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Air Pollution Control

Air pollution & its control, air pollution definition.

“Air Pollution is the release of pollutants such as gases, particles, biological molecules, etc. into the air that is harmful to human health and the environment.”

Air Pollution Diagram

Air pollution

Table of Contents

What is Air Pollution?

Types of air pollutants, primary pollutants, secondary pollutants, causes of air pollution.

Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically.

There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere. An increase or decrease in the composition of these gases is harmful to survival. This imbalance in the gaseous composition has resulted in an increase in earth’s temperature, which is known as global warming.

There are two types of air pollutants:

The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.

The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a secondary pollutant.

Also Read:  Water Pollution

Following are the important causes of air pollution:

Burning of Fossil Fuels

The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.

Automobiles

The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases among individuals.

Agricultural Activities

Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and contaminate it.

Factories and Industries

Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds, hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.

Mining Activities

In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air, but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.

Domestic Sources

The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.

Effects of Air Pollution

The hazardous effects of air pollution on the environment include:

Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every year due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution.

Global Warming

Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This increase in earth’s temperature is known as global warming . This has resulted in the melting of glaciers and an increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.

The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and plant life.

Ozone Layer Depletion

The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin diseases and eye problems among individuals. Also Read:  Ozone Layer Depletion

Effect on Animals

The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them stray and has also led to the extinction of a large number of animal species.

Following are the measures one should adopt, to control air pollution:

Avoid Using Vehicles

People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer public modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents pollution, but also conserves energy.

Energy Conservation

A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment at the individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such as CFLs also controls pollution to a greater level.

Use of Clean Energy Resources

The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level. Various countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step towards a cleaner environment.

Other air pollution control measures include:

  • By minimising and reducing the use of fire and fire products.
  • Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the pollutants can be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For example, if the reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw materials can be substituted with other less polluting materials.
  • Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of India, petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed Natural Gas fueled vehicles. These are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating with ideal emission engines.
  • Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of air, most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are still a lot of vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
  • Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and maintain existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is minimised.
  • Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can have process control equipment to control the pollution.
  • A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
  • The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree plantation. Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally, planting trees in areas of high pollution levels will be extremely effective.

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Air Pollution: Everything You Need to Know

How smog, soot, greenhouse gases, and other top air pollutants are affecting the planet—and your health.

Smoke blows out of two tall industrial stacks

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What Is Air Pollution?

What causes air pollution, effects of air pollution, air pollution in the united states, air pollution and environmental justice, controlling air pollution, how to help reduce air pollution, how to protect your health.

Air pollution  refers to the release of pollutants into the air—pollutants that are detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole. According to the  World Health Organization (WHO) , each year, indoor and outdoor air pollution is responsible for nearly seven million deaths around the globe. Ninety-nine percent of human beings currently breathe air that exceeds the WHO’s guideline limits for pollutants, with those living in low- and middle-income countries suffering the most. In the United States, the  Clean Air Act , established in 1970, authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to safeguard public health by regulating the emissions of these harmful air pollutants.

“Most air pollution comes from energy use and production,” says  John Walke , director of the Clean Air team at NRDC. Driving a car on gasoline, heating a home with oil, running a power plant on  fracked gas : In each case, a fossil fuel is burned and harmful chemicals and gases are released into the air.

“We’ve made progress over the last 50 years in improving air quality in the United States, thanks to the Clean Air Act. But climate change will make it harder in the future to meet pollution standards, which are designed to  protect health ,” says Walke.

Air pollution is now the world’s fourth-largest risk factor for early death. According to the 2020  State of Global Air  report —which summarizes the latest scientific understanding of air pollution around the world—4.5 million deaths were linked to outdoor air pollution exposures in 2019, and another 2.2 million deaths were caused by indoor air pollution. The world’s most populous countries, China and India, continue to bear the highest burdens of disease.

“Despite improvements in reducing global average mortality rates from air pollution, this report also serves as a sobering reminder that the climate crisis threatens to worsen air pollution problems significantly,” explains  Vijay Limaye , senior scientist in NRDC’s Science Office. Smog, for instance, is intensified by increased heat, forming when the weather is warmer and there’s more ultraviolet radiation. In addition, climate change increases the production of allergenic air pollutants, including mold (thanks to damp conditions caused by extreme weather and increased flooding) and pollen (due to a longer pollen season). “Climate change–fueled droughts and dry conditions are also setting the stage for dangerous wildfires,” adds Limaye. “ Wildfire smoke can linger for days and pollute the air with particulate matter hundreds of miles downwind.”

The effects of air pollution on the human body vary, depending on the type of pollutant, the length and level of exposure, and other factors, including a person’s individual health risks and the cumulative impacts of multiple pollutants or stressors.

Smog and soot

These are the two most prevalent types of air pollution. Smog (sometimes referred to as ground-level ozone) occurs when emissions from combusting fossil fuels react with sunlight. Soot—a type of  particulate matter —is made up of tiny particles of chemicals, soil, smoke, dust, or allergens that are carried in the air. The sources of smog and soot are similar. “Both come from cars and trucks, factories, power plants, incinerators, engines, generally anything that combusts fossil fuels such as coal, gasoline, or natural gas,” Walke says.

Smog can irritate the eyes and throat and also damage the lungs, especially those of children, senior citizens, and people who work or exercise outdoors. It’s even worse for people who have asthma or allergies; these extra pollutants can intensify their symptoms and trigger asthma attacks. The tiniest airborne particles in soot are especially dangerous because they can penetrate the lungs and bloodstream and worsen bronchitis, lead to heart attacks, and even hasten death. In  2020, a report from Harvard’s T.H. Chan School of Public Health showed that COVID-19 mortality rates were higher in areas with more particulate matter pollution than in areas with even slightly less, showing a correlation between the virus’s deadliness and long-term exposure to air pollution. 

These findings also illuminate an important  environmental justice issue . Because highways and polluting facilities have historically been sited in or next to low-income neighborhoods and communities of color, the negative effects of this pollution have been  disproportionately experienced by the people who live in these communities.

Hazardous air pollutants

A number of air pollutants pose severe health risks and can sometimes be fatal, even in small amounts. Almost 200 of them are regulated by law; some of the most common are mercury,  lead , dioxins, and benzene. “These are also most often emitted during gas or coal combustion, incineration, or—in the case of benzene—found in gasoline,” Walke says. Benzene, classified as a carcinogen by the EPA, can cause eye, skin, and lung irritation in the short term and blood disorders in the long term. Dioxins, more typically found in food but also present in small amounts in the air, is another carcinogen that can affect the liver in the short term and harm the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems, as well as reproductive functions.  Mercury  attacks the central nervous system. In large amounts, lead can damage children’s brains and kidneys, and even minimal exposure can affect children’s IQ and ability to learn.

Another category of toxic compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are by-products of traffic exhaust and wildfire smoke. In large amounts, they have been linked to eye and lung irritation, blood and liver issues, and even cancer.  In one study , the children of mothers exposed to PAHs during pregnancy showed slower brain-processing speeds and more pronounced symptoms of ADHD.

Greenhouse gases

While these climate pollutants don’t have the direct or immediate impacts on the human body associated with other air pollutants, like smog or hazardous chemicals, they are still harmful to our health. By trapping the earth’s heat in the atmosphere, greenhouse gases lead to warmer temperatures, which in turn lead to the hallmarks of climate change: rising sea levels, more extreme weather, heat-related deaths, and the increased transmission of infectious diseases. In 2021, carbon dioxide accounted for roughly 79 percent of the country’s total greenhouse gas emissions, and methane made up more than 11 percent. “Carbon dioxide comes from combusting fossil fuels, and methane comes from natural and industrial sources, including large amounts that are released during oil and gas drilling,” Walke says. “We emit far larger amounts of carbon dioxide, but methane is significantly more potent, so it’s also very destructive.” 

Another class of greenhouse gases,  hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) , are thousands of times more powerful than carbon dioxide in their ability to trap heat. In October 2016, more than 140 countries signed the Kigali Agreement to reduce the use of these chemicals—which are found in air conditioners and refrigerators—and develop greener alternatives over time. (The United States officially signed onto the  Kigali Agreement in 2022.)

Pollen and mold

Mold and allergens from trees, weeds, and grass are also carried in the air, are exacerbated by climate change, and can be hazardous to health. Though they aren’t regulated, they can be considered a form of air pollution. “When homes, schools, or businesses get water damage, mold can grow and produce allergenic airborne pollutants,” says Kim Knowlton, professor of environmental health sciences at Columbia University and a former NRDC scientist. “ Mold exposure can precipitate asthma attacks  or an allergic response, and some molds can even produce toxins that would be dangerous for anyone to inhale.”

Pollen allergies are worsening  because of climate change . “Lab and field studies are showing that pollen-producing plants—especially ragweed—grow larger and produce more pollen when you increase the amount of carbon dioxide that they grow in,” Knowlton says. “Climate change also extends the pollen production season, and some studies are beginning to suggest that ragweed pollen itself might be becoming a more potent allergen.” If so, more people will suffer runny noses, fevers, itchy eyes, and other symptoms. “And for people with allergies and asthma, pollen peaks can precipitate asthma attacks, which are far more serious and can be life-threatening.”

essay on air pollution causes effects and control

More than one in three U.S. residents—120 million people—live in counties with unhealthy levels of air pollution, according to the  2023  State of the Air  report by the American Lung Association (ALA). Since the annual report was first published, in 2000, its findings have shown how the Clean Air Act has been able to reduce harmful emissions from transportation, power plants, and manufacturing.

Recent findings, however, reflect how climate change–fueled wildfires and extreme heat are adding to the challenges of protecting public health. The latest report—which focuses on ozone, year-round particle pollution, and short-term particle pollution—also finds that people of color are 61 percent more likely than white people to live in a county with a failing grade in at least one of those categories, and three times more likely to live in a county that fails in all three.

In rankings for each of the three pollution categories covered by the ALA report, California cities occupy the top three slots (i.e., were highest in pollution), despite progress that the Golden State has made in reducing air pollution emissions in the past half century. At the other end of the spectrum, these cities consistently rank among the country’s best for air quality: Burlington, Vermont; Honolulu; and Wilmington, North Carolina. 

No one wants to live next door to an incinerator, oil refinery, port, toxic waste dump, or other polluting site. Yet millions of people around the world do, and this puts them at a much higher risk for respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, neurological damage, cancer, and death. In the United States, people of color are 1.5 times more likely than whites to live in areas with poor air quality, according to the ALA.

Historically, racist zoning policies and discriminatory lending practices known as  redlining  have combined to keep polluting industries and car-choked highways away from white neighborhoods and have turned communities of color—especially low-income and working-class communities of color—into sacrifice zones, where residents are forced to breathe dirty air and suffer the many health problems associated with it. In addition to the increased health risks that come from living in such places, the polluted air can economically harm residents in the form of missed workdays and higher medical costs.

Environmental racism isn't limited to cities and industrial areas. Outdoor laborers, including the estimated three million migrant and seasonal farmworkers in the United States, are among the most vulnerable to air pollution—and they’re also among the least equipped, politically, to pressure employers and lawmakers to affirm their right to breathe clean air.

Recently,  cumulative impact mapping , which uses data on environmental conditions and demographics, has been able to show how some communities are overburdened with layers of issues, like high levels of poverty, unemployment, and pollution. Tools like the  Environmental Justice Screening Method  and the EPA’s  EJScreen  provide evidence of what many environmental justice communities have been explaining for decades: that we need land use and public health reforms to ensure that vulnerable areas are not overburdened and that the people who need resources the most are receiving them.

In the United States, the  Clean Air Act  has been a crucial tool for reducing air pollution since its passage in 1970, although fossil fuel interests aided by industry-friendly lawmakers have frequently attempted to  weaken its many protections. Ensuring that this bedrock environmental law remains intact and properly enforced will always be key to maintaining and improving our air quality.

But the best, most effective way to control air pollution is to speed up our transition to cleaner fuels and industrial processes. By switching over to renewable energy sources (such as wind and solar power), maximizing fuel efficiency in our vehicles, and replacing more and more of our gasoline-powered cars and trucks with electric versions, we'll be limiting air pollution at its source while also curbing the global warming that heightens so many of its worst health impacts.

And what about the economic costs of controlling air pollution? According to a report on the Clean Air Act commissioned by NRDC, the annual  benefits of cleaner air  are up to 32 times greater than the cost of clean air regulations. Those benefits include up to 370,000 avoided premature deaths, 189,000 fewer hospital admissions for cardiac and respiratory illnesses, and net economic benefits of up to $3.8 trillion for the U.S. economy every year.

“The less gasoline we burn, the better we’re doing to reduce air pollution and the harmful effects of climate change,” Walke explains. “Make good choices about transportation. When you can, ride a bike, walk, or take public transportation. For driving, choose a car that gets better miles per gallon of gas or  buy an electric car .” You can also investigate your power provider options—you may be able to request that your electricity be supplied by wind or solar. Buying your food locally cuts down on the fossil fuels burned in trucking or flying food in from across the world. And most important: “Support leaders who push for clean air and water and responsible steps on climate change,” Walke says.

  • “When you see in the news or hear on the weather report that pollution levels are high, it may be useful to limit the time when children go outside or you go for a jog,” Walke says. Generally, ozone levels tend to be lower in the morning.
  • If you exercise outside, stay as far as you can from heavily trafficked roads. Then shower and wash your clothes to remove fine particles.
  • The air may look clear, but that doesn’t mean it’s pollution free. Utilize tools like the EPA’s air pollution monitor,  AirNow , to get the latest conditions. If the air quality is bad, stay inside with the windows closed.
  • If you live or work in an area that’s prone to wildfires,  stay away from the harmful smoke  as much as you’re able. Consider keeping a small stock of masks to wear when conditions are poor. The most ideal masks for smoke particles will be labelled “NIOSH” (which stands for National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health) and have either “N95” or “P100” printed on it.
  • If you’re using an air conditioner while outdoor pollution conditions are bad, use the recirculating setting to limit the amount of polluted air that gets inside. 

This story was originally published on November 1, 2016, and has been updated with new information and links.

This NRDC.org story is available for online republication by news media outlets or nonprofits under these conditions: The writer(s) must be credited with a byline; you must note prominently that the story was originally published by NRDC.org and link to the original; the story cannot be edited (beyond simple things such as grammar); you can’t resell the story in any form or grant republishing rights to other outlets; you can’t republish our material wholesale or automatically—you need to select stories individually; you can’t republish the photos or graphics on our site without specific permission; you should drop us a note to let us know when you’ve used one of our stories.

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A business journal from the Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania

The Overlooked Causes of Air Pollution

February 19, 2024 • 4 min read.

Short bursts of air pollution, often caused by indoor cooking, are being neglected by existing regulations, according to research by Wharton’s Susanna Berkouwer.

Smoggy view of the skyline in Nairobi, Kenya to illustrate the overlooked causes of air pollution

Air pollution, identified by the World Health Organization as the foremost environmental threat to human health, claims between 7 and 9 million lives annually, representing 10%–15% of global deaths.   In response to this critical issue,   Wharton professor of business economics and public policy  Susanna Berkouwer has studied the nuanced causes of air pollution, focusing on the crucial distinctions between short-term exposure peaks and continuous sustained exposure.

