thesis statement on legal drinking age

Debate on the Legal Drinking Age Essay

Introduction, regulatory authorities should raise the legal drinking age, alternative perspective on legal drinking age, works cited.

Legal drinking age is the age at which the law allows a person to buy or consume alcoholic drinks. The minimum age that a person is allowed to consume alcohol ranges between 17 an 21 years across the word. However, it is almost unanimous that the average drinking age should be 18 years. While it is apparent that young people should stay away from alcohol until they reach 18 years, reality tells us otherwise.

The reason is that minimum drinking laws apply in public places only. According to Plant and Plant, the authorities rarely regulate alcohol consumption at home (891). The legal drinking age has elicited unprecedented arguments across the world. While some people argue that the legal drinking age should be lowered, others highlight the apparent negative effects on the health of young people.

As such, there have been no conclusive decisions across the world on the matter. This paper explores the concept of legal drinking age in light of these arguments. Particularly, the paper will review various articles that support the argument that the legal age ought to increase. Also, the paper will provide counter-arguments as a way of highlighting alternative views and perspectives.

Hanson asserts that the problem of alcohol has increased in an unprecedented way for the last decade (28). According to him, about 78 percent of Americans have consumed alcohol more than twice in their lifetime (87). While these numbers are staggering, the levels of alcoholism have increased rapidly within the same period. Hence, it is critical to highlight the effects of low legal drinking age on young people.

At the outset, lower drinking age predisposes young people to early alcohol consumption. This does not only increase their risk of adverse effects but also renders them unable to participate in their activities fully (Lunsford 24). By lowering the legal drinking age, the authorities will have given the young people leeway to many other drugs.

The rationale is that young people experience peer influence implying that some student s will be able to influence the rest to consume alcohol (Plant and Plant 888). According to Miron, peers are the most important agents of socialization and help an individual to acquire beliefs, attitudes, and values (7).

In other words, teenagers will consume alcohol at a young age since their peers are doing it. This entrenches the belief that alcohol is appropriate in the minds of the young people increasing the likelihood of repeated behavior (Fujioka and Pinkleton 577).

It is important to underscore the number of revenues that go to curing and treating preventable diseases such as alcoholism. According to Miron, the government directs around $28 billion to facilitate the treatment of preventable illnesses and diseases (19). Alcohol intake leads to long-term effects and diseases such as liver cirrhosis, addiction, and gout.

By lowering the legal drinking age, the government will not only increase its spending towards such preventable illnesses but also grapple with sustaining such programs. On the other hand, the government will stand to save huge amounts of revenues that it currently budgets for preventable diseases. Also, the number of resources will be directed towards other sectors and programs that can stimulate the economy (Plant and Plant 890).

For instance, the US government can save hugely on preventable illnesses and increase its funding towards fighting unemployment. As such, it is important for the law to allow an increment of the years that an individual is legally allowed to consume alcohol.

Empirical studies have shown that alcohol consumption is more dangerous for young people than for grownups. Miron establishes that people who indulge in alcohol at a low age are likely to develop alcohol-related disorders at their adulthood (29).

This is unlike people who begin to consume alcohol at an advanced age. Also, it is important to underscore the significance of individual characteristics vis a vis their likelihood of developing alcoholism and alcohol-related disorders (Rosen and Behrens 70).

For instance, Hanson postulates that a child with a psychiatric background of attention deficit disorder as well as hyperactivity is more vulnerable to alcohol-related problems at adulthood (45). Also, Hanson argues that alcoholism is hereditary and there are biological genes that parents may pass to their children.

This implies that they are vulnerable to dangerous drinking habits. By lowering the legal drinking age, the vulnerable young people will be at risk of drinking at an early age leading to high chances of early alcoholism (Plant and Plant 895). By increasing the legal drinking age; therefore, the vulnerable young people will be protected from the adverse effects of alcohol.

It is apparent that low legal drinking age will also lead to loss of productivity among the future generations (Plant and Plant 890). After passing through the education system, it is expected that the young will join the workforce. In other words, they join the labor market and sell their learned skills in exchange for wages through employment.

To the contrary, Plant and Plant say that people who began drinking at an early age are not likely to produce optimally (892). This is in consideration of the fact that some young people will begin experiencing the effects of alcohol including addiction, poor health and may be unable to join the workforce. This is not only a major concern for our aging population but also for the government, that expects increased production (Hanson 67).

