairment, and was linked to the potential increase of anxiety behaviors, thus also indicating damage to the amygdala ( Acharya et al., 2019 ). Some studies pointed out a significant reduction in dendritic complexity and spine density not only in the hippocampal but also in cortical neurons ( Parihar et al., 2015 ; 2016). Moreover, astronauts may undergo deficits in executive functions due to a functional loss in several areas of the brain, such as the medial prefrontal cortex, posterior cingulate, anterior cingulate and basal forebrain ( Lonart et al., 2012 ). Decision-making may also be affected ( Acharya et al., 2019 ). Indeed, it is a common assumption that one out of five astronauts taking part in a long space mission would experience similar behaviors, and out of three would instead face struggles in memory processes ( Acharya et al., 2019 ). Dopamine levels may be another key factor in neurobehavioral response to radiation ( Hienz et al., 2010 ), ando also gender, as murine models showed how male mice displayed an increased susceptibility to behavioral decrements secondary to radiation ( Krukowski et al., 2018 ). Different male susceptibility to cognitive processes to irradiation may be due to mechanisms related to memory formation ( Greene-Schloesser et al., 2012 ; Balentova & Adamkov, 2015 ). Therefore, it is evident that such effects need to be adequately studied in the future planning of interplanetary space fights.

Cognitive issues may also arise due to the effects of microgravity. Indeed, a reduction in different motor functions, such as dual-tasking, motion perception and manual dexterity, following a six-month period spent on ISS was recently demonstrated. However, it should be noted that these cognitive deficits were resolved in four days after landing. In any case, although this research is affected by a major bias that is the small sample size including eight astronauts only ( Moore et al., 2019 ), these effects may be a cue of relevant changes in brain structure ( Roberts et al., 2019 ). On the other hand, it has been suggested that microgravity may actually improve cognitive functions when taken out of a stress context that, instead, may represent the cause itself of cognitive impairment ( Wollseiffen et al., 2016 ).

Sleep disturbances

In the course of space missions, the achievement and maintenance of an adequate sleep quality is far from being an easy goal. Whether due to disturbances or its interruption, sleep alterations may in turn lead to tiredness, difficulties in maintaining the focus and, thus, to errors of different kind, which may result, in the worst case scenarios, to the extreme possibility of loss of life ( Buckey, 2006 ; Pandi-Perumal & Gonfalone, 2016 ).

Different factors may be involved, either individually or in combination, to sleep alterations, such as the uncomfortableness of sleeping bags, loud noises and different room temperatures ( Gundel et al., 1997 ; Stuster, 2000 ). The absence of gravity also seems to play an important role, as it may in particular shorten the duration of sleep ( Gonfalone, 2016 ).

In particular, recreational and mission-related activities tend to delay turning off the lights and going to bed, which could explain the delay in the onset of the sleep episode that was noted ( Dijk et al., 2001 ). In addition, a study of a group of astronauts in space over eight days showed an average of 4.6 awakenings per night and an average waking time during sleep of 6.5 minutes. The most frequent cause of these nocturnal awakenings was muscle stiffness as a result of trying to find a comfortable position in the sleeping bag ( Gundel et al., 1993 ). In parallel, a change in the structure of the cosmonauts' sleep was also observed, with changes in both REM sleep and the amount of slow-wave sleep ( Gundel et al., 1993 ).

In order to study the sleep-wake dynamics in a ground-based simulation of a mission to Mars, six individuals were isolated for 520 days. Most subjects experienced one or more problems, such as recurrent reductions in perceived sleep quality, interrupted sleep-wake periodicity, performance deficits associated with chronic partial sleep deprivation and increased sleep displacement in the daytime period ( Basner et al., 2013 ). These occurred at the start of the experiment and persisted throughout the duration of the simulation ( Basner et al., 2013 ). This reduction in sleep during space missions seems to be present even during a pre-flight training interval of 3 months, as revealed in another study of 64 astronauts ( Barger et al., 2014 ). Although derived from two studies only, these findings further suggest that maintaining good sleep patterns and quality is essential to prevent and/or reduce performance impairments.