“High levels of air pollution significantly decrease life expectancy, but existing regulations primarily focus on the annual or daily averages of pollution, overlooking short-term fluctuations that many people experience. Short bursts of pollution are often caused by indoor cooking,” said Berkouwer.

Their paper , co-authored with the University of Chicago’s Joshua Dean,   argues that shedding light on these nuances is crucial for creating effective environmental regulations to address this global health crisis. Should policies focus on how everyday individuals can reduce peak pollution, or should they address broader, ambient air quality concerns?

“Improved cookstoves have a huge impact in that short window of cooking – but not on the 24-hour average.” — Susanna Berkouwer

Short- and Long-term Air Pollution Impact Your Health Differently

The researchers conducted a field study in Nairobi, Kenya, examining the impact of improved cookstove adoption on pollution and health.   Through randomized subsidies and credit access, they generated random variation in the adoption of improved cookstoves and followed up with participants 3.5 years later, employing high-frequency monitoring techniques and detailed health measurements.

To measure air pollution, each participant in the study wore a backpack with devices that recorded tiny particles and carbon monoxide in the air every minute for 48 hours.   The study found that the improved stove greatly reduced peak cooking emissions by 42%, significantly improving air quality during cooking.   There was also a substantial decrease in average exposure to pollution during cooking in the treatment group using improved stoves compared to the control group (50 micrograms per cubic meter vs. 33 micrograms).

However, the overall impact on daily pollution exposure was much less pronounced, due to the limited time people spent cooking each day (approximately 9% of the time).   “Improved cookstoves have a huge impact in that short window of cooking – but not on the 24-hour average,” Berkouwer said.

When it comes to health impacts, the improved stove led to a statistically significant decrease (0.24 standard deviation) in self-reported respiratory symptoms, including sore throat, headache, cough, and runny nose.   These improvements were not consistently reflected in more clinical health measurements like blood pressure and oxygen levels.

“We find that addressing the short-term peaks really helps resolve the kind of symptoms you’d get if you spend time around a campfire. But we don’t see any impact on longer-term medical diagnoses like pneumonia,” said Berkouwer.

“Providing improved stoves for free would be a considerably cheaper way to reduce carbon emissions than almost any other technology available today.” — Susanna Berkouwer

Climate Policy Needs to Address Diverse Causes of Air Pollution

The results have important policy implications, as they underscore the need for nuanced measures to address the diverse causes of air pollution.   While individual efforts, such as using improved stoves, may offer modest health benefits in the short term, the research suggests that government regulations targeting broader environmental factors could yield more substantial and enduring health improvements. “You might need government intervention to address the ambient pollution — it could be regulating emissions from cars or coal-fired power plants,” Berkouwer said.

Given that billions of people living in cities, especially in poorer countries, face daily exposure to high pollution levels, the study’s implications are global.   More than 90% of pollution-related deaths occur in low- and middle-income countries, affecting around 4 billion people who lack access to improved cookstoves, resulting in sporadic bursts of high pollution.

Additionally, the study is relevant to international development and climate policy, in terms of the impact of subsidies on improved cookstove usage. Offering subsidies between $30–$40 resulted in a 72 percentage point-higher ownership rate after 3.5 years.   Combining that with the findings on reduced emissions, the study estimates that providing improved stoves for free would cost around $4.90 for every ton of carbon dioxide reduced — considerably lower than many other available methods.

People using these improved stoves in urban areas also continue to save money on charcoal, about $86 per year, suggesting that investing in initiatives like improved cookstoves can be an effective and economical strategy for wealthier countries and international organizations to contribute to carbon reduction efforts.   “There’s huge financial benefits to be had,” said Berkouwer. “Providing improved stoves for free would be a considerably cheaper way to reduce carbon emissions than almost any other technology available today.”

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4 Causes and Effects of Air Pollution

4 Causes and Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the air, which can be harmful and impose significant health risks to the population, including increased chances of coronary and respiratory diseases, as well as preliminary deaths. Made up of chemicals and pollutant particles, air pollution is one of the biggest environmental problems of our lifetime . Read on to learn about the major causes and effects of air pollution. 

Sources of Air Pollution

1. burning fossil fuels.

The biggest contributors of air pollution are from industry sources and power plants to generate power, as well as fossil fuel motor vehicles. The continuous burning of fossil fuels releases air pollutants, emissions and chemicals into the air and atmosphere. 

In 2020, the Environmental Protection Agency reported that about 68 million tons of air pollution were emitted into the atmosphere in the US, contributing to the “formation of ozone and particles, the deposition of acids, and visibility impairment.”

The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates around 91% of the world’s population lives in places where air quality levels exceed limits. Developing and low-income countries experienced the greatest impacts from outdoor air pollution, particularly in the Western Pacific and South-East Asia regions. 

Climate change has an interrelated relationship with the environment and air pollution. As more air pollutants and greenhouse gases are released, this alters the energy balance between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface , which leads to global warming. The global temperature increase in turns raises the production of allergenic air pollutants such as mold and extends pollen seasons. 

2. Ozone and Smog

Ozone is a gas that when it forms air pollution and reaches too close to the ground, it significantly reduces visibility. We call this smog. This form of air pollution occurs when sunlight reacts with nitrogen oxides released from car exhausts and coal power plants. The ozone typically forms a protective layer in the atmosphere to protect the population from ultraviolet radiation (UV), but as it transforms into smog, it is harmful to human health and poses higher risks of respiratory illnesses like asthma and lung cancer. 

3. Weather Conditions

Air pollution and poor air quality can be attributed to changing weather conditions. For example, dust storms in China would carry clouds of industrial pollutants and particulate pollution across the Gobi desert into neighbouring countries such as Korea and Japan during spring season. Likewise during periods of high air pressure, air becomes stagnant and pollutants are more concentrated over certain areas. 

4. Heatwaves and Wildfires

Heatwaves not only lead to an increase of temperature, but are some of the causes and effects of air pollution. Hotter, stagnant air during a heat wave increases the concentration of particle pollutants. Extreme heat wave events also have higher risks of large-scale wildfires, which in turn, releases more carbon emissions, smog and pollutants into the air. 

You might also like: 15 Most Polluted Cities in the World

Effects of Air Pollution 

Air pollution contributes to the death of 5 million every year and about 6% of the global population, according to Our World in Data . The lethal combination of outdoor air pollution and toxic emissions from burning fossil fuel has been one of the leading causes of chronic and often terminal health issues including heart disease, stroke, lung cancer, and lower respiratory infections. 

The WHO estimates that nine out of 10 people breathe air that contains high levels of pollutants. In 2017, close to 15% of population deaths in low income countries like South and East Asia are attributed to air pollution, while the higher income countries experience only about 2%. 

The drastic difference in mortality numbers can be linked to legislations such as the Clean Air Act implemented by high-income countries like the US. Such legislations usually establishes national air quality standards and regulations on hazardous air pollutants. The UK in particular, saw a sharp 60% decline in air pollutant emissions between the 1970 and 2016. 

The environmental effects of air pollution are also vast, ranging from acid rain to contributing to birth defects, reproductive failure, and diseases in wildlife animals. Agriculture is also a victim of air pollution as increased pollutants can affect crop and forest yields, reduce growth  and increased plant susceptibility to disease from increased UV radiation caused by ozone depletion.

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, air pollution has once again returned to the spotlight in relation to its role in transmitting virus molecules. Preliminary studies have identified a positive correlation between COVID-19-related mortalities and air pollution. China, being one of the most polluted countries in the world, can potentially link its high death toll during the pandemic to its poor air quality. Although, more research needs to be conducted to make any substantive correlation.

You might also like: History of Air Pollution: Have We Reached the Point of No Return?

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Jamison DT, Breman JG, Measham AR, et al., editors. Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 2nd edition. Washington (DC): The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank; 2006. Co-published by Oxford University Press, New York.

Cover of Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries

Disease Control Priorities in Developing Countries. 2nd edition.

Chapter 43 air and water pollution: burden and strategies for control.

Tord Kjellstrom , Madhumita Lodh , Tony McMichael , Geetha Ranmuthugala , Rupendra Shrestha , and Sally Kingsland .

Image ch43fu1.jpg

Environmental pollution has many facets, and the resultant health risks include diseases in almost all organ systems. Thus, a chapter on air and water pollution control links with chapters on, for instance, diarrheal diseases ( chapter 19 ), respiratory diseases in children and adults ( chapters 25 and 35 ), cancers ( chapter 29 ), neurological disorders ( chapter 32 ), and cardiovascular disease ( chapter 33 ), as well as with a number of chapters dealing with health care issues.

  • Nature, Causes, and Burden of Air and Water Pollution

Each pollutant has its own health risk profile, which makes summarizing all relevant information into a short chapter difficult. Nevertheless, public health practitioners and decision makers in developing countries need to be aware of the potential health risks caused by air and water pollution and to know where to find the more detailed information required to handle a specific situation. This chapter will not repeat the discussion about indoor air pollution caused by biomass burning ( chapter 42 ) and water pollution caused by poor sanitation at the household level ( chapter 41 ), but it will focus on the problems caused by air and water pollution at the community, country, and global levels.

Estimates indicate that the proportion of the global burden of disease associated with environmental pollution hazards ranges from 23 percent ( WHO-1997 ) to 30 percent ( Smith, Corvalan, and Kjellstrom 1999 ). These estimates include infectious diseases related to drinking water, sanitation, and food hygiene; respiratory diseases related to severe indoor air pollution from biomass burning; and vectorborne diseases with a major environmental component, such as malaria. These three types of diseases each contribute approximately 6 percent to the updated estimate of the global burden of disease ( WHO 2002 ).

As the World Health Organization (WHO) points out, outdoor air pollution contributes as much as 0.6 to 1.4 percent of the burden of disease in developing regions, and other pollution, such as lead in water, air, and soil, may contribute 0.9 percent ( WHO 2002 ). These numbers may look small, but the contribution from most risk factors other than the "top 10" is within the 0.5 to 1.0 percent range ( WHO 2002 ).

Because of space limitations, this chapter can give only selected examples of air and water pollution health concerns. Other information sources on environmental health include Yassi and others (2001) and the Web sites of or major reference works by WHO, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), Division of Technology, Industry, and Economics ( http://www.uneptie.org/ ); the International Labour Organization (ILO), the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO; http://www.unido.org/ ), and other relevant agencies.

Table 43.1 indicates some of the industrial sectors that can pose significant environmental and occupational health risks to populations in developing countries. Clearly, disease control measures for people working in or living around a smelter may be quite different from those for people living near a tannery or a brewery. For detailed information about industry-specific pollution control methods, see the Web sites of industry sector organizations, relevant international trade union organizations, and the organizations listed above.

Table 43.1. Selected Industrial Sectors and Their Contribution to Air and Water Pollution and to Workplace Hazards.

Selected Industrial Sectors and Their Contribution to Air and Water Pollution and to Workplace Hazards.

Air Pollution

Air pollutants are usually classified into suspended particulate matter (PM) (dusts, fumes, mists, and smokes); gaseous pollutants (gases and vapors); and odors.

Suspended PM can be categorized according to total suspended particles: the finer fraction, PM 10 , which can reach the alveoli, and the most hazardous, PM 2.5 (median aerodynamic diameters of less than 10.0 microns and 2.5 microns, respectively). Much of the secondary pollutants PM 2.5 consists of created by the condensation of gaseous pollutants—for example, sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ). Types of suspended PM include diesel exhaust particles; coal fly ash; wood smoke; mineral dusts, such as coal, asbestos, limestone, and cement; metal dusts and fumes; acid mists (for example, sulfuric acid); and pesticide mists.

Gaseous pollutants include sulfur compounds such as SO 2 and sulfur trioxide; carbon monoxide; nitrogen compounds such as nitric oxide, NO 2 , and ammonia; organic compounds such as hydrocarbons; volatile organic compounds; polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and halogen derivatives such as aldehydes; and odorous substances. Volatile organic compounds are released from burning fuel (gasoline, oil, coal, wood, charcoal, natural gas, and so on); solvents; paints; glues; and other products commonly used at work or at home. Volatile organic compounds include such chemicals as benzene, toluene, methylene chloride, and methyl chloroform. Emissions of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons react with sunlight to eventually form another secondary pollutant, ozone, at ground level. Ozone at this level creates health concerns, unlike ozone in the upper atmosphere, which occurs naturally and protects life by filtering out ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Sources of Outdoor Air Pollution

Outdoor air pollution is caused mainly by the combustion of petroleum products or coal by motor vehicles, industry, and power stations. In some countries, the combustion of wood or agricultural waste is another major source. Pollution can also originate from industrial processes that involve dust formation (for example, from cement factories and metal smelters) or gas releases (for instance, from chemicals production). Indoor sources also contribute to outdoor air pollution, and in heavily populated areas, the contribution from indoor sources can create extremely high levels of outdoor air pollution.

Motor vehicles emit PM, nitric oxide and NO 2 (together referred to as NO x ), carbon monoxide, organic compounds, and lead. Lead is a gasoline additive that has been phased out in industrial countries, but some developing countries still use leaded gasoline. Mandating the use of lead-free gasoline is an important intervention in relation to health. It eliminates vehicle-related lead pollution and permits the use of catalytic converters, which reduce emissions of other pollutants.

Catastrophic emissions of organic chemicals, as occurred in Bhopal, India, in 1984 ( box 43.1 ), can also have major health consequences ( McGranahan and Murray 2003 ; WHO 1999 ).

The Bhopal Catastrophe. The Bhopal plant, owned by the Union Carbide Corporation, produced methyl isocyanate, an intermediate in the production of the insecticide carbaryl. On December 2, 1984, a 150,000-gallon storage tank containing methyl isocyanate (more...)

Another type of air pollution that can have disastrous consequences is radioactive pollution from a malfunctioning nuclear power station, as occurred in Chernobyl in 1986 ( WHO 1996 ). Radioactive isotopes emitted from the burning reactor spread over large areas of what are now the countries of Belarus, the Russian Federation, and Ukraine, causing thousands of cases of thyroid cancer in children and threatening to cause many cancer cases in later decades.

Exposure to Air Pollutants

The extent of the health effects of air pollution depends on actual exposure. Total daily exposure is determined by people's time and activity patterns, and it combines indoor and outdoor exposures. Young children and elderly people may travel less during the day than working adults, and their exposure may therefore be closely correlated with air pollution levels in their homes. Children are particularly vulnerable to environmental toxicants because of their possibly greater relative exposure and the effects on their growth and physiological development.

Meteorological factors, such as wind speed and direction, are usually the strongest determinants of variations in air pollution, along with topography and temperature inversions. Therefore, weather reports can be a guide to likely air pollution levels on a specific day.

Workplace air is another important source of air pollution exposure ( chapter 60 ). Resource extraction and processing industries, which are common in developing countries, emit dust or hazardous fumes at the worksite ( table 43.1 ). Such industries include coalmining, mineral mining, quarrying, and cement production. Developed countries have shifted much of their hazardous production to developing countries ( LaDou 1992 ). This shift creates jobs in the developing countries, but at the price of exposure to air pollution resulting from outdated technology. In addition, specific hazardous compounds, such as asbestos, have been banned in developed countries ( Kazan-Allen 2004 ), but their use may still be common in developing countries.