Miron articulates that early drinking is a major concern for the economy since it tends to deprive the economy some of the most youthful, innovative and creative laborers (44). To this end, the regulatory authorities should be unmoved in a resolute decision to increase the age at which an individual can consume, buy and sell alcohol.

This ensures that the productive young people will join the labor markets and ultimately, assist in expanding the economy. As such, the legal drinking age ought to be reviewed upwardly.

By increasing the legal drinking age, authorities will be in a position to counter the negative effects that pop culture and ads have on young people (Fujioka and Pinkerton 573). Currently, media is a major agent of providing information to a majority of the world’s population. While this unarguable, Miron articulates that media is an instrument through which the young people acquire knowledge about alcohol (49).

He says that the media inculcates positive attitudes and beliefs among young people regarding alcohol consumption (9). Also, popular culture has had its fair share of entrenching positive beliefs about alcohol. Low legal drinking age allows young people to attend various concerts held by pop artists (Plant and Plant 891).

The concerts do not only predispose young people to alcohol but also other hard drugs. By increasing the legal drinking age, the pub owners will neither allow young people to enter their premises nor allow the pop artists to perform for the underage population (Hanson 45).

Plant and Plant posit that a high legal drinking age allows people to make informed choices and decisions about alcohol (889). Most young people are not aware of the dangers of alcohol consumption (Miron 8). Besides, most young people are unable to make their own decisions without influences from their peers (Fujioka and Pinkleton 582). Therefore, they are unable to understand the effects of alcohol on their future lives.

For instance, various studies have revealed that there is a positive correlation between making the right decisions and age. Plant and Plant elucidate that over 59% of high school students consume alcohol as a means of socializing and identifying with their peers (889). Hanson says that peer pressure is most influential amongst young people when compared to other age categories of the population (79).

This is contrary to a prevalent notion that people (whether young or old) can make independent choices and decisions. As such, the authorities will ensure that young people will not suffer from undue influences when making decisions about alcohol consumption if they increase the legal drinking age. For instance, at the age of twenty-one years, people can make more rational decisions than at the age of 17 years.

Besides, the age at which the young people ought to consume alcohol should rely on empirical evidence that highlight the correlation between age and decision-making (Fujioka and Pinkleton 582). Fujioka and Pinkleton assert that young people can make major decisions at the age of twenty years (582).

This is due to their cognitive makeup that is dependent on experience and prior knowledge. It is therefore important to increase the age at which young people can purchase and consume alcohol freely.

While proponents argue that legal drinking age ought to be increased, opponents hold opposite opinion regarding the debate. At the outset, empirical studies do not provide conclusive decisions about the relationship between age and alcoholism. Miron points out that such deficiency in research may lead to the assumption that alcohol consumption is healthy even for young people (34).

Besides, the available scientific research does not reveal the exact age when the human body can digest alcohol without experiencing negative effects. These gaps in the field of research have been unable to explain the reason behind high legal drinking age except for moral reasons. To that end, opponents argue that alcohol consumption is a matter that relates more to individual moral standpoints as opposed to age.

In particular, Hanson says that low drinking age in Cyprus (currently standing at 17) does not lead to more consumption of alcohol than in countries like Uganda whose legal drinking age is 21 (67). According to Rosen and Behrens, it defeats logic to presuppose that reduction of alcohol intake will come about due to the highly regulated system (73).

As elucidated by Plant and Plant, opponents argue that the alcohol industry contributes significantly to the government’s revenues (891). Increasing the legal drinking age will, therefore, drive some alcohol businesses out of the market (Plant and Plant 892). This discriminative approach will not only lead to layoffs but also unemployment.

Fujioka and Pinkleton assert that young people even at the age of 16 can make decisions about alcohol consumption (574). In other words, he argues that countless messages that inform young people on the dangers of excessive consumption of alcohol are enough to caution young people. By increasing the legal drinking age, the government will create an environment that is unfavorable for the alcohol business.

This might also scare investors who are willing to invest in the sector. As such, alcohol consumption is about the moral grounds that people hold rather than an issue of age (Miron 56). It is, therefore, irrational to increase the legally acceptable drinking age owing to moral subjectivity.

While it is true that alcohol has negative effects on the health and life of a person, it is misleading to suggest that alcohol consumption ought to be regulated for specific and (probably) higher age category. The reason is that the authorities can regulate alcohol consumption without necessarily increasing the legal drinking age. For instance, Fujioka and Pinkelton pinpoint that alcohol should be highly taxed by the authorities (574).