In spite of chronic sleep deprivation, astronauts may frequently resort to the use of hypno-inducing drugs. In a report study of Barger et al. (2014) , about 75% of the crew members had taken a hypno-inducer, with drug take being reported on 52% of nights and the use of two doses of such drugs in around 17% of cases. The most frequently used medications were zolpidem and controlled-release zolpidem; others were temazepam, eszopiclone, melatonin and quetiapine fumarate. Furthermore, different drug combinations were reported, the most common being zolpidem and zaleplon and zolpidem and melatonin ( Barger et al., 2014 ). Another study looked at medication used during flight and found that 94% of astronauts were taking some medication, 45% for sleep disorders. In this case, the most frequently used sleep medications were temazepam (67%), triazolam (10%), flurazepam (7.5%), and zolpidem (10%) ( Putcha et al., 1999 ). In another research, the use of sleep medications was found to be about 10 times higher during spaceflight missions, 71% of the crew members in one study reported using medications to induce or maintain sleep and the most commonly were zolpidem, zaleplon, ot both ( Wotring, 2015 ).

However, hypnic dysregulation should not be considered separately from other medical issues that may arise in the course of space missions. Indeed, it may be subsequential to anxiety, depression and personality changes, interpersonal problems (i.e. intra-crew conflicts), and physiological reactions to a new environment, such as muscle atrophy, a reduced immune response and changes in regards to cardiovascular system. All those factors may indeed alter the sleep pattern, which may in turn aggravate psychological and physical stress in a vicious cycle ( Kanas & Manzey, 2008 ).

Visual phenomena

Visual disturbances may also represent a critical issue to space flights, and radiation exposure plays a key role in their genesis, likely along with the effects of intracerebral pressure changes. This is critical since visual impairment may compromise the fulfillment of the space missions goals and potentially lead to long-term consequences on the cosmonauts’ life quality upon their return to home. Despite playing a key role in the functioning of vision, the retina and the retinal vasculature have not been considerably studied in regards to radiation exposure during space travel. A recent paper would indicate that different types of examined radiation might cause significant differences in the responses of endothelial cells to such harmful factors. Indeed, low doses of 160 enhanced apoptosis in the endothelial cells of the retina, with the most significant changes observed following 0.1 Gy irradiation, whilst 160-induced apoptosis was found to be more frequent than apoptosis caused by protons ( Mao et al., 2018 ).

Moreover, during the Apollo, Skylab and MIR missions, astronauts observed flashes of light, of different shapes, moving across the visual field ( Sannita et al., 2006 ). Such flashes are more often present before sleep, predominantly white, with elongated shapes and often accompanied by a sense of movement perceived as lateral, diagonal or in-out ( Fuglesang et al., 2006 ). It has been suggested how these phosphenes can be a consequence of an alteration in perception caused by ionizing radiation on the eye ( Narici, 2008 ). In particular, temporarily increased biophoton emission has been proposed as a key process which may give an accurate description of the matter ( Bókkon, 2008 ). Indeed, the ionizing radiation impacting in the eye generates radicals, some of these generated in rod lipids undergo lipid peroxidation that leads to chemiluminescence and photon emission. At this point, the photon bleaches a nearby rhodopsin and the phototransduction cascade is initiated, which can lead then to the perception of flashes of light ( Bókkon, 2008 ; Narici et al., 2009 ), giving the impression that light is visible where it is not present and thus posing as a new potential hazard tied to space radiation. Nevertheless, whether this represents a reversible or persistent phenomenon is still an unsolved question, requiring future research. However, it should be mentioned that the effects of radiation exposure on sight are well documented, as they may even lead to impairing medical conditions such as posterior subcapsular cataract ( Khan et al., 2017 ).

Regardless, illusions and hallucinations also frequently appeared in some reports of space missions, possibly as a result of isolation or sensory deprivation ( Gushin et al., 1993 ).