Impacts on Health

Epidemiological analysis is needed to quantify the health impact in an exposed population. The major pollutants emitted by combustion have all been associated with increased respiratory and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality ( Brunekreef and Holgate 2002 ). The most famous disease outbreak of this type occurred in London in 1952 (U.K. Ministry of Health 1954 ), when 4,000 people died prematurely in a single week because of severe air pollution, followed by another 8,000 deaths during the next few months ( Bell and Davis 2001 ).

In the 1970s and 1980s, new statistical methods and improved computer technology allowed investigators to study mortality increases at much lower concentrations of pollutants. A key question is the extent to which life has been shortened. Early loss of life in elderly people, who would have died soon regardless of the air pollution, has been labeled mortality displacement, because it contributes little to the overall burden of disease ( McMichael and others 1998 ).

Long-term studies have documented the increased cardiovascular and respiratory mortality associated with exposure to PM ( Dockery and others 1993 ; Pope and others 1995 ). A 16-year follow-up of a cohort of 500,000 Americans living in different cities found that the associations were strongest with PM 2.5 and also established an association with lung cancer mortality ( Pope and others 2002 ). Another approach is ecological studies of small areas based on census data, air pollution information, and health events data ( Scoggins and others 2004 ), with adjustments for potential confounding factors, including socioeconomic status. Such studies indicate that the mortality increase for every 10 micrograms per cubic meter(μg per m 3 ) of PM 2.5 ranges from 4 to 8 percent for cities in developed countries where average annual PM 2.5 levels are 10 to 30 μg/m 3 . Many urban areas of developing countries have similar or greater levels of air pollution.

The major urban air pollutants can also give rise to significant respiratory morbidity ( WHO 2000 ). For instance, Romieu and others (1996) report an exacerbation of asthma among children in Mexico City, and Xu and Wang (1993) note an increased risk of respiratory symptoms in middle-aged non-smokers in Beijing.

In relation to the very young, Wang and others (1997) find that PM exposure, SO 2 exposure, or both increased the risk of low birthweight in Beijing, and Pereira and others (1998) find that air pollution increased intrauterine mortality in São Paulo.

Other effects of ambient air pollution are postneonatal mortality and mortality caused by acute respiratory infections, as well as effects on children's lung function, cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions in the elderly, and markers for functional damage of the heart muscle ( WHO 2000 ). Asthma is another disease that researchers have linked to urban air pollution ( McConnell and others 2002 ; Rios and others 2004 ). Ozone exposure as a trigger of asthma attacks is of particular concern. The mechanism behind an air pollution and asthma link is not fully known, but early childhood NO 2 exposure may be important (see, for example, Ponsonby and others 2000 ).

Leaded gasoline creates high lead exposure conditions in urban areas, with a risk for lead poisoning, primarily in young children. The main concern is effects on the brain from low-level exposure leading to behavioral aberrations and reduced or delayed development of intellectual or motoric ability ( WHO 1995 ). Lead exposure has been implicated in hypertension in adults, and this effect may be the most important for the lead burden of disease at a population level ( WHO 2002 ). Other pollutants of concern are the carcinogenic volatile organic compounds, which may be related to an increase in lung cancer, as reported by two recent epidemiological studies ( Nyberg and others 2000 ; Pope and others 2002 ).

Urban air pollution and lead exposure are two of the environmental hazards that WHO (2002) assessed as part of its burden-of-disease calculations for the World Health Report 2002 . The report estimates that pollution by urban PM causes as much as 5 percent of the global cases of lung cancer, 2 percent of deaths from cardiovascular and respiratory conditions, and 1 percent of respiratory infections, adding up to 7.9 million disability-adjusted life years based on mortality only. This burden of disease occurs primarily in developing countries, with China and India contributing the most to the global burden. Eastern Europe also has major air pollution problems, and in some countries, air pollution accounts for 0.6 to 1.4 percent of the total disability-adjusted life years from mortality.

The global burden of disease caused by lead exposure includes subtle changes in learning ability and behavior and other signs of central nervous system damage ( Fewthrell, Kaufmann, and Preuss 2003 ). WHO (2002) concludes that 0.4 percent of deaths and 0.9 percent (12.9 million) of all disability-adjusted life years may be due to lead exposure.

Water Pollution

Chemical pollution of surface water can create health risks, because such waterways are often used directly as drinking water sources or connected with shallow wells used for drinking water. In addition, waterways have important roles for washing and cleaning, for fishing and fish farming, and for recreation.

Another major source of drinking water is groundwater, which often has low concentrations of pathogens because the water is filtered during its transit through underground layers of sand, clay, or rocks. However, toxic chemicals such as arsenic and fluoride can be dissolved from the soil or rock layers into groundwater. Direct contamination can also occur from badly designed hazardous waste sites or from industrial sites. In the United States in the 1980s, the government set in motion the Superfund Program, a major investigation and cleanup program to deal with such sites ( U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2000 ).

Coastal pollution of seawater may give rise to health hazards because of local contamination of fish or shellfish—for instance, the mercury contamination of fish in the infamous Minamata disease outbreak in Japan in 1956 ( WHO 1976 ). Seawater pollution with persistent chemicals, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins, can also be a significant health hazard even at extremely low concentrations ( Yassi and others 2001 ).

Sources of Chemical Water Pollution

Chemicals can enter waterways from a point source or a nonpoint source. Point-source pollution is due to discharges from a single source, such as an industrial site. Nonpoint-source pollution involves many small sources that combine to cause significant pollution. For instance, the movement of rain or irrigation water over land picks up pollutants such as fertilizers, herbicides, and insecticides and carries them into rivers, lakes, reservoirs, coastal waters, or groundwater. Another nonpoint source is storm-water that collects on roads and eventually reaches rivers or lakes. Table 43.1 shows examples of point-source industrial chemical pollution.

Paper and pulp mills consume large volumes of water and discharge liquid and solid waste products into the environment. The liquid waste is usually high in biological oxygen demand, suspended solids, and chlorinated organic compounds such as dioxins ( World Bank 1999 ). The storage and transport of the resulting solid waste (wastewater treatment sludge, lime sludge, and ash) may also contaminate surface waters. Sugar mills are associated with effluent characterized by biological oxygen demand and suspended solids, and the effluent is high in ammonium content. In addition, the sugarcane rinse liquid may contain pesticide residues. Leather tanneries produce a significant amount of solid waste, including hide, hair, and sludge. The wastewater contains chromium, acids, sulfides, and chlorides. Textile and dye industries emit a liquid effluent that contains toxic residues from the cleaning of equipment. Waste from petrochemical manufacturing plants contains suspended solids, oils and grease, phenols, and benzene. Solid waste generated by petrochemical processes contains spent caustic and other hazardous chemicals implicated in cancer.

Another major source of industrial water pollution is mining. The grinding of ores and the subsequent processing with water lead to discharges of fine silt with toxic metals into waterways unless proper precautions are taken, such as the use of sedimentation ponds. Lead and zinc ores usually contain the much more toxic cadmium as a minor component. If the cadmium is not retrieved, major water pollution can occur. Mining was the source of most of the widespread cadmium poisoning (Itai-Itai disease) in Japan in 1940–50 ( Kjellstrom 1986 ).

Other metals, such as copper, nickel, and chromium, are essential micronutrients, but in high levels these metals can be harmful to health. Wastewater from mines or stainless steel production can be a source of exposure to these metals. The presence of copper in water can also be due to corrosion of drinking water pipes. Soft water or low pH makes corrosion more likely. High levels of copper may make water appear bluish green and give it a metallic taste. Flushing the first water out of the tap can minimize exposure to copper. The use of lead pipes and plumbing fixtures may result in high levels of lead in piped water.

Mercury can enter waterways from mining and industrial premises. Incineration of medical waste containing broken medical equipment is a source of environmental contamination with mercury. Metallic mercury is also easily transported through the atmosphere because of its highly volatile nature. Sulfate-reducing bacteria and certain other micro-organisms in lake, river, or coastal underwater sediments can methylate mercury, increasing its toxicity. Methylmercury accumulates and concentrates in the food chain and can lead to serious neurological disease or more subtle functional damage to the nervous system ( Murata and others 2004 ).

Runoff from farmland, in addition to carrying soil and sediments that contribute to increased turbidity, also carries nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphates, which are often added in the form of animal manure or fertilizers. These chemicals cause eutrophication (excessive nutrient levels in water), which increases the growth of algae and plants in waterways, leading to an increase in cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). The toxics released during their decay are harmful to humans.

The use of nitrogen fertilizers can be a problem in areas where agriculture is becoming increasingly intensified. These fertilizers increase the concentration of nitrates in groundwater, leading to high nitrate levels in underground drinking water sources, which can cause methemoglobinemia, the life-threatening "blue baby" syndrome, in very young children, which is a significant problem in parts of rural Eastern Europe ( Yassi and others 2001 ).

Some pesticides are applied directly on soil to kill pests in the soil or on the ground. This practice can create seepage to groundwater or runoff to surface waters. Some pesticides are applied to plants by spraying from a distance—even from airplanes. This practice can create spray drift when the wind carries the materials to nearby waterways. Efforts to reduce the use of the most toxic and long-lasting pesticides in industrial countries have largely been successful, but the rules for their use in developing countries may be more permissive, and the rules of application may not be known or enforced. Hence, health risks from pesticide water pollution are higher in such countries ( WHO 1990 ).

Naturally occurring toxic chemicals can also contaminate groundwater, such as the high metal concentrations in underground water sources in mining areas. The most extensive problem of this type is the arsenic contamination of groundwater in Argentina, Bangladesh ( box 43.2 ), Chile, China, India, Mexico, Nepal, Taiwan (China), and parts of Eastern Europe and the United States ( WHO 2001 ). Fluoride is another substance that may occur naturally at high concentrations in parts of China, India, Sri Lanka, Africa, and the eastern Mediterranean. Although fluoride helps prevent dental decay, exposure to levels greater than 1.5 milligrams per liter in drinking water can cause pitting of tooth enamel and deposits in bones. Exposure to levels greater than 10 milligrams per liter can cause crippling skeletal fluorosis ( Smith 2003 ).

Arsenic in Bangladesh. The presence of arsenic in tube wells in Bangladesh because of natural contamination from underground geological layers was first confirmed in 1993. Ironically, the United Nations Children's Fund had introduced the wells in the (more...)

Water disinfection using chemicals is another source of chemical contamination of water. Chlorination is currently the most widely practiced and most cost-effective method of disinfecting large community water supplies. This success in disinfecting water supplies has contributed significantly to public health by reducing the transmission of waterborne disease. However, chlorine reacts with naturally occurring organic matter in water to form potentially toxic chemical compounds, known collectively as disinfection by-products ( International Agency for Research on Cancer 2004 ).

Exposure to Chemical Water Pollution

Drinking contaminated water is the most direct route of exposure to pollutants in water. The actual exposure via drinking water depends on the amount of water consumed, usually 2 to 3 liters per day for an adult, with higher amounts for people living in hot areas or people engaged in heavy physical work. Use of contaminated water in food preparation can result in contaminated food, because high cooking temperatures do not affect the toxicity of most chemical contaminants.

Inhalation exposure to volatile compounds during hot showers and skin exposure while bathing or using water for recreation are also potential routes of exposure to water pollutants. Toxic chemicals in water can affect unborn or young children by crossing the placenta or being ingested through breast milk.

Estimating actual exposure via water involves analyzing the level of the contaminant in the water consumed and assessing daily water intake ( WHO 2003 ). Biological monitoring using blood or urine samples can be a precise tool for measuring total exposure from water, food, and air ( Yassi and others 2001 ).

Health Effects

No published estimates are available of the global burden of disease resulting from the overall effects of chemical pollutants in water. The burden in specific local areas may be large, as in the example cited in box 43.2 of arsenic in drinking water in Bangladesh. Other examples of a high local burden of disease are the nervous system diseases of methylmercury poisoning (Minamata disease), the kidney and bone diseases of chronic cadmium poisoning (Itai-Itai disease), and the circulatory system diseases of nitrate exposure (methemoglobinemia) and lead exposure (anemia and hypertension ).

Acute exposure to contaminants in drinking water can cause irritation or inflammation of the eyes and nose, skin, and gastrointestinal system; however, the most important health effects are due to chronic exposure (for example, liver toxicity) to copper, arsenic, or chromium in drinking water. Excretion of chemicals through the kidney targets the kidney for toxic effects, as seen with chemicals such as cadmium, copper, mercury, and chlorobenzene ( WHO 2003 ).

Pesticides and other chemical contaminants that enter waterways through agricultural runoff, stormwater drains, and industrial discharges may persist in the environment for long periods and be transported by water or air over long distances. They may disrupt the function of the endocrine system, resulting in reproductive, developmental, and behavioral problems. The endocrine disruptors can reduce fertility and increase the occurrence of stillbirths, birth defects, and hormonally dependent cancers such as breast, testicular, and prostate cancers. The effects on the developing nervous system can include impaired mental and psychomotor development, as well as cognitive impairment and behavior abnormalities ( WHO and International Programme on Chemical Safety 2002 ). Examples of endocrine disruptors include organochlorines, PCBs, alkylphenols, phytoestrogens (natural estrogens in plants), and pharmaceuticals such as antibiotics and synthetic sex hormones from contraceptives. Chemicals in drinking water can also be carcinogenic. Disinfection by-products and arsenic have been a particular concern ( International Agency for Research on Cancer 2004 ).

  • Interventions

The variety of hazardous pollutants that can occur in air or water also leads to many different interventions. Interventions pertaining to environmental hazards are often more sustainable if they address the driving forces behind the pollution at the community level rather than attempt to deal with specific exposures at the individual level. In addition, effective methods to prevent exposure to chemical hazards in the air or water may not exist at the individual level, and the only feasible individual-level intervention may be treating cases of illness.

Figure 43.1 shows five levels at which actions can be taken to prevent the health effects of environmental hazards. Some would label interventions at the driving force level as policy instruments. These include legal restrictions on the use of a toxic substance, such as banning the use of lead in gasoline, or community-level policies, such as boosting public transportation and reducing individual use of motor vehicles.

Figure 43.1

Framework for Environmental Health Interventions

Interventions to reduce pressures on environmental quality include those that limit hazardous waste disposal by recycling hazardous substances at their site of use or replacing them with less hazardous materials. Interventions at the level of the state of the environment would include air quality monitoring linked to local actions to reduce pollution during especially polluted periods (for example, banning vehicle use when pollution levels reach predetermined thresholds). Interventions at the exposure level include using household water filters to reduce arsenic in drinking water as done in Bangladesh. Finally, interventions at the effect level would include actions by health services to protect or restore the health of people already showing signs of an adverse effect.