This is an alternative approach towards ensuring that the sale of alcohol is only possible for people who can afford it. According to Miron, high-priced alcohol is a major strategy that can lead to the reduction of alcohol consumption without affecting the economy (54). Therefore, the authorities ought to explore various ways of regulating alcohol consumption among young people without affecting the economy.

Miron supports his arguments with an illustration of Cyprus where the legal drinking age is 17 years (54). He points out that alcohol is very expensive in Cyprus to the extent that even the 20 years old people are unable to afford (Miron 56). This does not only serve to entrench the notion that alcohol is regulations is more effective when using high taxations than when increasing the legal drinking age.

Fujioka and Pinkleton articulate that all persons can make their own decisions about alcohol consumption (576). This implies that young people can make independent decisions without depending on their peers for opinions. In other words, Hanson points out that decision making among people is dependent on experience, self-awareness, confidence and other non-cognitive attributes like age and peer pressure (23).

To him, a young person can distinguish various options and as such, drinks only because he or she has made the decision. Since they too have individual rights, young people ought to enjoy such freedoms in equal measure as the adults. As such, alcohol consumption is an individual decision and a choice that ought to be left to young people.

Besides, research has also shown that increasing the legal drinking age has failed to control people who consume alcohol at homes. The reason is that despite the efforts to curtail the rampant drinking habits by young people, they are exposed to instances of drinking on numerous occasions (Miron 87).

As such, it is not about the ability of the authorities to increase the drinking age but about the level of discipline instilled in a person. To that end, addressing the problem of alcohol by increasing the legal; drinking is an act of ‘addressing the symptom’ without addressing the cause in an amicable way.

In essence, the legal drinking age is the age at which an individual is allowed to consume, buy or sell alcohol (Lunsford 24). It ranges between 17 and 21 years across the world. While some people argue in favor of high drinking age in the country, others argue for reduced age of alcohol consumption. On the one hand, the proponents say that a low drinking age leads to high rates of alcohol-related disorders in adulthood.

It also leads to loss of productivity, revenues for the government and it supports pop culture. On the other hand, opponents make a different argument that no study has so far established the relationship between early drinking and decision-making processes (Miron 45). Besides, they argue that an increase in legal drinking age will reduce the market for the alcohol industry leading to diminished earnings.

It is important to articulate that the opponents also claim that there are other ways through which the authorities can regulate alcohol consumption among the young people.

Particularly, Plant and Plant say that the government could increase the tax rates charged on alcoholic drinks to make them expensive for both old and young members of the society (893). Finally, yet importantly, they make an argument that young people can make informed decisions on whether or not to consume alcohol without making inquiries from their parents and adults (Plant and Plant, 892).

Fujioka, Austin, and Bernard Pinkleton. “The Relationship of Perceived Beer Ad and PSA Quality to High School Students’ Alcohol-Related Beliefs and Behaviors.” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 45.1 (2001): 575-584. Print.

Hanson, David. “Alcohol Education What We Must Do.” Journal of Health Sciences 5.8 (2009): 28-97. Print.

Lunsford, Andrea. The St. Martin’s Handbook for Eastern Kentucky University, New York: McGraw Hill Publishers, 2009. Print.

Miron, Jeffery. “Rethinking Minimum Legal Drinking Age.” Harvard Business Review 2.3 (March 2009): 13-140. Print.

Plant, Martin and Moira Plant.“Young People and Alcohol.” Journal of Research in Nursing 6.6 (2001): 887-897. Print.

Rosen, Leonard, and Laurence Behrens. Writing and Reading across the Curriculum. New Jersey: Pearson Publishers, 2011. Print.

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Legal Drinking Age in the United States

The legal drinking age in the world.

The alcohol minimum purchase age differs from country to country across the world. As Howard reports, research was carried out in 2016 by the World Health Organization to study the legal age to buy and consume alcohol in different countries. The results showed that there are different approaches, from the total ban for all citizens regardless of age to the complete absence of age limits. Iran, Saudi Arabia, and Yemen have completely prohibited alcohol consumption, whereas Nigeria and several other African countries have no age limit at all (Howard). In Germany, the legal drinking age is that of 16, a year before the minimum driving age with supervision.