Anorexia in space

Caloric intake may be lower than recommended in the course of space flights, thus leading to the so-called anorexia in space. Caloric deficits up to 1330 kcal per 70 kg astronaut per day may follow, with potential drops in the performances of the astronauts ( Da Silva et al., 2002 ). The causes of this phenomenon are likely related to the continuous light environment of space missions rather than to issues linked to the availability of food or energy expenditure ( Varma et al., 2000 ), with several neurochemical mediators (i.e. hormones and cytokines) involved ( Da Silva et al., 2002 ). The food intake of mice exposed to 24 hours of continuous light for 7 days was assessed and a significant reduction in meal numbers was found, resulting in increased concentrations of dopamine and serotonin in the ventromedial nucleus and lateral hypothalamic area, plasma cortisol and leptin, and decreased levels of insulin, tumour necrosis factor (TNF), oestradiol and testosterone. The results of this study make it possible to hypothezise an action of continuous light on the suprachiasmatic nucleus and ventromedial nucleus, resulting in endocrine and neurochemical changes ( Varma et al., 2000 ). Ionizing radiation may also play an important role in spatial anorexia by causing taste aversion and vomiting. Similarly, microgravity may be involved ( Da Silva et al., 2002 )

Nevertheless, it should be noted that current evidence suggests that anorexia in space is a reversible phenomenon, as cosmonauts’ body mass and caloric intake were comparable to those before the missions upon their return on Earth ( Da Silva et al., 2002 ).

Neuroanatomical correlates

Data gathered from studies using different neuroimaging techniques seem to suggest that different areas of the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) may be affected by the consequences of space travel ( table 2 ).

Neuroanatomical consequences of space travel

Some studies with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) revealed some significant changes in the neuroanatomical configuration of the brain and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) provoked by space flight. A narrowing of the central sulcus, an upward shift of the brain, narrowing of CSF spaces and optic-disk edema were found in post-flight scans of a small sample of astronauts ( Roberts et al., 2017 ). Further evidence derives from a functional MRI (fMRI) research involving a single cosmonaut over a period of 6 months subsequently to microgravity exposure. The authors reported significant changes in both vestibular and motor-related regions that, according to them, might underlie the alteration of the vestibular function and of the motor control skills after return on Earth ( Demertzi et al., 2016 ). Instead, a study employing quantitative MRI detected multiple grey and white matter alterations in a sample of 19 astronauts, such as thinning of the cerebral cortex of the right occipital lobe and of bilateral fusiform gyri, a decreased left thalamus size and an expansion of lateral ventricle ( Riascos et al., 2019 ). An increase in periventricular white matter hyperintensity was found in another research performed in a sample of 17 astronauts who had either taken part to a long-duration mission on ISS or a short-duration mission on the Space Shuttle ( Alperin et al., 2017 ). This finding was further linked to an expansion of ventricular CSF volume in the ISS group ( Alperin et al., 2017 ). More recently, an increase was found in summated brain and CSF volumes, a considerable deformation of the pituitary gland and an enhancement of aqueductal CSF hydrodynamics following long-term spaceflight ( Kramer et al., 2020 ). The cerebellum, along with cortical sensorimotor and somatosensory areas, as well as pathways related to the vestibular system, may also be subjected to significant changes in both their structural and functional component, mainly under the influence of microgravity, as proved in a recent research performed with the use of fMRI ( Buoite Stella et al., 2021 ).

Therefore, further studies with MRI or other imaging techniques carried out with larger samples are necessary to deepen these preliminary data that pose the crucial questions of the reversibility or not of the reported changes.

Conclusions

Space exploration was born as one of the most ground-breaking events that mark the history of the human species, that continues to this day to be a primary interest of the scientific community and beyond. Since the success of the launch of the first artificial object, the notorious V2 rocket, to reach outer space, the objectives of space missions have gradually begun to extend, asking the question of how far man is able to go. However, the development of increasingly refined technologies has revealed the risks that space travelers are forced to face and which, for a long time, have not received the right attention. Anecdotes, reports and scientific research have brought to light the dramatic burden on the mental well-being of space travellers, thus leading to a massive effort put in the selection and preparation of both astronauts and space missions and with the choice of specific countermeasures of psychological and/or psychiatric support. Nevertheless, attention should not be limited to the problems that have arisen during space missions, as the resumption of life on Earth may prove to be an equally arduous task. Over the years, it is likely that new aspects of medical interest on the matter will arise, a challenge that the scientific community must be ready to accept, for the success and safety of space travel.