Interventions to Reduce Air Pollution

Reducing air pollution exposure is largely a technical issue. Technologies to reduce pollution at its source are plentiful, as are technologies that reduce pollution by filtering it away from the emission source (end-of-pipe solutions; see, for example, Gwilliam, Kojima, and Johnson 2004 ). Getting these technologies applied in practice requires government or corporate policies that guide technical decision making in the right direction. Such policies could involve outright bans (such as requiring lead-free gasoline or asbestos-free vehicle brake linings or building materials); guidance on desirable technologies (for example, providing best-practice manuals); or economic instruments that make using more polluting technologies more expensive than using less polluting technologies (an example of the polluter pays principle).

Examples of technologies to reduce air pollution include the use of lead-free gasoline, which allows the use of catalytic converters on vehicles' exhaust systems. Such technologies significantly reduce the emissions of several air pollutants from vehicles ( box 43.3 ). For trucks, buses, and an increasing number of smaller vehicles that use diesel fuel, improving the quality of the diesel itself by lowering its sulfur content is another way to reduce air pollution at the source. More fuel-efficient vehicles, such as hybrid gas-electric vehicles, are another way forward. These vehicles can reduce gasoline consumption by about 50 percent during city driving. Policies that reduce "unnecessary" driving, or traffic demand management, can also reduce air pollution in urban areas. A system of congestion fees, in which drivers have to pay before entering central urban areas, was introduced in Singapore, Oslo, and London and has been effective in this respect.

Air Pollution Reduction in Mexico City. Mexico City is one of the world's largest megacities, with nearly 20 million inhabitants. Local authorities have acknowledged its air quality problems since the 1970s. The emissions from several million motor vehicles (more...)

Power plants and industrial plants that burn fossil fuels use a variety of filtering methods to reduce particles and scrubbing methods to reduce gases, although no effective method is currently available for the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide. High chimneys dilute pollutants, but the combined input of pollutants from a number of smokestacks can still lead to an overload of pollutants. An important example is acid rain, which is caused by SO 2 and NO x emissions that make water vapor in the atmosphere acidic ( WHO 2000 ). Large combined emissions from industry and power stations in the eastern United States drift north with the winds and cause damage to Canadian ecosystems. In Europe, emissions from the industrial belt across Belgium, Germany, and Poland drift north to Sweden and have damaged many lakes there. The convergence of air pollutants from many sources and the associated health effects have also been documented in relation to the multiple fires in Indonesia's rain forest in 1997 ( Brauer and Hisham-Hashim 1998 ); the brown cloud over large areas of Asia, which is mainly related to coal burning; and a similar brown cloud over central Europe in the summer, which is caused primarily by vehicle emissions.

Managing air pollution interventions involves monitoring air quality, which may focus on exceedances of air quality guidelines in specific hotspots or on attempts to establish a specific population's average exposure to pollution. Sophisticated modeling in combination with monitoring has made it possible to start producing detailed estimates and maps of air pollution levels in key urban areas ( World Bank 2004 ), thus providing a powerful tool for assessing current health impacts and estimated changes in the health impacts brought about by defined air pollution interventions.

Interventions to Reduce Water Pollution

Water pollution control requires action at all levels of the hierarchical framework shown in figure 43.1 . The ideal method to abate diffuse chemical pollution of waterways is to minimize or avoid the use of chemicals for industrial, agricultural, and domestic purposes. Adapting practices such as organic farming and integrated pest management could help protect waterways ( Scheierling 1995 ). Chemical contamination of waterways from industrial emissions could be reduced by cleaner production processes ( UNEP 2002 ). Box 43.4 describes one project aimed at effectively reducing pollution.

Water Pollution Control in India. In 1993, the Demonstration in Small Industries for Reducing Wastes Project was started in India with support from the United Nations Industrial Development Organization. International and local experts initiated waste (more...)

Other interventions include proper treatment of hazardous waste and recycling of chemical containers and discarded products containing chemicals to reduce solid waste buildup and leaching of toxic chemicals into waterways. A variety of technical solutions are available to filter out chemical waste from industrial processes or otherwise render them harmless. Changing the pH of wastewater or adding chemicals that flocculate the toxic chemicals so that they settle in sedimentation ponds are common methods. The same principle can be used at the individual household level. One example is the use of iron chips to filter out arsenic from contaminated well water in Bangladeshi households ( Kinniburgh and Smedley 2001 ).

  • Intervention Costs and Cost-Effectiveness

This chapter cannot follow the detailed format for the economic analysis of different preventive interventions devised for the disease-specific chapters, because the exposures, health effects, and interventions are too varied and because of the lack of overarching examples of economic assessments. Nevertheless, it does present a few examples of the types of analyses available.

Comparison of Interventions

A review of more than 1,000 reports on cost per life year saved in the United States for 587 interventions in the environment and other fields ( table 43.2 ) evaluated costs from a societal perspective. The net costs included only direct costs and savings. Indirect costs, such as forgone earnings, were excluded. Future costs and life years saved were discounted at 5 percent per year. Interventions with a cost per life year saved of less than or equal to zero cost less to implement than the value of the lives saved. Each of three categories of interventions (toxin control, fatal injury reduction, and medicine) presented in table 43.2 includes several extremely cost-effective interventions.

Table 43.2. Median Cost per Life Year Saved, Selected Relatively Low-Cost Interventions (1993 U.S. dollars).

Median Cost per Life Year Saved, Selected Relatively Low-Cost Interventions (1993 U.S. dollars).

The cost-effective interventions in the air pollution area could be of value in developing countries as their industrial and transportation pollution situations become similar to the United States in the 1960s. The review by Tengs and others (1995) does not report the extent to which the various interventions were implemented in existing pollution control or public health programs, and many of the most cost-effective interventions are probably already in wide use. The review did create a good deal of controversy in the United States, because professionals and nongovernmental organizations active in the environmental field accused the authors of overestimating the costs and underestimating the benefits of controls over chemicals (see, for example, U.S. Congress 1999 ).

Costs and Savings in Relation to Pollution Control

A number of publications review and discuss the evidence on the costs and benefits of different pollution control interventions in industrial countries (see, for example, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 1999 ). For developing countries, specific data on this topic are found primarily in the so-called gray literature: government reports, consultant reports, or reports by the international banks.

Examples of cost-effectiveness analysis for assessing air quality policy include studies carried out in Jakarta, Kathmandu, Manila, and Mumbai under the World Bank's Urban Air Quality Management Strategy in Asia ( Grønskei and others 1996a , 1996b ; Larssen and others 1996a , 1996b ; Shah, Nagpal, and Brandon 1997 ). In each city, an emissions inventory was established, and rudimentary dispersion modeling was carried out. Various mitigation measures for reducing PM 10 and health impacts were examined in terms of reductions in tons of PM 10 emitted, cost of implementation, time frame for implementation, and health benefits and their associated cost savings. Some of the abatement measures that have been implemented include introducing unleaded gasoline, tightening standards, introducing low-smoke lubricants for two-stroke engine vehicles, implementing inspections of vehicle exhaust emissions to address gross polluters, and reducing garbage burning.

Transportation policies and industrial development do not usually have air quality considerations as their primary objective, but the World Bank has developed a method to take these considerations into account. The costs of different air quality improvement policies are explored in relation to a baseline investment and the estimated health effects of air pollution. A comparison will indicate the cost-effectiveness of each policy. The World Bank has worked out this "overlay" approach in some detail for the energy and forestry sectors in the analogous case of greenhouse gas reduction strategies ( World Bank 2004 ).

The costs and benefits associated with interventions to remove chemical contaminants from water need to be assessed on a local or national basis to determine specific needs, available resources, environmental conditions (including climate), and sustainability. A developing country for which substantial economic analysis of interventions has been carried out is China ( Dasgupta, Wang, and Wheeler 1997 ; Zhang and others 1996 ).

Another country with major concerns about chemicals (arsenic) in water is Bangladesh. The arsenic mitigation programs have applied various arsenic removal technologies, but the costs and benefits are not well established. Bangladesh has adopted a drinking water standard of 50 μg/L (micrograms per liter) for arsenic in drinking water. The cost of achieving the lower WHO guideline value of 10 μg/L would be significant. An evaluation of the cost of lowering arsenic levels in drinking water in the United States predicts that a reduction from 50 to 10 μg/L would prevent a limited number of deaths from bladder and lung cancer at a cost of several million dollars per death prevented ( Frost and others 2002 ).

Alternative water supplies need to be considered when the costs of improving existing water sources outweigh the benefits. Harvesting rainwater may provide communities with safe drinking water, free of chemicals and micro-organisms, but contamination from roofs and storage tanks needs to be considered. Rainwater collection is relatively inexpensive.

  • Economic Benefits of Interventions

One of the early examples of cost-benefit analysis for chemical pollution control is the Japan Environment Agency's (1991) study of three Japanese classical pollution diseases: Yokkaichi asthma, Minamata disease, and Itai-Itai disease ( table 43.3 ). This analysis was intended to highlight the economic aspects of pollution control and to encourage governments in developing countries to consider both the costs and the benefits of industrial development. The calculations take into account the 20 or 30 years that have elapsed since the disease outbreaks occurred and annualize the costs and benefits over a 30-year period. The pollution damage costs are the actual payments for victims' compensation and the cost of environmental remediation. The compensation costs are based on court cases or government decisions and can be seen as a valid representation of the economic value of the health damage in each case. As table 43.3 shows, controlling the relevant pollutants would have cost far less than paying for damage caused by the pollution.

Table 43.3. Comparison of Actual Pollution Damage Costs and the Pollution Control Costs That Would Have Prevented the Damage, for Three Pollution-related Disease Outbreaks, Japan (¥ millions, 1989 equivalents).

Comparison of Actual Pollution Damage Costs and the Pollution Control Costs That Would Have Prevented the Damage, for Three Pollution-related Disease Outbreaks, Japan (¥ millions, 1989 equivalents).

A few studies have analyzed cost-benefit aspects of air pollution control in specific cities. Those analyses are based mainly on modeling health impacts from exposure and relationships between doses and responses. Voorhees and others (2001) find that most studies that analyzed the situation in specific urban areas used health impact assessment to estimate impacts avoided by interventions. Investigators have used different methods for valuing the economic benefits of health improvements, including market valuation, stated preference methods, and revealed preference methods. The choice of assumptions and inputs substantially affected the resulting cost and benefit valuations.

One of the few detailed studies of the costs and benefits of air pollution control in a specific urban area ( Voorhees and others 2000 ) used changing nitric oxide and NO 2 emissions in Tokyo during 1973–94 as a basis for the calculations. The study did not use actual health improvement data but calculated likely health improvements from estimated reductions in NO 2 levels and published dose-response curves. The health effects included respiratory morbidity (as determined by hospital admissions and medical expenses), and working days lost for sick adults, and maternal working days lost in the case of a child's illness. The results indicated an average cost-benefit ratio of 1 to 6, with a large range from a lower limit of 3 to 1 to an upper limit of 1 to 44. The estimated economic benefits of reductions in nitric oxide and NO 2 emissions between 1973 and 1994 were considerable: US$6.78 billion for avoided medical costs, US$6.33 billion for avoided lost wages of sick adults, and US$0.83 billion for avoided lost wages of mothers with sick children.

Blackman and others' (2000) cost-benefit analysis of four practical strategies for reducing PM 10 emissions from traditional brick kilns in Ciudad Juárez in Mexico suggests that, given a wide range of modeling assumptions, the benefits of three control strategies would be considerably higher than the costs. Reduced mortality was by far the largest component of benefits, accounting for more than 80 percent of the total.

Pandey and Nathwani (2003) applied cost-benefit analysis to a pollution control program in Canada. Their study proposed using the life quality index as a tool for quantifying the level of public expenditure beyond which the use of resources is not justified. The study estimated total pollution control costs at US$2.5 billion per year against a monetary benefit of US$7.5 billion per year, using 1996 as the base year for all cost and benefit estimates. The benefit estimated in terms of avoided mortality was about 1,800 deaths per year.

El-Fadel and Massoud's (2000) study of urban areas in Lebanon shows that the health benefits and economic benefits of reducing PM concentration in the air can range from US$4.53 million to US$172.50 million per year using a willingness-to-pay approach. In that study, the major monetized benefits resulted from reduced mortality costs.

Aunan and others (1998) assessed the costs and benefits of implementing an energy saving and air pollution control program in Hungary. They based their monetary evaluation of benefits on local monitoring and population data and took exposure-response functions and valuation estimates from Canadian, U.S., and European studies. The authors valued the average total benefits of the interventions at US$1.56 billion per year (with 1994 as the base year), with high and low bounds at US$7.6, billion and US$0.4 billion, respectively. They estimated the cost-benefit ratio at 1 to 3.4, given a total cost of interventions of US$0.46 billion per year. Many of the benefits resulted from reduced mortality in the elderly population and from reduced asthma morbidity costs.

Misra (2002) examined the costs and benefits of water pollution abatement for a cluster of 250 small-scale industries in Gujarat, India. Misra's assessment looked at command-and-control, market-based solutions and at effluent treatment as alternatives. In a cost-benefit analysis, Misra estimated the net present social benefits from water pollution abatement at the Nandesari Industrial Estate at Rs 0.550 billion at 1995–96 market prices using a 12 percent social discount rate. After making corrections for the prices of foreign exchange, unskilled labor, and investment, the figure rose to Rs 0.62 billion. It rose still further to about Rs 3.1 billion when distributional effects were taken into account.

  • Implementation of Control Strategies: Lessons of Experience

The foregoing examples demonstrate that interventions to protect health that use chemical pollution control can have an attractive cost-benefit ratio. The Japan Environment Agency (1991) estimates the national economic impact of pollution control legislation and associated interventions. During the 1960s and early 1970s, when the government made many of the major decisions about intensified pollution control interventions, Japan's gross domestic product (GDP) per capita was growing at an annual rate of about 10 percent, similar to that of the rapidly industrializing countries in the early 21st century. At that time, Japan's economic policies aimed at eliminating bottlenecks to high economic growth, and in the mid 1960s, industry was spending less than ¥50 billion per year on pollution control equipment. By 1976, this spending had increased to almost ¥1 trillion per year. The ¥5 trillion invested in pollution control between 1965 and 1975 accounted for about 0.9 percent of the increase in GDP per capita during this period. The Japan Environment Agency concluded that the stricter environmental protection legislation and associated major investment in pollution control had little effect on the overall economy, but that the resulting health benefits are likely cumulative.

The broadest analysis of the implementation of control strategies for air pollution was conducted by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in the late 1990s ( Krupnick and Morgenstern 2002 ). The analysis developed a hypothetical scenario for 1970 to 1990, assuming that the real costs for pollution control during this period could be compared with the benefits of reduced mortality and morbidity and avoided damage to agricultural crops brought about by the reduction of major air pollutant levels across the country during this period. The study estimated reduced mortality from dose-response relationships for the major air pollutants, assigning the cost of each death at the value of statistical life and the cost of morbidity in relation to estimated health service utilization. The study used a variety of costing methods to reach the range of likely present values presented in table 43.4 . It assumed that the reduction of air pollution resulted from the implementation of the federal Clean Air Act of 1970 and associated state-level regulations and air pollution limits.

Table 43.4. Present Value of Monetary Benefits and Costs Associated with Implementation of the U.S. Clean Air Act, 1970–90 (1990 US$ billions).