Similarly, the majority of other European states have a minimum of 17-18 years old, which is on average the same as legal driving and marriage age or precedes it by one year. Meanwhile, US citizens can only legally buy alcohol at the age of 21, three years after being legally enabled to join the military or get married. Such a difference suggests the connection between the cultural aspects of a county and laws that regulate alcohol consumption.

Factors of alcohol intake

The number of alcoholic beverages consumed and the frequency of intake are not similar around the world. The research by WHO implies that in economically wealthy countries, more alcohol is consumed and heavy episodic drinking happens more likely (Howard). Thus, more careful measures are to be taken by the government to prevent drunk driving and other negative consequences of alcohol intake. Political, economic, and social factors influence drinking habits, as well as the way that the government handles the issue of legal alcohol purchase.

At the same time, the abovementioned factors originate predominantly from the country’s culture, historical events, and national character. The Americans are known for valuing their individualism, independence, and privacy. Throughout history, these characteristics have determined their approach to different spheres of life, including drinking culture. Besides, the US economy is considered to be the largest in the world; it is highly developed and primarily consumer-based. As a result of an independent character and a prosperous economy, demand for alcohol is rather high in the country.

The historical and cultural aspects of alcohol consumption in the US

The legal drinking age in the US is currently among the highest in the world. The explanation for this can be found in the cultural aspects of the country. As it is known, the US culture was formed by the Founding Fathers, who were Puritans and followed the prohibitive Biblical approach to alcohol drinking. Later on, similar beliefs about the harmful effect of alcohol on the social good resulted in Prohibition in the 1920s, a surprising phenomenon for “one of the hardest drinking countries” at that time (Rorabaugh 2). The driving force of Prohibition was religious organizations, which believed that crime and abuse rates could be decreased by lowering the alcohol intake of the nation.

Even though Prohibition collapsed, it resulted in setting a legal drinking age of 21 for adolescents in nearly all states (Federal Trade Commission [FTC]). However, only after the National Minimum Drinking Age Act was adopted in 1984, the legal age of 21 for purchasing alcohol was determined on the national level (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC]). Overall, the complex cultural background of the country should be considered when discussing the minimum legal drinking age.

Increasing the minimum drinking age has proved to be reasonably efficient. Ever since the adoption of the Act in 1984, drinking among high-schoolers has dropped significantly by almost 25%, while binge drinking has decreased by about 13% (FTC). Despite the favorable statistics, the problem of teenage drinking still exists, and reducing teen access to alcohol remains a national priority. However, whether children and teenagers can have alcoholic beverages also largely depends on parents and national upbringing traditions.

Child-rearing as part of national culture

Another cultural aspect of the United States that might have led to the current legal drinking age is child-rearing traditions. Americans tend to treat their children as independent individuals, and such a tendency can result in children being spoiled in some cases. Increased and uncontrolled freedoms for individuals that are not mature enough may sometimes have harmful consequences. According to Howard, about 28% of adolescents aged from 15 to 19 experience binge episodic drinking. In her article, Howard states that binge or heavy drinking occurs if a person consumes over 60 grams of pure alcohol in the past month. Nevertheless, the reason for uncontrollable drinking might be not only the high independence of teenagers but also the family’s attitude toward alcohol consumption.

For example, some parents believe that it is safer for their children if they are introduced to alcohol at home. Some might even provide beverages for parties, showing their children tolerance to drinks. Alternatively, in some families, alcohol is strictly prohibited, which might cause a damaging effect of the forbidden fruit, making teenagers go heavy on drinks once they reach the legal age. Therefore, a healthy and balanced approach is needed to avoid adverse effects for adolescents in the future.

Car culture and drunk driving in the US

Another cultural aspect to keep in mind when discussing the legal drinking age in the US is the country’s car culture. Americans are largely dependent on motor vehicles, and teenagers are expected to be able to drive at 16 and get a car as soon as possible. The independent nature of US citizens presupposes mobility in reaching different locations. Besides, there is access to rather cheap cars, gas, and insurance, compared to other countries. In other words, adolescents are enabled to drive when they are likely not so mature as adults, emotionally and mentally, and some of them might not responsibly approach such an opportunity.

Consequently, teenagers are more likely to get into alcohol-related automobile crashes. Motor vehicle accidents are the primary cause of death for children and adolescents, and lowering the legal drinking age in the last century by some states increased traffic crashes that involved teenagers (FTC). As a result, the countermeasure should have been raising either the drinking or driving age. Considering the need for mobility in the US, a higher legal drinking age seems a reasonable solution.