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Space exploration pros and cons: Are space programs a waste of money?

Source: Image : ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA  

Space exploration is a hugely expensive affair. Should we spend money on space exploration when we have so many problems on planet Earth? We debate the pros and cons of space exploration and the reasons for investing in space agencies and programs. 

Should we spend money on space exploration?

The launch of SpaceX's Falcon Heavy rocket into has brought back media attention to space exploration . Elton Musk's private aerospace company is in the process of becoming a major player and a partner for many space programs. However, most of the efforts to discover whats out still depend mostly on public funding. 

Space exploration is costly, and many argue that in times of belt-tightening, we should focus on solving problems here on Earth, especially since the knowledge gained from space exploration has few immediate benefits. On the other hand, pronponents of space exploration argue that the knowledge to be gained is invaluable, and that it is in the very nature of humankind to explore. In addition, proponents of these programs argue that they have had significant benefits and resulted in the discovery or popularisation of many useful new technologies . Furthermore, space exploration could be the only way to escape  human extinction in case living conditions become unsustainable on Earth.

Today there are six big government space agencies with the capacity to create, launch and recover satellites: the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ), Russian Federal Space Agency ( Roscosmos or RFSA),the China National Space Administration ( CNSA ), the Indian Space Research Organisation ( ISRO ),  the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency ( JAXA ) and the European Space Agency ( ESA ) which integrates several European space agencies. Among them only NASA, ROSCOSMOS and CNSA have full capacity for human spaceflights and lunar soft-landing.  In addtition to these there are many other government space agencies with variable capabilities, most of them have only the capacity to operate satellites, a few of them also have launch capabilities and can operate extraterrestrial probes. Some of these space agencies are competing to be the first to send humans to Mars  and investigating if there is intelligent life on other planets .

These space programs and agencies are very costly. It is estimated that the total annual budget of space agencies is $41.8 billion. Among them the highest budgets correspond to:

• NASA (USA, $19.3 billion)
• Roscosmos (Russia, $5.6 billion) 
• ESA (Europe, $5.5 billion)
• CNES (France, $2.5 billion)
• JAXA (Japan, $2.5 billion)
• DLR (Germany, $2 billion)
• ASI (Italy, $1.8 billion)
• CNSA (China, $1.8 billion)
• ISRO (India, $1.2 billion)

Are all these costs justfified? Are there better ways to spend public funding? Should we mainly rely on private investors such as Elton Musk to promote space expliration? Will capitalistic incentives lead the way towards space exploration? In order to help make up your mind we outline next the most important benefits and problems of space exploration.