Present Value of Monetary Benefits and Costs Associated with Implementation of the U.S. Clean Air Act, 1970–90 (1990 US$ billions).

The analysis showed a dramatically high cost-benefit ratio and inspired debate about the methodologies used and the results. One major criticism was of the use of the value of statistical life for each death potentially avoided by the reduced air pollution. A recalculation using the life-years-lost method reduced the benefits for deaths caused by PM from US$16,632 billion to US$9,100 billion ( Krupnick and Morgenstern 2002 ). The recalculated figure is still well above the fifth percentile estimate of benefits and does not undermine the positive cost-benefit ratio reported. Thus, if a developing country were to implement an appropriate control strategy for urban air pollution, it might derive significant economic benefits over the subsequent decades. The country's level of economic development, local costs, and local benefit valuations will be important for any cost-benefit assessment. WHO's (2000) air quality guidelines are among the documents that provide advice on analytical approaches.

We were unable to find an analysis for water similar to the broad analysis presented for air, but the examples of water pollution with mercury, cadmium, and arsenic described earlier indicate the economic benefits that can be reaped from effective interventions against chemical water pollution. Since the pollution disease outbreaks of mercury and cadmium poisoning in Japan, serious mercury pollution situations have been identified in Brazil, China, and the Philippines, and serious cadmium pollution has occurred in Cambodia, China, the Lao People's Democratic Republic, and Thailand. Arsenic in groundwater is an ongoing, serious problem in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal and a less serious problem in a number of other countries.

WHO has analyzed control strategies for biological water pollution and water and sanitation improvements in relation to the Millennium Development Goals ( Hutton and Haller 2004 ). The analysis demonstrated the considerable benefits of water and sanitation improvements: for every US$1 invested, the economic return was in the range of US$5 to US$28 for a number of intervention options. Careful analysis of the same type is required for populations particularly vulnerable to chemical water pollution to assess whether control of chemical pollution can also yield significant benefits.

  • Research and Development Agenda

Even though a good deal of information is available about the health risks of common air and water pollutants, further research is needed to guide regulations and interventions. The pollutants that were most common in developed countries in the past are still major problems in developing countries; however, direct application of the experiences of developed countries may not be appropriate, because exposed populations in developing countries may have a different burden of preexisting diseases, malnutrition, and other factors related to poverty. Research on specific vulnerabilities and on relevant dose-response relationships for different levels of economic development and for various geographic conditions would therefore be valuable for assessing risks and targeting interventions. In addition, global chemical exposure concerns, such as endocrine disruptors in air, water, and food, require urgent research to establish the need for interventions in both industrial and developing countries.

An important research topic is to clearly describe and quantify the long-term health effects of exposure to air pollution. The existing literature indicates that long-term exposure may have more adverse health effects than short-term exposure and, hence, have higher cost implications. Another topic is to assess the health issue pertaining to greenhouse gases and climate change, which are related to the same sources as urban air pollution ( Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 2001 ). Research and policy analysis on how best to develop interventions to reduce health risks related to climate change need to be considered together with the analysis of other air pollutants.

In addition, to improve analysis of the economic costs of health impacts, better estimates are needed of the burden of disease related to chemical air and water pollution at local, national, and global levels. Cost-effectiveness analysis of air and water pollution control measures in developing countries needs to be supported by further research, as cost levels and benefit valuations will vary from country to country, and solutions that are valid in industrial countries may not work as well in developing countries. Strategies for effective air and water resource management should include research on the potential side effects of an intervention, such as in Bangladesh, where tube wells drilled to supply water turned out to be contaminated with arsenic (see box 43.2 ). Research is also needed that would link methodologies for assessing adverse health effects with exposure and epidemiological studies in different settings to permit the development of more precise forecasting of the health and economic benefits of interventions.

The variety of health effects of urban air pollution and the variety of sources create opportunities for ancillary effects that need to be taken into account in economic cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis. These are the beneficial effects of reducing air pollution on other health risks associated with the sources of air pollution. For example, if the air pollution from transportation emissions is reduced by actions that reduce the use of private motor vehicles by, say, providing public transportation, not only are carbon dioxide levels reduced; traffic crash injuries, noise, and physical inactivity related to the widespread use of motor vehicles also decline ( Kjellstrom and others 2003 ).

One of the key challenges for policies and actions is to find ways to avoid a rapid buildup of urban air pollution in countries that do not yet have a major problem. The health sector needs to be involved in assessing urban planning, the location of industries, and the development of transportation systems and needs to encourage those designing public transportation and housing to ensure that new sources of air pollution are not being built into cities.

Decades of economic and industrial growth have resulted in lifestyles that increase the demands on water resources simultaneous with increases in water pollution levels. Conflicts between household, industrial, and agricultural water use are a common public health problem ( UNESCO 2003 ). The developing countries need to avoid the experiences of water pollution and associated disease outbreaks in industrial countries. Strategies to ensure sufficient pollution control must be identified at the same time as strategies to reduce water consumption. High water use depletes supplies and increases salinity in groundwater aquifers, particularly in coastal regions. The impact of climate change must also be taken into consideration ( Vorosmarty and others 2000 ).

  • Conclusion: Promises and Pitfalls

Evidence shows that a number of chemicals that may be released into the air or water can cause adverse health effects. The associated burden of disease can be substantial, and investment in research on health effects and interventions in specific populations and exposure situations is important for the development of control strategies. Pollution control is therefore an important component of disease control, and health professionals and authorities need to develop partnerships with other sectors to identify and implement priority interventions.

Developing countries face major water quantity and quality challenges, compounded by the effects of rapid industrialization. Concerted actions are needed to safely manage the use of toxic chemicals and to develop monitoring and regulatory guidelines. Recycling and the use of biodegradable products must be encouraged. Technologies to reduce air pollution at the source are well established and should be used in all new industrial development. Retrofitting of existing industries and power plants is also worthwhile. The growing number of private motor vehicles in developing countries brings certain benefits, but alternative means of transportation, particularly in rapidly growing urban areas, need to be considered at an early stage, as the negative health and economic impacts of high concentrations of motor vehicles are well established. The principles and practices of sustainable development, coupled with local research, will help contain or eliminate health risks resulting from chemical pollution. International collaboration involving both governmental and nongovernmental organizations can guide this highly interdisciplinary and intersectoral area of disease control.

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  • Effects of long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution on respiratory and cardiovascular mortality in the Netherlands: the NLCS-AIR study. [Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 2009] Effects of long-term exposure to traffic-related air pollution on respiratory and cardiovascular mortality in the Netherlands: the NLCS-AIR study. Brunekreef B, Beelen R, Hoek G, Schouten L, Bausch-Goldbohm S, Fischer P, Armstrong B, Hughes E, Jerrett M, van den Brandt P. Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 2009 Mar; (139):5-71; discussion 73-89.
  • Multicity study of air pollution and mortality in Latin America (the ESCALA study). [Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 2012] Multicity study of air pollution and mortality in Latin America (the ESCALA study). Romieu I, Gouveia N, Cifuentes LA, de Leon AP, Junger W, Vera J, Strappa V, Hurtado-Díaz M, Miranda-Soberanis V, Rojas-Bracho L, et al. Res Rep Health Eff Inst. 2012 Oct; (171):5-86.
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Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control

Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control

Twenty years on from the first edition of Pollution and the topic remains high in the public awareness. Environmental pollution is now a major area of research, consultancy and technological development and is a priority for the political agendas of both the developed and developing worlds.

The fifth edition of this book is fully updated, and includes an entirely new chapter on Climate Change, presenting an authoritative view on this topic. Chapters in fast moving areas have been completely revised and several newcomers have joined the original set of authors.

This popular book has proved invaluable as a teaching resource for two decades and is frequently used as a reference by practitioners in the field. Readers of earlier editions will benefit from updates on technologies such as nanoscience, and the legislative changes that have occurred since the fourth edition in 2001.

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Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control, The Royal Society of Chemistry, 2013.

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  • List of Contributors
  • Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its Control † p1-28 By Oliver A. H. Jones ; Oliver A. H. Jones School of Applied Sciences RMIT University, GPO Box 2476, Melbourne, Victoria 3001 Australia [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Rachel L. Gomes Rachel L. Gomes Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, NG7 2RD UK Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for Chemical Pollution of the Aquatic Environment by Priority Pollutants and its Control<sup><a href="javascript:;" reveal-id="BK9781849736480-00001-fn1" data-open="BK9781849736480-00001-fn1" class="link link-ref link-reveal xref-fn js-xref-fn split-view-modal">†</a></sup> in another window
  • CHAPTER 2: Chemistry and Pollution of the Marine Environment p29-59 By Martin R. Preston Martin R. Preston School of Environmental Sciences University of Liverpool, 4 Brownlow Street, Liverpool L69 3GP UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 2: Chemistry and Pollution of the Marine Environment in another window
  • CHAPTER 3: Drinking Water Quality and Health p60-79 By John K. Fawell John K. Fawell Water Science Institute Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 3: Drinking Water Quality and Health in another window
  • CHAPTER 4: Water Pollution Biology p80-114 By William M. Mayes William M. Mayes Centre for Environmental and Marine Sciences University of Hull, Scarborough, YO11 3AZ UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 4: Water Pollution Biology in another window
  • CHAPTER 5: Sewage and Sewage Sludge Treatment p115-139 By Elise Cartmell Elise Cartmell Cranfield Water Science Institute Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 5: Sewage and Sewage Sludge Treatment in another window
  • CHAPTER 6: Treatment of Toxic Wastes p140-156 By Stuart T. Wagland ; Stuart T. Wagland Department of Environmental Science and Technology School of Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, MK43 0AL UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Simon J. T. Pollard Simon J. T. Pollard Department of Environmental Science and Technology School of Applied Sciences, Cranfield University, MK43 0AL UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 6: Treatment of Toxic Wastes in another window
  • CHAPTER 7: Air Pollution: Sources, Concentrations and Measurements p157-181 By Roy M. Harrison Roy M. Harrison School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, B15 2TT UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 7: Air Pollution: Sources, Concentrations and Measurements in another window
  • CHAPTER 8: Chemistry of the Troposphere p182-203 By Roy M. Harrison Roy M. Harrison School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 8: Chemistry of the Troposphere in another window
  • CHAPTER 9: Chemistry and Pollution of the Stratosphere p204-224 By A. Robert MacKenzie ; A. Robert MacKenzie School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences Division of Environmental Health and Risk Management, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Francis D. Pope Francis D. Pope School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences Division of Environmental Health and Risk Management, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 9: Chemistry and Pollution of the Stratosphere in another window
  • CHAPTER 10: Atmospheric Dispersal of Pollutants and the Modelling of Air Pollution p225-243 By Martin L. Williams Martin L. Williams Science Policy, Environmental Research Group, King's College London Franklin-Wilkins Building, 150 Stamford Street, London, SE1 9NH UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 10: Atmospheric Dispersal of Pollutants and the Modelling of Air Pollution in another window
  • CHAPTER 11: Air Pollution and Health p244-267 By Robert L. Maynard ; Robert L. Maynard School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2 TT UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Jon Ayres Jon Ayres Institute of Occupational Health, School of Health and Population Sciences University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2 TT UK Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 11: Air Pollution and Health in another window
  • CHAPTER 12: Impacts of Air Pollutants on Crops, Trees and Ecosystems p268-296 By Mike Ashmore Mike Ashmore Stockholm Environment Institute University of York, York YO10 5DD UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 12: Impacts of Air Pollutants on Crops, Trees and Ecosystems in another window
  • CHAPTER 13: Control of Pollutant Emissions from Road Transport p297-325 By Claire Holman Claire Holman Brook Cottage Consultants Elberton, South Gloucestershire, BS35 4AQ UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 13: Control of Pollutant Emissions from Road Transport in another window
  • CHAPTER 14: Climate Change p326-339 By Keith P. Shine Keith P. Shine Department of Meteorology University of Reading, Earley Gate, Reading RG6 6BB UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 14: Climate Change in another window
  • CHAPTER 15: Soil Pollution and Risk Assessment p340-355 By Chris D. Collins Chris D. Collins Soil Research Centre, Dept. Geography and Environmental Science University of Reading,Reading RG6 6DW [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 15: Soil Pollution and Risk Assessment in another window
  • CHAPTER 16: Solid Waste Management p356-384 By Gev Eduljee Gev Eduljee SITA UK, SITA House Grenfell Road, Maidenhead SL6 1ES UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 16: Solid Waste Management in another window
  • CHAPTER 17: System Approaches: Life Cycle Assessment and Industrial Ecology p385-416 By Roland Clift Roland Clift Centre for Environmental Strategy University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 17: System Approaches: Life Cycle Assessment and Industrial Ecology in another window
  • CHAPTER 18: The Environmental Behaviour of Persistent Organic Pollutants p417-441 By Stuart Harrad ; Stuart Harrad Division of Environmental Health & Risk Management University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT UK Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Pharmacy, Assiut University, 71526 Assiut Egypt [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 18: The Environmental Behaviour of Persistent Organic Pollutants in another window
  • CHAPTER 19: Radioactivity in the Environment p442-464 By C. Nicholas Hewitt C. Nicholas Hewitt Lancaster Environment Centre Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YQ UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 19: Radioactivity in the Environment in another window
  • CHAPTER 20: Health Effects of Environmental Chemicals p465-491 By Juana Maria DELGADO-Saborit ; Juana Maria DELGADO-Saborit Division of Environmental Health and Risk Management, School of Geography Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar ROY M. Harrison ROY M. Harrison Division of Environmental Health and Risk Management, School of Geography Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 20: Health Effects of Environmental Chemicals in another window
  • CHAPTER 21: The Legal Control of Pollution p492-521 By Richard Macrory ; Richard Macrory Centre for Law and the Environment, Faculty of Laws, University College London Endsleigh Gardens London WC1H OEG [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar William Howarth William Howarth Kent Law School University of Kent, Canterbury, Kent, CT2 7NS UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 21: The Legal Control of Pollution in another window
  • CHAPTER 22: The Regulation of Industrial Pollution p522-550 By Martin G. Bigg Martin G. Bigg Professor of Environmental Technology and Director, Environmental Technologies iNet University of the West of England, Frenchay Campus, Coldharbour Lane, Bristol BS16 1QY UK [email protected] Search for other works by this author on: This Site PubMed Google Scholar Abstract Open the PDF Link PDF for CHAPTER 22: The Regulation of Industrial Pollution in another window
  • Subject Index p551-558 Open the PDF Link PDF for Subject Index in another window

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February 8, 2024

Air Pollution Threatens Millions of Lives. Now the Sources Are Shifting

As EPA tightens air pollution standards for particulate matter, new research suggests some components of that pollution could worsen with climate change

By Virginia Gewin

Hairdresser applies hair care product with spray

Sergii Kolesnikov/Getty Images

Particle-based ambient air pollution causes more than 4 million premature deaths each year globally, according to the World Health Organization. The tiniest particles—2.5 microns or smaller, known as PM 2.5 —pose the greatest health risk because they can travel deep into the lungs and may even get into the bloodstream.