Overall, the cultural aspects that have likely resulted in the legal alcohol consumption regulation are discussed in this paper. The difference in the determined minimum drinking age in countries can be explained by their cultural, historical, and social backgrounds. In the US, the minimum is that of 21 years old, and it has been set to decrease drinking and lower the number of car accidents in the country. However, the attitude toward alcohol in the family also plays a significant role in forming the child’s future behavior and level of responsibility. The cultural aspects of the US history, the modern car culture, as well as family traditions and opinions on alcoholic beverages are likely the primary reasons for the high legal drinking age in the country.

Works Cited

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. “Minimum legal drinking age of 21 saves lives.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention . 2020. Web.

Federal Trade Commission. “ 21 is the Legal Drinking Age. ” Federal Trade Commission: Consumer Information . 2018.

Howard, Jacqueline. “The Countries Where Drinking is Banned until 25 — or Allowed at 13.” CNN Health . 2019. Web.

Rorabaugh, William Joseph. Prohibition: A Very Short Introduction . Oxford University Press, 2019.

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The Thesis Statement in a Persuasive Text

Alys Avalos-Rivera

In another chapter, we discussed the features of an informational essay. In this chapter, we will guide you to understand the essential elements of a similar type of academic text: the persuasive essay. Although informational and persuasive writing follow similar principles such as an orderly presentation of ideas that should be supported with evidence (e.g. facts, arguments, or examples), their purposes differ. The objective is written to take a stance (specific point of view) with respect to a controversial topic and persuade the audience to adopt the writer’s position. Because of this difference, the thesis statement of the persuasive essay needs to introduce the writer’s position in the controversy featured in the essay. Also, the preview of the essay’s structure should outline the arguments that the author will use to support his/her stance.

Should the US drinking age be lowered?

In the US, drinking alcoholic beverages is illegal for people under 21 years of age (minimum legal drinking age or MLDA). This law has long caused a great deal of disagreement and debates. While some people think it is paradoxical that young people of 18 cannot enter a bar but still go to war, others believe that the law is the best way to keep youth away from irresponsible and heavy drinking episodes (also called binge drinking). The following texts were written by readers of the New York Times” Room for Debate page to express their opinions about the subject. [1]

• Read the comments and underline the readers’ main arguments (reasons to support one position or the other).
• Identify which readers are against lowering the minimum drinking age (CON) and which are in favor (PRO)?
• Which arguments seem the least convincing? Which are the most persuasive? Why?

Content focus: Rating thesis statements

Considering these features, in the following task you will analyze how six college students drafted their thesis statements for a persuasive essay on the MLDA controversy. In the prompt used by the instructor for this assignment, students were required to address the following purposes:

• Present the PROs and CONs of the MLDA to a group of college students’ parents.
• Persuade the parents to vote in favor of lowering the MLDA to 18 years of age.

In other words, the writers need to take a stance on the issue. Read the Thesis Statement and assess how well each one fulfills the purposes given above and to what extent. Rate the Thesis Statement using a scale from 1 to 6, where 6 will stand for the best Thesis Statement and 1 will be given to the poorest. Be prepared to explain the reasons you have to support your rating.

a. The United States has more accidents caused by drivers under the influence of alcohol than other countries where there is no MLDA (        )

b. Young people should be allowed to drink without legal restrictions based on their age, which is ridiculous (        )

c. Parents should teach their children how to drink alcohol in moderation.  (        )

d. Lowering the MLDA will allow parents to introduce their children to alcohol use under the supervision and reduce the rate of accidents caused by drunken drivers (        )

e. A reduction in the MLDA will help neutralize teenagers’ obsession with drinking, allow parents to monitor their children first encounters with alcohol, and reduce the rate of accidents caused by irresponsible drinking.   (        )

f. Having the MLDA fixed at 21 is only increasing young people’s fascination with drinking in unsafe environments and using false IDs.     (        )

Guidelines for a thesis statement

What should be considered when drafting a thesis statement for an essay that aims to persuade the audience to take a stand in a controversial issue? Think of some possible guidelines to write an effective persuasive TS taking into account the following:

• How should you address your audience?
• Where in your text should you introduce your stance?
• What language features (words, phrases) could be useful?
• How can you connect your TS with the main arguments you will use in your essay?