Space exploration pros and cons

• Knowledge generation.  Thanks to space exploration programs we are discovering many things that help us understand the universe. For instance, learning about planets, comets, stars, etc. can help us find solutions for some of the problems our civilization will face, such as overopulation  and the need to colonize other planets.
• Exploration and discovery are beneficial. Humans have always engaged in exploration to satisfy their sense of curiosity and look for opportunities. During the Age of Discoveries in the 15th and 16th centuries, countries such as Spain and Portugal heavily invested in expeditions, but thanks to them they became super-powers and gained many riches. Later, during the second age of explorations in the 18th and 19th century, the discoveries of pioneers such as Captain Cook or Livingstone heavily contributed to scientific discovery.
• Artificial satellites are crucial tools in modern society. For instance they are used for defence purposes and to fight against terrorism. Satellites help us also monitor the effects of global warming  and detect wildfires. Space agencies are necessary to operate satellites.
• Scientific advancement and by-products. Space exploration programs help introduce and test new technologies. Much of the research carried out to find solutions for space travel have applications elsewhere. For instance NASA research has contributed to develop velcro, fire-resistant materials, medical devices to relieve muscle and joint pain, new precise thermometers, artificial limbs, new air conditioning systems, land mine removal systems, improved radial tires, etc. 
• Space race may save humanity. Life on Earth may be threatened by climate change, pollution, depletion of resources, infectious diseases or nuclear war. Further, space exploration is necessary to find another planet on which humans could pursue their lives. Space programs help also find solutions to adapt human lives to the space or other planets.
• Space industry jobs. The space industry employs directly about 120,000 people in the OECD countries and 250,000 in Russia.
• Few direct benefits to space exploration . True, space technology has helped us launch satellites and introduce many useful products, but do we need to keep pushing forward? The direct intellectual gains from learning about far away planets or satellites such as the moon can hardly compensate the costs. Historical exploration on Earth allowed collect and trade resources. Bringing resources to Earth is not possible with the current technology.
• Space travel is hazardous.  Many lives have been lost in space expeditions. Space missions are very dangerous and can often cost lives and stress to the families of the astronauts or cosmonauts. Should highly qualified professionals and scientists risk their lives traveling outside Earth? 
• Failure is common. Many of the space exploration fail. Probes and satellites crash, exploration robots are lost, rockets blow up in the air, etc. It is frustrating to see how so much money and time are wasted in unsuccessful missions.
• Danger of establishing contact with alien life. One of the main goals of space exploration is to find out if there is life outside Earth. However, establishing contact with other civilizations can be extremely dangerous and could jeopardize human life. If we flag our existence to technologically advanced extraterrestrial civilizations, we may be somehow exposing ourselves to their attacks and invasion. The wanna-be colonizers could be colonized. Primitive life-forms such as virus and bacteria could also provoke epidemic diseases.
• New source of international tensions. The space race is not over. There is a growing international competition to be the first in fulfilling some challenges in space exploration. Sovereignty over other planets and satellites, and over their resources, will become a controversial issue. With the advancement of technology domination of the outer space may tip the balance of power on a bipolar or multipolar Earth.
• Priorities and opportunity costs.  Even if there are benefits to space exploration, spending so much money and effort in reaching other planets is highly questionable. That money and brain power could be used to solve other more important problems for us. For instance governments could invest much more to prevent global warming, reduce crime rates and find a cure for cancer or Alzheimer's Disease.

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Is Space Exploration Worth It

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Scientific advancements, economic benefits, inspiration and education.

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Argumentative Essay: Is Space Exploration Worth It?

Space, the final frontier. We are born with an elemental eagerness to make the unknown known, to discover the undiscovered. Since ancient times, we have ventured far and wide. That inexorable vigor has perhaps become humanity’s greatest virtue. And so then, the question is, are we done? We have explored the extremities of our planet, and space is mankind’s next giant leap. Therefore, we must wonder, is it worth it? Is exploring the infinite stretch of space worth our effort and our time?

Humans have had the fortunately unfortunate burst of technology, innovation and knowledge all in an incredibly short span of time. For thousands of years, we remained almost entirely primitive, and so, this dramatic shift in our way of life has not allowed our intellect to catch up to our achievements. We face the problems of today, with the judgment of our ancestors.

Keeping that in mind, we will attempt to arrive upon our conclusion by being as critical as possible, and taking into account both credits and benefits of space exploration, as well as its pitfalls and shortcomings. To do this, we will look at the issue through a multitude of lenses, including: socio-economic, scientific, environmental, and philosophical. Hopefully, after reading through this short essay, you will have learned something new, and perhaps have formulated a slightly different opinion of space, exploration, and the necessity to innovate in general.

Exploration has always been expensive. Space exploration is many folds more expensive. NASA, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, received about US $18 Billion in funding for the 2015 fiscal year. It used this to launch new space shuttles, research new technologies, send probes to Mars, and other space-related activities (FY 2015) . On the other hand, the military sector alone constituted of around $500 billion of the total budget, or 30x the total expenditure of the US into the development of space (Federal Budget). In total, the United States of America’s federal budget for the year of 2015 was $3.7 trillion dollars (Federal Budget). When compared to the national budget, NASA had a paltry 0.5% of total, while still achieving many incredible things.

Assigning a solid number on the economics may prove to be difficult, as such a number would be extremely difficult to quantify. And even if we could, it probably would not do us any good. That is why for the most part, it is easier to speak qualitatively, and reference past triumphs and defeats.