Although total PM 2.5 levels have decreased 42 percent in the U.S. since 2000 as a result of clean air regulations, scientists are concerned about the health impacts of even low levels of such pollution. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency lowered the annual national air quality standard for PM 2.5 from 12 to nine micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m 3 ) this week. EPA administrator Michael Regan said in a press conference that officials estimate the new standard will save up to $46 billion dollars in avoided health care and hospitalization costs by 2032. “Health benefits will include up to 800,000 avoided cases of asthma symptoms, 4,500 avoided premature deaths, and 290,000 avoided lost workdays,” he said. The World Health Organization adopted an even lower 5 µg/m 3 standard in 2021, citing the growing evidence of deadly harm.

Beyond investigating their size, scientists are also digging into the chemistry of airborne particles, which, unlike other regulated pollutants such as lead and ozone, encompass a wide array of solid and liquid particles from soot to nitrate. Some airborne particles are directly emitted from car tailpipes or industrial sources; others form in the atmosphere. And the balance of those is shifting. To help states meet the tougher air standards, scientists will need more detailed studies of particle sources.

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In July 2022, for the first time in more than a decade, teams of scientists conducted an intensive campaign to characterize what’s in the summertime soup of particles that New York City residents breathe. The researchers measured the chemical makeup of PM 2.5 over the course of a month.

The team found that the PM 2.5 was 80 to 83 percent organic, or carbon-based —up from roughly 50 percent in 2001, according to the study, which was published January 22 in ACS ES&T Air . “Over the past 20 years, summertime particulate matter has shifted to organic aerosols due largely to the successful reductions of sulfate and other inorganic compounds,” says Tori Hass-Mitchell, the study’s lead author and a doctoral student at Yale University.

Roughly 76 percent of the total organic aerosols measured by the study in New York City were not directly emitted from a source but rather formed in the atmosphere. These so-called secondary organic aerosols are produced when gases, including volatile organic compounds (VOCs), oxidize in the atmosphere. VOCs are produced by a wide range of sources such as cars, vegetation and household chemicals, including cosmetics and cleaners , which complicates efforts to identify the most impactful sources.

Hass-Mitchell and colleagues’ paper is the first to include data from the Atmospheric Science and Chemistry Measurement Network ( ASCENT)—a network of 12 sites around the U.S. that is the first long-term monitoring system able to chemically characterize distinct particle types. Sally Ng, who led the design of the $12-million, National Science Foundation–funded network, says Europe has had similar measurement capabilities for more than five years. “It’s time for the U.S. to modernize its air quality measurement infrastructure,” says Ng, an aerosol scientist at the Georgia Institute of Technology and a co-author of the New York City study.

Recent studies have shown that secondary organic aerosols may be linked to serious health problems—especially cardiovascular disease. A study published last September in Environmental Science & Technology found that as organic aerosols oxidize, they produce highly reactive molecules that can break down human cells and cause tissue damage . Oxidized organic aerosols are the most toxic organic component of PM 2.5 , Ng says. And her work suggests that secondary organic aerosols become more toxic the longer they oxidize in the atmosphere.

Havala Pye, an EPA research scientist, co-authored a separate 2021 Nature study that found that secondary organic aerosols are strongly associated with county-level heart and lung disease death rates in the U.S. Secondary organic aerosols were associated with a 6.5 times higher mortality rate than PM 2.5 .

“There’s a good chance the aerosols are becoming more toxic on a per mass basis, and secondary organic aerosols would be part of the reason why,” says Allen Robinson, an atmospheric scientist at Colorado State University, who was not involved in the new research or Pye’s study. In other words, breathing more oxidized aerosols may be more toxic to humans. But the literature looking at health effects of individual components of PM 2.5 is messy, Robinson notes. More work is needed to unravel the impact of complex combinations of different particle sizes and chemistries in PM 2.5 , he explains. Pye also cautions that consistent results from repeated experiments are needed to verify whether secondary organic aerosols carry significantly greater health risks than other particles that make up PM 2.5 .

Will a warming climate worsen air pollution health risks?

Previous studies have found that warmer temperatures can lead to greater production of these secondary organic aerosols. Hass-Mitchell and colleagues found in the new study that secondary organic aerosol production increased by 60 percent and 42 percent in Queens and Manhattan, respectively, during a sweltering five-day heat wave in July 2022. “We should expect higher health burdens as temperatures rise in a warming climate, with potentially more frequent extreme heat events in the future,” Hass-Mitchell says.

“Secondary organic aerosols are an increasingly important contributor to particulate matter in the summertime and urban air quality, and [they have] a temperature sensitivity that is really important to keep in mind in the context of future climate scenarios,” says Drew Gentner, a chemical and environmental engineer at Yale University and senior author of the new paper. These compounds “are becoming more oxidized at higher temperatures,” he adds, and increased temperatures can cause greater emissions of reactive volatile organic compounds.

And as temperatures increase amid climate change, more frequent and severe wildfires have already begun to chip away at air quality gains in western states. Although Hass-Mitchell and colleagues didn’t observe smoke from wildfires in the summer of 2022, they expect that organic aerosols from wildfires—such as those in the smoke that choked much of the Northeast and Midwest last summer—will also play a major role as the climate changes.

Many other cities, such as Los Angeles, Atlanta and Seoul, have also documented an increasing proportion of PM 2.5 from secondary organic aerosols. But the exact mix of natural versus human-produced sources varies widely from city to city. To continue reducing PM 2.5 , “we need to understand the underlying sources and chemistry contributing to secondary organic aerosol production,” Gentner says.

Until the early 2000s, both the tools to measure secondary organic aerosols and the understanding of their formation were limited, says Benjamin Nault, a co-author of the New York City study and a research scientist at Johns Hopkins University. Currently, most instruments are designed to measure either the size or the chemistry of aerosols but not both, he says. Scientists rely on models to determine how much secondary organic aerosol comes from, for example, live vegetation, asphalt or cooking. But it’s unclear whether some sources are more harmful than others. “There are different signatures for the chemicals that come from taking a shower versus painting [a house],” he says. “Now we’re trying to understand how they come together in an urban environment.”

And that improved understanding is leading to more nuanced pollution research. “As aerosol studies advance, with increasing capabilities to examine the various chemical components of aerosols, we can ask important questions about the relative impact of those components on air quality, human health and the environment,” Gentner says. “It may be less straightforward to address secondary organic aerosol sources compared to primary sources of pollution, but studies [like ours] demonstrate that secondary organic aerosols are the biggest contributor in some urban areas.”

Reporting for this piece was supported by the Nova Institute for Health.

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Essay on air pollution: sources, causes, effects and control.

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Essay on Air Pollution: Sources, Causes, Effects and Control!

Air pollution occurs due to the presence of undesirable solid or gaseous particles in the air in quantities that are harmful to human health and environment.

It can be defined as presence of foreign matter-either gaseous or particulate or combination of both in the air which is detrimental to the health and welfare of human beings.

Sources of Air Pollution :

1. primary pollutants:.

Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable sources are produced by natural events can be in the form of particulate matter or gaseous form. These are called primary pollutants Example: Dust storms and volcanic eruptions and through human activities like emission from vehicles, industries etc.

There are five primary pollutants that contribute to 90% of global air pollution:

(i) Oxides of carbon like carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide (CO and CO 2 ).

(ii) Oxides of nitrogen, like NO, NO 2 , NO 3 (expressed as NO X ).

(iii) Oxides of sulphur particularly sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ).

(iv) Volatile organic compounds, mostly hydrocarbons.

(v) Suspended particulate matter (SPM).

Particulate pollutants are categorized according to size, mode of formation (source) or physical state.

a. Aerosol (general term for particles suspended in air)

b. Mist (aerosol containing liquid droplets e.g., H 2 SO 4 mist)

c. Dust (aerosol containing solid particles)

d. Smoke (aerosol containing mixture of solid and liquid particles produced by chemical reaction such as fire)

e. Fume (same as smoke by produced by condensation of hot vapors of metals e.g.. Zinc and Lead fumes)

f. Plume (smoke coming out of chimney)

g. Fly ash (finely divided non-combustible particles present in the gases arising from fuel combustion. It contains inorganic metallic or mineral substances released when the organic part of the coal is burnt.)

h. Natural particulates (Natural particulates are pollen grains spores bacterial, viruses, protozoal, fungal spores and volcanic dusts.)

Types and Sources of Primary Pollutants

2. Secondary Pollutants:

The pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere, when certain chemical reactions take place among the primary pollutants and with others in the atmosphere are called secondary air pollutants.

Sulphuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid, ozone, formaldehydes and peroxy-acyl-nitrate (PAN).

Particulates are small pieces of solid material. Particulate matter can be:

1. Natural such as dust, seeds, spores, pollen grains, algae fungi, bacteria and viruses.

2. Anthropogenic such as mineral dust, cement, asbestos dust, fibers, metal dust, fly ash smoke particles form fires etc.

Causes of Air Pollution :

Air pollution may originate from one or more variety of sources. The natural pollution includes sources such as oceanic aerosol, volcanic emissions, biogenic sources, windblown terrestrial dust and lightening. The artificial pollution generates from human activities and includes sources such as fuel burning, refuge burning, transportation, construction of buildings, chemical factories, metallurgical factories and, vehicles. The third category includes solvent usage and sources include spray painting and solvent extraction. Automobiles are the first rate of polluters. Industries occupy second position.

Effects of Air Pollution :

(i) effects on human health:.

Particulates cause carcinogenic effects, accumulate in lungs and interfere with ability of lungs to exchange gases. Prolonged exposure causes lung cancer and asthma. Cigarette smoking is responsible for greatest exposure to carbon monoxide (CO).

Exposure to air containing even 0.001% of CO for several hours can cause collapse, coma and even death. As CO remains attached to hemoglobin in the blood for a long time, it accumulates and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. This impairs thinking, causes headaches, drowsiness and nausea. SO 2 irritates the respiratory tissues.

NO 2 can irritate lungs; aggravate asthma and susceptibility to influenza and common colds. Many volatile organic compounds (benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates can cause mutations and cancer. Lead causes neurological problems and cancer.

(ii) Effects on plants:

Gaseous pollutants enter the leaf pores and damage the leaves of crop plants, interfere with photosynthesis and plants growth and reduces nutrient uptake and causes the leaves to turn yellow, brown or drop off altogether.

(iii) On materials:

Air pollutants break down the exterior paint on cars and houses.

(iv) Ozone Layer Depletion:

The upper stratosphere consists of considerable amounts of ozone, which works as an effective screen for UV light. This region is called ozone layer, which extends up to 60 km above the surface of the earth. Ozone is a form of oxygen with 3 atoms instead of 2.

It is produced naturally in the atmosphere. Presence of certain pollutants can accelerate the breakdown of ozone. Depletion of ozone effects human health, food productivity and climate. Sun burn, cataract, aging of skin and skin cancer are caused by increased UV radiation.

It weakens the immune system by supporting the body’s resistance to certain infections like measles, chickenpox and other viral diseases. UV radiation affects the ability of plants to capture light energy during the process of photosynthesis. This reduces the nutrient content and growth of plants mostly in legumes and cabbage.

Plants and animals are damaged by UV radiations. Contribute to global warming, a phenomenon which is caused due to the increase in concentration of certain gases like CO 2 , NO 2 methane and chloroflorocarbons (CFCs).

(v) Photochemical Smog:

Photochemical smog is highly oxidising polluted atmosphere comprising largely of ozone, NO X , hydrogen peroxide, organic peroxides, PAN and peroxybenzoil nitrate (PBzN). This is produced as a result of photochemical reaction among NO x hydrocarbons and oxygen.

Effects of photochemical smog are as follows:

a. Breathing ozone results in respiratory distress, headaches.

b. PAN damages plants.

c. PAH’s poly nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, carcinogenic.

(vi) Acid Rain:

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, i.e., elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure through the process of wet deposition. Acid rain is caused by emissions of compounds of ammonium, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids.

H 2 O (1) + CO 2 (g) → H 2 CO 3 (aq)

Carbonic acid then can ionize in water forming low concentrations of hydronium and carbonate ions.

2H 2 O (1) + H 2 CO 3 (aq) → CO 3 2- (aq) + 2H 3 O + (aq)

Acid deposition as an environmental issue would include additional acids to H 2 CO 3 .

Formation of Acid Rain

The effects of acid rain have been known for a long time. Though experts admit that the problem of acid rain is generally under control, it’s still worth reiterating the effects brought on by acid rain on the wider environment.

Acid rain has adverse effects on:

a. Forests and other vegetation

b. Freshwater lakes and streams destroying aquatic life

d. Buildings and materials

(vii) Global Warming:

Carbon dioxide and other gases allow light to pass, but trap heat in the atmosphere much like glass in a greenhouse traps heat. This greenhouse effect is thought to be responsible for global warming. Carbon dioxide contributes to only 56% of greenhouse heating. The average surface temperature of Earth is about 15°C (59°F). Global Warming is increase in the average temperature of the atmosphere, oceans, and landmasses of Earth.

Effects of global warming are as follows:

a. Temperature extremes

b. Rise in sea level, and change in precipitation

c. Injuries from storms, coastal flooding

d. Interruption of power supply, contamination of drinking water

e. Droughts

f. Food shortages due to shift in agricultural food production

g. Air pollution (made worse by warming)

h. Asthma, bronchitis, emphysema complications

i. Strain on public health systems

j. Increased need due to population migrations

k. Unable to contain spread of infectious diseases

Taj Mahal, Agra, India: A symbol of love affected by air pollutants:

Emperor Shah Jahan constructed this historic monument in the memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal at Agra, India in the year 1648. The innumerable industries in and around Agra released a large amount of sulphur dioxides, suspended particulate matter, smoke, soot etc causing tanning, blackening, and yellowing of the marble stone.

The oxides reacting with rainwater resulted in acid precipitation and in return caused the deterioration and corrosion of the Taj Mahal. In 1984, the Supreme Court of India ordered designated polluting industries in the Taj area to be shut down and or adopt cleaner control technologies.

Control of Air Pollution :

The zoning of the industries is done based on the type of industries, their function etc. every city has its own zoning rules.

Zoning of the industries may be based on:

(a) Their Functions:

The functions include industries such as linkages for industries, sidings etc.

(b) Performance:

The performance includes classification of industries according to their nuisance value such as:

(i) Traffic congestion

(ii) Obnoxious and hazardous emissions, and

(iii) Industrial nuisance such as smoke, dust, dirt, odour, noise etc.

If zoning is done properly, it results inconsiderable improvement of health of the community as a whole. It prevents the invasion of undesirable in and around residential areas and so toxic, hazardous and harmful gases and odours are prevented from entering or attacking the humans living in residential areas.

Air Pollution Control at Source :

The air pollution problem can be minimized at the source of making use of the following measures:

(a) Raw Material Substitution:

In order to check air pollution, it is desirable to substitute the raw material if it results in pollution, by another one which is less polluting. The raw material may contain an ingredient which is not essential but a pollution source. The pollution can be minimised if the non-essential ingredient is removed before the processing of the raw material. Low sulphur fuels can be used in place of high sulphur fuels in order to control air pollution by SO 2 .

(b) Modification of Process:

Pollution reduction can frequently be achieved by using modified procedure or new process. For example, the use of exhaust hoods and ducts over several types of industrial ovens allow the recovery of various solvents that could have become air pollutants.