Write your guidelines below and discuss them with your colleagues and your instructor:

In some of the thesis statements listed above, the writers use modal verbs such as will and should . The first one ( will ) is used to predict the results that could be achieved if the authorities follow a specific course of action regarding the MLDA. The second one ( should ) is used to recommend what should be done with respect to the MLDA. These and other modal verbs that express advice, convey an obligation, or predict an outcome are often used to introduce the writer’s stance because they are useful to express the speaker’s desires, or his/her ideas of how the world should be. Other modal verbs that are also used with these purposes are: must, can, could, ought to, and also the semi-modal have to .

When using modal verbs to compose your thesis statement, however, you should be careful to select the one that best represents your purpose. The meaning of your thesis statement can change a great deal if you use one or the other. Read the following examples and explain how the meaning has changed with each modal (in bold):

*Although ought to and must are accepted as standard forms, they are not used in Academic English very often because they imply a strong and categorical position. Scientists usually abstain from categorical statements because these expressions do not convey that the writer remains open to new possibilities. Scientist prefer to maintain a more open attitude in their writing in case new evidence is discovered in the future that can change their points of view about the world.

Although the participants in the Room for Debate’s and Star Wars pages hold different points of view regarding very different topics, they all engaged in their online discussions with a common purpose: persuading their audience of their point of view. They do so in a succinct fashion because their audience does not usually invest much time in reading blog posts that are too long and complex. Therefore, effective blog/forum posters try to be direct and present one single point per post. On the contrary, academic persuasive writing needs to be more detailed and provide the audience with more than just the author’s point of view.

• https://www.nytimes.com/roomfordebate/2015/02/10/you-must-be-21-to-drink ↵

The Thesis Statement in a Persuasive Text Copyright © 2020 by Alys Avalos-Rivera is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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9.1 Developing a Strong, Clear Thesis Statement

Learning objectives.

• Develop a strong, clear thesis statement with the proper elements.
• Revise your thesis statement.

Have you ever known a person who was not very good at telling stories? You probably had trouble following his train of thought as he jumped around from point to point, either being too brief in places that needed further explanation or providing too many details on a meaningless element. Maybe he told the end of the story first, then moved to the beginning and later added details to the middle. His ideas were probably scattered, and the story did not flow very well. When the story was over, you probably had many questions.

Just as a personal anecdote can be a disorganized mess, an essay can fall into the same trap of being out of order and confusing. That is why writers need a thesis statement to provide a specific focus for their essay and to organize what they are about to discuss in the body.

Just like a topic sentence summarizes a single paragraph, the thesis statement summarizes an entire essay. It tells the reader the point you want to make in your essay, while the essay itself supports that point. It is like a signpost that signals the essay’s destination. You should form your thesis before you begin to organize an essay, but you may find that it needs revision as the essay develops.

Elements of a Thesis Statement

For every essay you write, you must focus on a central idea. This idea stems from a topic you have chosen or been assigned or from a question your teacher has asked. It is not enough merely to discuss a general topic or simply answer a question with a yes or no. You have to form a specific opinion, and then articulate that into a controlling idea —the main idea upon which you build your thesis.

Remember that a thesis is not the topic itself, but rather your interpretation of the question or subject. For whatever topic your professor gives you, you must ask yourself, “What do I want to say about it?” Asking and then answering this question is vital to forming a thesis that is precise, forceful and confident.

A thesis is one sentence long and appears toward the end of your introduction. It is specific and focuses on one to three points of a single idea—points that are able to be demonstrated in the body. It forecasts the content of the essay and suggests how you will organize your information. Remember that a thesis statement does not summarize an issue but rather dissects it.

A Strong Thesis Statement

A strong thesis statement contains the following qualities.

Specificity. A thesis statement must concentrate on a specific area of a general topic. As you may recall, the creation of a thesis statement begins when you choose a broad subject and then narrow down its parts until you pinpoint a specific aspect of that topic. For example, health care is a broad topic, but a proper thesis statement would focus on a specific area of that topic, such as options for individuals without health care coverage.

Precision. A strong thesis statement must be precise enough to allow for a coherent argument and to remain focused on the topic. If the specific topic is options for individuals without health care coverage, then your precise thesis statement must make an exact claim about it, such as that limited options exist for those who are uninsured by their employers. You must further pinpoint what you are going to discuss regarding these limited effects, such as whom they affect and what the cause is.