A database found on NASA’s websites titled Spinoffs, contains all of its innovation in various sectors as a direct result of space exploration. From water filters to memory foam, to solar panels and satellite television, NASA has had an unprecedented hand in shaping many aspects of our modern society without us even realizing. NASA also spends many millions of its budget to invest in smaller companies that provide them with new technology and research. There are detailed infographics available from NASA, that show exactly how much and where they have invested (Dunbar).

If we did have to put a number on it, a report from NASA’s administration calculated that space-related activities contributed around $180 billion to the American economy in 2005. That is to say, that every dollar invested in space, yielded $10 in return (Griffin).

Even Canada, with its meager and often invisible space program, is also reaping riveting benefits. According to Robert Thirsk, “Canadian taxpayers typically invest about $250 million per year into the space program, but… [see a return of] over $3 billion dollars a year of revenue.” He went on to talk about the intangibles, concepts such as national pride, inspiration, and the continuation of a legacy of brilliance.

On another note, the European Space Agency managed an incredible feat: they successfully landed a probe on an asteroid (“Rosetta”). Currently, NASA is also working on a project (dubbed Osiris) to send a probe to another near-Earth asteroid, and bring back samples. The samples of course will be used for further research, but what this entails is that without doubt, space agencies are making great strides in their endeavors (“Osiris”).

However irrelevant the asteroid landing may seem, if properly assessed, asteroids carry with them great fortunes. Precious metals such as gold and platinum sell for $50,000 per kilogram, and even a small asteroid could be worth up to $30 billion (Elvis). While the technology to actually mine an asteroid is a far off prospect, it will definitely be one of the many by-products of research and development into space.

Regardless, you may hold the opinion that there are bigger, more pressing issues that need our attention. And you would be correct! Problems such as world hunger, poverty, disease, our depleting sources of energy, and environmental decay are all, paradoxically, on scale much larger than space . In the beginning, it was stated that we have an archaic mindset while trying to tackle the ever-shifting paradigms of the new world. This has split most people into two groups: those who believe our problems will simply disappear with time, and those who believe our problems will disappear with time, but only if we ceaselessly – and carelessly erect constructs of cash to halt these problems in their wake.

However, as time has told, both these methods seem to have done little, as transparent darknesses akin to those mentioned above continue to creep up our tiny world. And so, we must adopt a new way of thinking, a new way of doing, if we are to stand a chance.

An article on Forbes highlighted a discussion with renowned astrophysicist Neil deGrasse Tyson . Part of the interview that particularly resonated well with us was when he said: “if you want to get people to build a boat, don’t drum up wood and supplies, teach them to yearn for the open sea,” which is a variation of a quote by another author. Essentially, Tyson is attempting to tell us that to fix our problems, to really fix our problems, we need to restructure our solutions from the ground up. In recent years, there has been a tendency to throw money wherever something we do not like shows up, expecting it to go away. But that simply does not work. What we need now is innovation. Innovation leads to inspiration which will ultimately lead to more innovation.

According to Tyson, investing into space exploration will lead to a “culture of innovation,” a phenomenon that he likens to those nameless yearners of the sea, who now possess both the resources and necessary drive to better their world. When the best scientists have the necessary resources to find ground breaking discoveries and create amazing new technology, the applications for said technology will surely be used for more than just some space probes and telescopes.

With the advent of the new and the amazing, enthusiasm will seep into the general public, and into the children of today who will be the leaders of tomorrow. More people will go into medicine and math, and even those who do not, will still have a culture of innovation ingrained in them. And when we have the best people working on problems that we did not even know existed, the outcome will be the solutions to our everyday problems .

Thus far, space is both viable and welcome, but before we get ahead of ourselves, the discussion of the particular nature of our travels needs to be catalogued, particularly the many trials and tribulations. Space exploration is not only expensive, but difficult; it is more challenging than the hardiest of our troubles. The colloquial phrase: “it’s not rocket science,” is no misnomer. Even if NASA and other space agencies have the necessary resources to fund their research, they will hit the next mantle head on. It is time we discuss the scientific and environmental lenses.