(c) Equipment Alterations:

Equipment alterations such as the use of floating roof tanks rather than vented tanks can cut down on the evaporation losses. New type of equipment for example, the basic oxygen furnaces which are replacing the open hearth furnaces in steel industry, pose much less air pollution problems.

Controlling Air Pollution by Devices :

Because of large number of industries, various types of gases are liberated in the atmosphere along with particulates and become major source of air pollution. In order to prevent these pollutants into the atmosphere, control devices have been used depending on the collection property and capacity of the device and nature of the processes used by the particular industry. Based on the method of removal several types of dust collectors have been used. Some important control devices are gravity settling chamber, fabric filters, wet scrubbers and electrostatic precipitator.

Following are the 5 classes of the particulate collection equipment:

(i) Gravity Settling Chamber:

This is the simplest method for the control of particulate matter. This applies to coarse particulate matter larger than 50 µm. Here the gravitational force is employed to remove particulate matter with a settling velocity greater than 0.13 m/s. they are used to control emission of coarse particulate from power plants and industrial sites.

(ii) Cyclone Separator:

Cyclone separator is gas cleaning devices that employ a centrifugal force generated by a spinning gas stream to separate the particulate matter from the carrier gas. The cyclone separator is usually employed for removing particles 10 µm in size and larger.

Fractional removal efficiency of the cyclone separator drops rapidly beyond a certain particle size. Cyclone separator operates by the centrifugal force which is several times greater than the gravitational force.

Cyclone Separator & Wet Collector

(iii) Wet Collectors:

In a wet collector a liquid, usually water is used to capture particulate matter or to increase the size of aerosols. It is used for fine particulates, ranging from 0.1 to 20 µm. One of the primary aims of the device is the adequate dispersion of the liquid phase in order to achieve good contact between the particulate phase and the liquid phase.

Three major types of wet collectors are:

(a) Spray chamber scrubbers

(b) Cyclonic scrubbers

(c) Venturi scrubbers

(iv) Fabric Filters:

Filtration is one of the oldest and most widely used methods of separating particulate from the carrier gas. A filter generally any porous structure is composed of granular or fibrous material which tends to retain the particulate as the carrier gas passes through the void of the filter.

Fabric filters are usually formed from cylindrical tubes and hung in multiple rows to provide large surface areas for gas passage. Typical dust loadings handled are from 0.23 to 23 gm/m3 of gas. Fabric filters have efficiencies of 99% or better when collecting 0.5 µm particles and can remove substantial quantities of 0.01 µm particles.

Fabric Filters

(v) Electrostatic Precipitator:

Particulate and aerosol collection by electrostatic precipitation is based on the mutual attraction between particles of one electric charge and the collecting electrode of opposite polarity.

Its advantages are:

(a) Capacity to handle large gas volumes

(b) High collection efficiencies even for submicron size.

(c) Low energy consumption

(d) Ability to operate with relatively high temperature gases.

Related Articles:

  • Air Pollution: Essay on the Effects of Air Pollution on Human, Animals and Plants (with Statistics)
  • Essay on Air Pollution Control Technologies

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Air Pollution Control

Introduction.

Every day, we take 23,000 breaths. I'm at home. I'm at work. You're in your automobile. On your way to work. That's quite a few breaths.

Breathing is something that most of us don't think about because it isn't something we can see. It's difficult to tell what's in the air around you when you can't see pollutants like invisible gases or particles.

Most people are unaware that according to the World Health Organization, more than 90% of the world's population breathes polluted air. Everyone is affected by this frightening figure, notably youngsters, the elderly, and asthmatics.

If you take a look at the causes of air pollution, you will realize that humans are primarily responsible for air pollution. The growing industrialization has positive and negative impacts on mankind and the environment . Also, the increasing rate of environmental pollution is one of the significant drawbacks that we are facing, resulting from our deeds. Before talking about the control of air pollution, we will have to understand their meaning.

Air Pollution Definition

Air pollution means contamination of air, water, or soil by any substance that is harmful to live organisms. It’s like an introduction or release of a toxic substance into the environment, that can harm the elements in the environment. The pollution can take place because of natural (such as volcanic eruption), and man-made reasons. But nowadays, it’s man-made reasons that are causing more pollution than natural ones. From the increasing number of vehicles to ever-growing industrial wastages in the form of air or water, each contributes to air pollution in some way.

What is Air Pollution?

The air pollution definition says that when any physical, chemical, or biological change takes place in the air and contaminates it, then it is called air pollution. The contamination of air can be caused due to many factors such as poisonous or harmful gases, smoke, fog, smog, dust, etc. air pollution affects both plants as well as animals.

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Types of Air Pollutants

The air pollutants are divided into primary and secondary pollutants. Pollutants are those substances that cause air pollution.

Primary Pollutants:

The primary pollutants responsible for air pollution are the ones that directly cause air pollution. These include harmful gases such as sulfur dioxide coming from the factories. Primary pollutants are those that are produced as a direct result of the process. Sulfur dioxide, generated by factories, is a classic example of a primary pollutant.

Secondary Pollutants:

The secondary pollutants are formed by the process of intermixing or intermingling of primary pollutants. Smog, which is a combination of fog and smoke, is a secondary pollutant.

Causes of Air Pollution:

To prevent the pollution of air around, you have to understand the causes of air pollution at first. The main causes are – 

Burning of Fossil Fuels:

Fossil fuel emits harmful gases such as sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide into the air. One of the biggest causes of air pollution is sulfur dioxide, which is emitted through the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum for energy in power plants, and other industry combustibles.

Automobiles: 

The emission of harmful gases is caused by the excessive use of automobiles.

Agricultural Activities: 

Various processes take place during agricultural activities such as the emission of ammonia, overuse of insecticides, pesticides, and fertilizers . Ammonia is a typical byproduct of agriculture and one of the most dangerous gases in the atmosphere. Insecticides, pesticides, and fertilizers have all become increasingly common in agricultural practices. They release hazardous chemicals into the atmosphere and can pollute water.

Farmers also set fire to the fields and old crops to clear them up for the new cycle of sowing. According to reports, burning to clean up fields pollutes the air by emitting toxic pollutants. 

Factories and Industries:

Emission of harmful gases and chemicals into the air by the increasing industrial activities. Manufacturing companies emit a significant amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic compounds, and chemicals into the air, lowering air quality.

Manufacturing industries may be found in every corner of the globe, and no region has escaped their influence. Petroleum refineries also emit hydrocarbons and a variety of other pollutants, which damage the air and soil.

Mining Activities:

Increasing emission of harmful substances through mining activities.  Mining is the extraction of minerals from under the earth's surface utilizing heavy machinery. Dust and chemicals are released into the air throughout the process, resulting in significant air pollution.

This is one of the factors contributing to the deteriorating health of workers and inhabitants in the area.

Domestic Resources:

Effects of domestic sources such as the use of chemical paints and overuse of air conditioners. Household cleaning products and painting supplies release hazardous chemicals into the air, polluting the environment. Have you ever observed that when you paint your house's walls, it emits a noxious odor that makes it nearly impossible to breathe?

Another source of pollution is suspended particle matter, sometimes known as SPM. SPM refers to the particles that float in the air and is typically caused by dust, combustion, and other factors.

Diseases caused by air pollution:

Air Pollution can lead to increasing diseases like throat infections and lung cancer in humans. Every year, diseases related to air pollution kill and hospitalize millions of people. According to World Health Organization estimates, one out of every eight fatalities worldwide is caused by conditions related to air pollution. New research has found significant correlations between the development of respiratory and cardiovascular disorders and both outdoor and indoor air pollution. Ischemic heart disease, stroke, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, and acute lower respiratory infections in children are among the most prevalent diseases induced by air pollution.

"Ischemic heart disease, or coronary heart disease," adds Kevin Wood, Vice President Sales & Marketing at Camfil USA, "is connected to the deposition of calcium or other materials like fat within the coronary artery." "This causes blockages, preventing blood from reaching the heart and other vital organs." According to new research, air pollution hastens the occlusion of arteries, increasing the risk of ischemic heart disease."

Effects of Air Pollution:

The air pollution information shows that increasing air pollution can have an adverse effect on plants, animals, and humans.

Global warming

Air Pollution can increase the amount of global warming as the temperature of the earth will keep rising with the emission of harmful gases. With rising global temperatures, rising sea levels, melting ice from colder places and icebergs, relocation, and habitat loss, an imminent crisis has already been signaled if preservation and normalization measures are not done soon.

Acid rain 

When water droplets combine with harmful chemicals and pollutants, it will lead to acid rain. When fossil fuels are burned, harmful chemicals such as nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides are emitted into the environment. When it rains, the water droplets interact with the contaminants in the air, becoming acidic and falling to the earth as acid rain. Acid rain has the potential to harm humans, animals, and agriculture.

Ozone layer Depletion

All this will eventually lead to depletion of the ozone layer that protects us from harmful UV sun rays. The presence of chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the atmosphere is degrading the ozone layer on Earth.

As the ozone layer thins, damaging rays are emitted back to Earth, potentially causing skin and eye problems. UV rays have the power to harm crops as well.

Thus, we have to work on the prevention of air pollution.

Effects on Animals

Increasing air pollution affects animals and aquatic life, leading them to stray and wander for food. Many of the animals are on the verge of extinction because of this. Animals, sometimes known as wildlife, are particularly vulnerable to the effects of air pollution. Acid rain, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and other harmful compounds are all pollution concerns.

Insects, worms, clams, fish, birds, and mammals all have diverse ways of interacting with their surroundings. As a result, each animal's exposure to and vulnerability to the effects of air pollution is unique.

Air pollution has two major effects on wildlife.

It has an impact on the area or habitat in which they reside, as well as the food supply's availability and quality.

It is not easy to control air pollution, but it will require some simple steps like:

Avoid Using Vehicles

Prefer using public transport as it will reduce the emission of CO into the air. The availability of carpools can help in the reduction of vehicles which in turn reduces pollution. Prefer walking or cycling to nearby places and many such.

Energy Conservation

Use energy-efficient electrical devices at the workplace and home place. You can keep your lights switched off when not in use. The electrical appliances should be checked on a regular notice period so that it won’t affect the conservation.

Use of Clean Energy Resources

It will help to reduce the pollution level. Instead of using fossil fuels, we can use natural resources to produce energy like Solar Energy, Wind Energy, etc.

By decreasing and eliminating the usage of fire and fire-related items.

Because industrial emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution, the pollutants can be reduced by controlling or treating them at the source. If a given raw material's reactions produce a pollutant, for example, the raw materials can be replaced with less harmful materials.

Another method of reducing pollution is to use different fuels. CNG – Compressed Natural Gas–powered vehicles are replacing petrol and diesel vehicles in many parts of India. Vehicles that aren't fully equipped with optimal emission engines are the most likely to use these.

Although India has a number of practices aimed at improving air quality, most of them have been forgotten or are not well implemented. There are still many automobiles on the road that haven't had their emissions tested.

FAQs on Air Pollution Control

1. What are the Types of Air Pollution?

There are 4 major harmful types of air pollution – carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulate matters and lead pollution

2. How Can the Use of Air Conditioners Cause Air Pollution?

The air conditioners release a gas called CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) which increases air pollution and adversely affects the ozone layer as well.

3. How Many People Can Die from Air Pollution?

According to the statistics provided by WHO, around 7 million people die every year just because of the various effects of air pollution.

4. What is the Air Quality Index?

The air quality index is measured by and used by the official pollution control authorities to show to the public how polluted the air currently is. It’s a measure that shows how polluted the air that we breathe in.

5. What are the Measures for the Control of Air Pollution?

Various methods can be undertaken to control air pollution – we can start by reducing the use of private cars, buying the electric appliances that have an energy star label, conserving energy whenever possible, and making less use of air conditioners.

6. How Can We Succeed in the Prevention of Air Pollution?

Prevention of air pollution will be a difficult task, but not an impossible one.  Apart from the individual efforts, the government authorities and the pollution control authorities should issue strict guidelines for it. Also, a good alternative should be provided for fuels and other industrial pollutants.

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Home — Essay Samples — Environment — Air Pollution — Air Pollution: Causes and Effects

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Air Pollution: Causes and Effects

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Words: 723 |

Updated: 30 November, 2023

Words: 723 | Page: 1 | 4 min read

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Air Pollution Essay: Hook Examples

  • The Silent Killer: Delve into the invisible threat that surrounds us every day, affecting our health, environment, and future generations – air pollution.
  • Gasping for Breath: Paint a vivid picture of individuals struggling to breathe in polluted cities, highlighting the urgency of addressing this pressing issue.
  • Nature’s S.O.S: Explore how wildlife and ecosystems send distress signals through the impact of air pollution, underscoring the interconnectedness of all living beings.
  • The Economic Toll: Uncover the hidden costs of air pollution on healthcare, productivity, and quality of life, revealing the far-reaching consequences of our actions.
  • Clean Air, Clear Future: Imagine a world where we embrace cleaner technologies and sustainable practices, offering a vision of hope and change in the fight against air pollution.

Works Cited

  • Agarwal, A., & Agarwal, S. (2020). Air Pollution: Sources, Effects, and Control. CRC Press.
  • Cohen, A. J., Brauer, M., Burnett, R., Anderson, H. R., Frostad, J., Estep, K., … & Balakrishnan, K. (2017). Estimates and 25-year trends of the global burden of disease attributable to ambient air pollution: an analysis of data from the Global Burden of Diseases Study 2015. The Lancet, 389(10082), 1907-1918.
  • Guttikunda, S. K., & Gurjar, B. R. (2012). Role of meteorology in seasonality of air pollution in megacity Delhi, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 184(5), 3199-3211.
  • He, G., Ying, Q., Ma, Y., Cheng, L., Wang, Y., & Liu, Y. (2016). Health risks of air pollution in China: a special focus on particulate matter. Environmental Pollution, 211, 17-30.
  • Heyder, J., Gebhart, J., Rudolf, G., & Schiller, C. (1986). St deposition in the human respiratory tract as determined by cyclone techniques. Environmental Health Perspectives, 66, 149-159.
  • Khan, M. N., Islam, M. M., Siddiqui, M. N., & Islam, M. S. (2019). Sources and Impact of Air Pollution on Human Health. In Sustainable Environment and Transportation (pp. 307-334). Springer.
  • Kumar, P., Kumar, A., & Goyal, P. (2020). Air Pollution: Measurement, Modelling and Mitigation. CRC Press.
  • Lelieveld, J., Evans, J. S., Fnais, M., Giannadaki, D., & Pozzer, A. (2015). The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality on a global scale. Nature, 525(7569), 367-371.

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essay on air pollution causes effects and control

Essay on Pollution for Students and Children

500+ words essay on pollution.