The best place to begin would be to explore the engineering technicalities. Space exploration has a multitude of issues in this area. The weight of the spacecraft and the cost of sending materials into space is astronomical; for each kilogram of payload and spacecraft itself, it costs $10,000 and $22 000, respectively (“Paving the Highway to Space”). The reusability, or lack thereof, also poses another obstacle. As of now, we have yet to create even one fully reusable space shuttle (“Reusability”), but it has the potential to reduce costs “[by] as much as a factor of a hundred.” (Musk)

On another front, we have made little progress on the medical side effects of having humans in space. Eventually, we will have to conduct long term experiments where the sheer distances between celestial bodies will become a clear issue. The moon at its closest is about 384,400 km away (“Earth’s Moon”), and everything else is millions or billions of kilometers from us. These distances obviously take long periods of time to traverse, implying either space crafts will need to become faster or people will need to be in space for extended periods of time. The latter will result in a host of medical and technical issues that we have yet to resolve:

Gamma radiation is not deflected by our kind and fluffy, atmosphere, resulting in increased risks of cancer and Alzheimer’s disease along with reduced cognitive abilities (Cherry et al). Additionally, gamma radiation in space can damage electronics over time leading to the failure of the computers used in the space craft (Fiore 1561-2).

The lack of gravity, or microgravity, is another potent problem. Microgravity is defined as a weak gravitational force. It may sound harmless, but human bodies have not evolved to be in zero gravity, so we cannot yet be present under the influence of vastly different gravitational forces. Blood in our legs will get redistributed to the head, blood volume will decrease by up to 10% within 24 hours, motion sickness will occur, muscles will atrophy, bone mass will decrease, and the immune system will become impaired. All increasingly bleak prospects for any future champions of space (Williams et al).

Due to the lack of progress on the medical effects of putting humans in a space environment, we only have methods of reducing the reducing the severity of these effects rather than fully preventing them. On top of that, these symptoms are from missions lasting less than one year long (Williams et al), meaning the side effects of long term exposure to a space environment is still unknown.

We must also look at the environmental effect that space exploration has on the ozone. To put it briefly, think of the ozone as the peel of an orange, and as the layer becomes feebler, consequently, it becomes more susceptible to damage. Since there are many future rocket launches planned – for longer durations of time, and with a greater frequency, a deeper understanding of the effect that rocket launches have is needed. Currently, only by a few hundredths of one percent, do global rocket launches deplete the ozone layer (Ross). However, this figure is expected to exacerbate with the increase in space exploration. A single radical (highly reactive trace-molecule) can decimate upwards of 10,000 ozone molecules (Ross).

Outside the Earth, just as intriguing a process is occurring: the orbiting of a copious amount of debris around Earth . The NASA Orbital Debris Program Office defines debris as “all man-made objects in orbit about the Earth, which no longer serve a useful purpose.” Examples of such, include: decrepit fragments of spacecraft, upper stages of launch vehicles, debris created as a result of explosions or collisions and solid rocket motor effluents.

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Later Soviet probes either hit the Moon or passed it and took photographs of the hidden far side, relaying them back to Earth. The first man to travel to space was Yuri Gagarin. History was made on April 12, 1961, when he successfully orbited the earth in the Votsok 1. His flight lasted one hour and 48 minutes and as he circled the earth, his speed was about 17,000 mph on the Votsok 1. Following this mission, Gagarin was killed in a test airplane crash . Neil Armstrong was the first person to ever land on the moon. Born in Wapakoneta, Ohio, he graduated from college in 1955 and joined the NASA team...

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Argumentative Essay On Space Exploration: Is It Worth The Money?