Pollution is a term which even kids are aware of these days. It has become so common that almost everyone acknowledges the fact that pollution is rising continuously. The term ‘pollution’ means the manifestation of any unsolicited foreign substance in something. When we talk about pollution on earth, we refer to the contamination that is happening of the natural resources by various pollutants . All this is mainly caused by human activities which harm the environment in ways more than one. Therefore, an urgent need has arisen to tackle this issue straightaway. That is to say, pollution is damaging our earth severely and we need to realize its effects and prevent this damage. In this essay on pollution, we will see what are the effects of pollution and how to reduce it.

essay on pollution

Effects of Pollution

Pollution affects the quality of life more than one can imagine. It works in mysterious ways, sometimes which cannot be seen by the naked eye. However, it is very much present in the environment. For instance, you might not be able to see the natural gases present in the air, but they are still there. Similarly, the pollutants which are messing up the air and increasing the levels of carbon dioxide is very dangerous for humans. Increased level of carbon dioxide will lead to global warming .

Further, the water is polluted in the name of industrial development, religious practices and more will cause a shortage of drinking water. Without water, human life is not possible. Moreover, the way waste is dumped on the land eventually ends up in the soil and turns toxic. If land pollution keeps on happening at this rate, we won’t have fertile soil to grow our crops on. Therefore, serious measures must be taken to reduce pollution to the core.

Get English Important Questions here

Types of Pollution

  • Air Pollution
  • Water Pollution
  • Soil Pollution

How to Reduce Pollution?

After learning the harmful effects of pollution, one must get on the task of preventing or reducing pollution as soon as possible. To reduce air pollution, people should take public transport or carpool to reduce vehicular smoke. While it may be hard, avoiding firecrackers at festivals and celebrations can also cut down on air and noise pollution. Above all, we must adopt the habit of recycling. All the used plastic ends up in the oceans and land, which pollutes them.

essay on air pollution causes effects and control

So, remember to not dispose of them off after use, rather reuse them as long as you can. We must also encourage everyone to plant more trees which will absorb the harmful gases and make the air cleaner. When talking on a bigger level, the government must limit the usage of fertilizers to maintain the soil’s fertility. In addition, industries must be banned from dumping their waste into oceans and rivers, causing water pollution.

To sum it up, all types of pollution is hazardous and comes with grave consequences. Everyone must take a step towards change ranging from individuals to the industries. As tackling this problem calls for a joint effort, so we must join hands now. Moreover, the innocent lives of animals are being lost because of such human activities. So, all of us must take a stand and become a voice for the unheard in order to make this earth pollution-free.

Get the huge list of more than 500 Essay Topics and Ideas

FAQs on Pollution

Q.1 What are the effects of pollution?

A.1 Pollution essentially affects the quality of human life. It degrades almost everything from the water we drink to the air we breathe. It damages the natural resources needed for a healthy life.

Q.2 How can one reduce pollution?

A.2 We must take individual steps to reduce pollution. People should decompose their waster mindfully, they should plant more trees. Further, one must always recycle what they can and make the earth greener.

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Causes and Effects of Pollution

The environment people live in is affecting them, including health and lifestyle, and the nature around them, like plants, animals, water bodies, and the atmosphere. Environmental issues caused by humans using natural resources and treating nature with no respect have resulted in some negative changes. One of the most significant problems people are facing nowadays is pollution. It affects all the crucial elements for sustaining human life: water, air, and soil. The causes and effects of pollution are multiple and varied, and they should be examined closely to better understand this phenomenon.

General reasons for pollution include major emissions of carbon dioxide, as well as the chemicals produced as the result of the burning of fossil fuels. This happens because of different factories’ activity and their waste, which is being discharged into water, soil, and the atmosphere. Other than big manufacturing elements, pollution is caused by people individually. This involves emissions caused by cars, using much energy for different activities, and producing enormous amounts of waste, especially the types that are not decomposable or take hundreds of years to do so.

The first side of the environment impacted by pollution is the atmosphere. Air pollution can be defined as a combination of harmful gases or particles that accumulate in the air in unsafe quantities. The worsening air quality can result in multiple health issues, including “heart disease, lung cancer, and both chronic and acute respiratory diseases” (“Ambient (outdoor) air pollution,” 2018, para. 1). As air quality is measured around the world, many deficiencies are detected, which directly influence human life.

According to the World Health Organization data, in 2016, about 91 percent of the population inhabited places with unsatisfactory air quality (as cited in “Ambient (outdoor) air pollution,” 2018). Therefore, air pollution is affecting not only those living in big urban areas but is also spreading around the whole planet.

Water covers the majority of the planet, so water pollution is also a crucial problem. Wastewater and emission of fertilizers into water bodies cause water pollution, which can make water harmful to human consumption. Other than becoming undrinkable, contaminated water will affect or even kill aquatic creatures and plants, as well as transfer to crops, making them just as dangerous. The United Nations World Water Development Report stated that over 80 percent of wastewater is discharged back into the environment, not being appropriately treated (2017). Thus, not only do the major water bodies become largely polluted but the effect is also transferred to soil.

As a significant part of the food for humans and domestic animals is grown, polluted soil can also cause complications. Soil pollution occurs when certain toxic chemicals are gathered in large amounts. Soil can be affected by harmful substances as a result of industrial waste emission into the ground, contaminated water interacting with it, or excessive amounts of pesticides or fertilizers being used. As a result, plants and crops become dangerous for human consumption and can cause multiple health problems.

Pollution is a global phenomenon, causing much damage to the planet and harming people and other living creatures. It can manifest in different forms, but its impact is hugely detrimental. Seeking solutions for this problem is now one of the main agendas for the whole of humankind, which can only be done with combined efforts of government structures and community and individual actions. Only by being aware of this situation and taking measures for improvement will people be able to protect their health and create better conditions for future generations.

Ambient (outdoor) air pollution . (2018). Web.

The United Nations world water development report 2017. (2017). Web.

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Essay on Air Pollution – Causes, Effects, Solutions, Conclusion

Category: Essays and Paragraphs On November 20, 2018 By Aparna

Air Pollution

The whole world has been suffering from lots of problems since its existence, and the problems are getting bigger and bigger day by days.

One of the biggest problems that the entire planet faces is the amount of pollution on the planet. Pollution is of several kinds, but the pollution that affects the most to our nature and environment is Air pollution .

Air pollution is the pollution in which the pollutants get released in the air, and those pollutants then pollute the air which affects the health of a human being.

Air pollution is the pollution when the dirt, dirt particles and other kinds of pollutants get mixed to air and make the air polluted.

Today, every city in the world is suffering from air pollution , and that is why a lot of people and organizations in the world are trying their best to save the world from air pollution.

Air Pollution in India

Indian cities are much polluted and that can get seen from various visuals. Land and air pollution are connected directly as if the land is dirty, after a few days, that dirty land will lead to air pollution. In India, there are only a few surfaces where the pollution level is less. For example, the pollution level in Chandigarh city is lesser than a lot of cities in India. However, the pollution level in various cities of NCR, UP and Bihar is way higher than a lot of cities in India. The air pollution in India is getting increased day by day. But, the good news is that the people who had no interest in cleaning their country before, are now getting involved in schemes like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan, etc.

There are lots of causes of air pollution in the world and here are a few of those causes:

  • The burning of fossil fuels is the biggest cause of air pollution, and that is why it has been prohibited at a lot of places in the world.
  • Cars, buses, motorbikes are another big cause of air pollution because they emit a lot of pollution also.
  • Volcano eruptions are another big cause of air pollution.
  • When we cook at home, sometimes we need wood and charcoal for it, and these materials cause a huge amount of air pollution.
  • People smoking cigarettes is another big cause of air pollution.
  • If due to some reason a forest catches fire , then it becomes one of the biggest reasons for air pollution.

These are a few effects on human beings, plants, and animals due to air pollution:

  • The rainwater flows through the surface and ends in the river, and when the surface gets polluted, all the rainwater will take the polluted surface particles with itself which will not only pollute the river, but it will also pollute the land through which the water flows .
  • A lot of people suffer from allergies which are a side effect of living in an air-polluted
  • Air pollution can also lead to severe diseases like cancer, heart diseases, and other respiratory problems, etc.
  • One should restrict the use of charcoal , wood, thus the pollution caused by these resources would not be there in the world.
  • A restriction should be there on industries to use the kind of materials which causes zero to no air pollution at all.
  • The cities which have the maximum air pollution should get asked as to how they will reduce the air pollution and what are their plans for it.

Air pollution is a huge problem not only in India but the whole world, various organizations do their bit to make sure that plans are made to restrict air pollution , but unfortunately those plans never get executed rightly. That is why even after knowing that the air is getting polluted every day, the organizations around the world are unable to provide a good solution to it. As a human being, we must contribute, that is why, we need to gather and make sure that all the places, suffering from air pollution, should get organized in a manner so that air pollution should not exist. Everyone should participate in schemes like Swachh Bharat Abhiyan which will not only reduce the air pollution in the country but will also reduce various other kinds of pollution.

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  1. Air Pollution

    Primary Pollutants Secondary Pollutants Causes of Air Pollution What is Air Pollution? Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and humans drastically. There is a certain percentage of gases present in the atmosphere.

  2. Air Pollution Facts, Causes and the Effects of Pollutants in the Air

    Jillian Mackenzie What Is Air Pollution? Air pollution refers to the release of pollutants into the air—pollutants that are detrimental to human health and the planet as a whole....

  3. Air pollution

    Feb. 10, 2024, 12:41 AM ET (Yahoo News) Air pollution in Gurgaon, Haryana state, India. air pollution, release into the atmosphere of various gases, finely divided solids, or finely dispersed liquid aerosols at rates that exceed the natural capacity of the environment to dissipate and dilute or absorb them.

  4. Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review

    Among them, Particulate Matter (PM), particles of variable but very small diameter, penetrate the respiratory system via inhalation, causing respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, reproductive and central nervous system dysfunctions, and cancer.

  5. Causes, Consequences and Control of Air Pollution

    ... A consistent rise in carbon dioxide, water vapour, methane, nitrous oxide, and chlorofluorocarbons emissions has worsened climate change and its consequences on human health (Prasad et al.,...

  6. Air pollution control

    carbon sequestration cyclone air pollution control, the techniques employed to reduce or eliminate the emission into the atmosphere of substances that can harm the environment or human health.

  7. The Overlooked Causes of Air Pollution

    Air pollution, identified by the World Health Organization as the foremost environmental threat to human health, claims between 7 and 9 million lives annually, representing 10%-15% of global deaths.

  8. 4 Causes and Effects of Air Pollution

    Weather Conditions Air pollution and poor air quality can be attributed to changing weather conditions. For example, dust storms in China would carry clouds of industrial pollutants and particulate pollution across the Gobi desert into neighbouring countries such as Korea and Japan during spring season.

  9. Air pollution: Impact and prevention

    INTRODUCTION. Environmental pollution has been a matter of concern for many years. The Mellon Institute of Pittsburgh, PA, USA, sponsored the first broad scientific study of smoke abatement, which resulted in legislation designed to decrease the effects of smoke. 1 It is now well known that environmental contamination impacts on health; the World Health Organization estimates that every year ...

  10. Air and Water Pollution: Burden and Strategies for Control

    Environmental pollution has many facets, and the resultant health risks include diseases in almost all organ systems. Thus, a chapter on air and water pollution control links with chapters on, for instance, diarrheal diseases (chapter 19), respiratory diseases in children and adults (chapters 25 and 35), cancers (chapter 29), neurological disorders (chapter 32), and cardiovascular disease ...

  11. Essay on Air Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control of Air Pollution

    1. Particulate Matter: It is of two types—settleable and suspended. The settleable dusts have a particle longer than 10 (am. The smaller particles are able to remain suspended for long periods in the air. The important effects of particulate matter are.

  12. Essay on Air Pollution for Students and Children

    Air pollution causes asthma, bronchitis, and many other diseases. Moreover, it increases the rate of aging of lungs, decreases lungs function, damage cells in the respiratory system. Ways To Reduce Air Pollution Although the level of air pollution has reached a critical point.

  13. Pollution: Causes, Effects and Control

    Twenty years on from the first edition of Pollution and the topic remains high in the public awareness. Environmental pollution is now a major area of research, consultancy and technological development and is a priority for the political agendas of both the developed and developing worlds. The fifth edition of this book is fully updated, and ...

  14. Air Pollution Threatens Millions of Lives. Now the Sources Are Shifting

    Public Health. Particle-based ambient air pollution causes more than 4 million premature deaths each year globally, according to the World Health Organization. The tiniest particles—2.5 microns ...

  15. Air Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Solutions

    Published: Feb 8, 2022 Table of contents The Earth is slowly dying, and one of the reasons why is because of us. We are hurting the planet through our actions. The world's air quality has been rapidly declining due to air pollution mainly caused by human activities.

  16. Air Pollution Essay for Students in English

    Download PDF NCERT Solutions CBSE CBSE Study Material Textbook Solutions Essay on Air Pollution Environmental changes are caused by the natural or artificial content of harmful pollutants and can cause instability, disturbance, or adverse effects on the ecosystem.

  17. Air Pollution: Causes, Effects, and Proposed Solutions

    The health effects of air pollution include respiratory diseases, such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), heart diseases, strokes, and cancer. Exposure to air pollution during pregnancy can also lead to adverse birth outcomes, such as low birth weight and premature birth.

  18. Essay on Air Pollution: Sources, Causes, Effects and Control

    Exposure to air containing even 0.001% of CO for several hours can cause collapse, coma and even death. As CO remains attached to hemoglobin in the blood for a long time, it accumulates and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. This impairs thinking, causes headaches, drowsiness and nausea.

  19. Air Pollution Control

    The main causes are -. Fossil fuel emits harmful gases such as sulfur dioxide and carbon monoxide into the air. One of the biggest causes of air pollution is sulfur dioxide, which is emitted through the combustion of fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum for energy in power plants, and other industry combustibles.

  20. Air Pollution: Causes and Effects: [Essay Example], 723 words

    Details The air we breathe today is full of toxic and hazardous pollution. Pollution is a big problem to our health and the environment. Pollution is created by individuals, communities or industries that collect and dispose pollutants improperly.

  21. Pollution Cause and Effect Essay

    There are many important causes of air pollution, they are: Burning of fossil fuels, Vehicles, Factories and industries, Mining and Domestic sources. And there are some effects of air pollution which includes: Diseases, Global warming, Acid rain and Ozone layer depletion.

  22. Essay on Pollution in 500 Words

    Effects of Pollution. Pollution affects the quality of life more than one can imagine. It works in mysterious ways, sometimes which cannot be seen by the naked eye. However, it is very much present in the environment. For instance, you might not be able to see the natural gases present in the air, but they are still there.

  23. AIR POLLUTION; CAUSES, EFFECTS AND REMEDIATION IN NIGERIA

    Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or cause damage to the natural...

  24. Causes and Effects of Pollution

    Air pollution can be defined as a combination of harmful gases or particles that accumulate in the air in unsafe quantities. The worsening air quality can result in multiple health issues, including "heart disease, lung cancer, and both chronic and acute respiratory diseases" ("Ambient (outdoor) air pollution," 2018, para. 1).

  25. Essay on Air Pollution

    Meaning Air pollution is the pollution when the dirt, dirt particles and other kinds of pollutants get mixed to air and make the air polluted. Today, every city in the world is suffering from air pollution, and that is why a lot of people and organizations in the world are trying their best to save the world from air pollution.