Type of paper: Argumentative Essay

Topic: Space , Exploration , World , Money , People , Human , Planet , Development

Published: 02/20/2023

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The inquisitive nature of human beings has led this species to solve innumerable mysteries and explore the Blue planet. The same intrusive nature has also propelled them to explore the space to find out new planets and stars. The persistent evolution and development of space technology have allowed man to discover and investigate the outer space and the inestimable celestial structures. Whereas the astronomers study the stars and the sky through their telescopes, the human spaceflight and unmanned robotic surveys are conducted to explore the space physically. However, a lot of money is spent on space exploration. While many people consider space exploration advantageous and potentially beneficial for the human development, there are others who oppose space exploration due to the high costs involved with no major benefits for mankind. Space exploration, as a matter of fact, is a waste of money and resources as they could be used for the improvement of peoples’ lives throughout the world given the current economic challenges. It is good to have an idealistic prospect for the future. However, it is extremely unwise and irrational to try to achieve such goals by putting the present at stake. Even in the contemporary times, out planet is challenged with significant issues including, famine, war, diseases, and poverty. In fact, it is extremely difficult for billions of people to live with full stomachs under shelters. Space exploration is undoubtedly a luxurious and lavish dream that is unaffordable for the majority of Earth’s population (Yang, 2011). Therefore, it can be justly argued that time and energy must not be wasted on gigantic projects like Mars Missions. Instead, human beings need to set new goals for improving the living standards of underprivileged and deprived people. After addressing the issues and problems of our planet, space can be explored with the available resources and capital. However, it is not a great idea to continue to initiate new space projects when a large number of people are suffering from pitiable conditions, diseases, and circumstances (Yang, 2011). It would be a true achievement to have a hunger-free, disease-free, and peaceful world. There is no doubt that satellite technology has profoundly benefitted the world. Nevertheless, it is important to understand the difference between space exploration and satellites launch into the Earth’s orbits. The life on Earth is not benefitted by sending missions into interstellar space for exploring stars and other planets. Furthermore, private companies launch satellites commercially as the profits facilitate them in the maintenance and development. Space exploration, in its truest sense, cannot be commercialized as it needs large subventions from the respective governments. For instance, “at the peak of the eighty-year race to the moon, NASA spent more money on space exploration than the federal government spent on education, health care, or international affairs” (McCurdy, 2011). It proves that it is better to spend money on people and improving their conditions. Money and resources spent on space exploration is a waste as they do not benefit a large number of people. Instead, these resources must be devoted to plans that carry more worth. For instance, the same money and funds could be utilized for renewable energy research, cancer research and research in several educational disciplines. Although such projects may result in several spin-off benefits, they would be handling and tackling real world problems. People who believe in spending money, time, and energy in space exploration assert that it is necessary for mankind to work towards the expansion of its horizons. Therefore, space exploration must be continued for proving man’s ability to excel and rise above. They claim that the world has changed absolutely with space exploitation. Broadcasting through satellites and communication has enabled people throughout the world to interact and interchange ideas. Man has started to understand the world better with space exploration. They also assume that without satellites, no one could be able to predict climate and conduct climate research. It is also asserted that space exploration has indirectly benefitted the world in various ways. Technological development such as creation of special suits (for firefighting, withstanding extreme conditions), understanding of aging process through zero-gravity effects, and the creation of fuel cells are all some indirect benefits derived from space exploration. According to such proponents of space exploration, spending money on space programs is a way to secure our planet’s future. Even though most of the mentioned arguments carry some weight, it still needs to be remembered that the space exploration is a desire that is not preferable over human needs. It is the high time “to look after our planet and combat the multitude of problems threatening our ecosystem: the disappearance of the rainforest, global warming, and the pollution of the oceans” (Meaney & Robinson, 2014) instead of wasting money on a hope to conquer other planets in the universe. Instead of focusing on the indirect benefits of space exploration, man needs to concentrate on the resolution of issues with the money wasted on launching space missions (Yang, 2011).

Donlan, J. E. (2009). Ordaining reality made easy: A guide for creating the future. Boca Raton, FL: Universal-. McCurdy, H. E. (2011). Space and the American imagination. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Meaney, S., & Robinson, T. (2014, November 8). Debate: Is space exploration a waste of resources? Retrieved March 02, 2016, from http://www.cherwell.org/comment/world/2014/11/07/debate-is-space-exploration-a-waste-of-resources Yang, U. (2011). The third world: Where is it?: But we have life and space!: Forgotten corners of the world. Central Milton Keynes: AuthorHouse.

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