Ability to be argued. A thesis statement must present a relevant and specific argument. A factual statement often is not considered arguable. Be sure your thesis statement contains a point of view that can be supported with evidence.

Ability to be demonstrated. For any claim you make in your thesis, you must be able to provide reasons and examples for your opinion. You can rely on personal observations in order to do this, or you can consult outside sources to demonstrate that what you assert is valid. A worthy argument is backed by examples and details.

Forcefulness. A thesis statement that is forceful shows readers that you are, in fact, making an argument. The tone is assertive and takes a stance that others might oppose.

Confidence. In addition to using force in your thesis statement, you must also use confidence in your claim. Phrases such as I feel or I believe actually weaken the readers’ sense of your confidence because these phrases imply that you are the only person who feels the way you do. In other words, your stance has insufficient backing. Taking an authoritative stance on the matter persuades your readers to have faith in your argument and open their minds to what you have to say.

Even in a personal essay that allows the use of first person, your thesis should not contain phrases such as in my opinion or I believe . These statements reduce your credibility and weaken your argument. Your opinion is more convincing when you use a firm attitude.

On a separate sheet of paper, write a thesis statement for each of the following topics. Remember to make each statement specific, precise, demonstrable, forceful and confident.

• Texting while driving
• The legal drinking age in the United States
• Steroid use among professional athletes

Examples of Appropriate Thesis Statements

Each of the following thesis statements meets several of the following requirements:

• Specificity
• Ability to be argued
• Ability to be demonstrated
• Forcefulness
• The societal and personal struggles of Troy Maxon in the play Fences symbolize the challenge of black males who lived through segregation and integration in the United States.
• Closing all American borders for a period of five years is one solution that will tackle illegal immigration.
• Shakespeare’s use of dramatic irony in Romeo and Juliet spoils the outcome for the audience and weakens the plot.
• J. D. Salinger’s character in Catcher in the Rye , Holden Caulfield, is a confused rebel who voices his disgust with phonies, yet in an effort to protect himself, he acts like a phony on many occasions.
• Compared to an absolute divorce, no-fault divorce is less expensive, promotes fairer settlements, and reflects a more realistic view of the causes for marital breakdown.
• Exposing children from an early age to the dangers of drug abuse is a sure method of preventing future drug addicts.
• In today’s crumbling job market, a high school diploma is not significant enough education to land a stable, lucrative job.

You can find thesis statements in many places, such as in the news; in the opinions of friends, coworkers or teachers; and even in songs you hear on the radio. Become aware of thesis statements in everyday life by paying attention to people’s opinions and their reasons for those opinions. Pay attention to your own everyday thesis statements as well, as these can become material for future essays.

Now that you have read about the contents of a good thesis statement and have seen examples, take a look at the pitfalls to avoid when composing your own thesis:

A thesis is weak when it is simply a declaration of your subject or a description of what you will discuss in your essay.

Weak thesis statement: My paper will explain why imagination is more important than knowledge.

A thesis is weak when it makes an unreasonable or outrageous claim or insults the opposing side.

Weak thesis statement: Religious radicals across America are trying to legislate their Puritanical beliefs by banning required high school books.

A thesis is weak when it contains an obvious fact or something that no one can disagree with or provides a dead end.

Weak thesis statement: Advertising companies use sex to sell their products.

A thesis is weak when the statement is too broad.

Weak thesis statement: The life of Abraham Lincoln was long and challenging.

Read the following thesis statements. On a separate piece of paper, identify each as weak or strong. For those that are weak, list the reasons why. Then revise the weak statements so that they conform to the requirements of a strong thesis.

• The subject of this paper is my experience with ferrets as pets.
• The government must expand its funding for research on renewable energy resources in order to prepare for the impending end of oil.
• Edgar Allan Poe was a poet who lived in Baltimore during the nineteenth century.
• In this essay, I will give you lots of reasons why slot machines should not be legalized in Baltimore.
• Despite his promises during his campaign, President Kennedy took few executive measures to support civil rights legislation.
• Because many children’s toys have potential safety hazards that could lead to injury, it is clear that not all children’s toys are safe.
• My experience with young children has taught me that I want to be a disciplinary parent because I believe that a child without discipline can be a parent’s worst nightmare.

Writing at Work

Often in your career, you will need to ask your boss for something through an e-mail. Just as a thesis statement organizes an essay, it can also organize your e-mail request. While your e-mail will be shorter than an essay, using a thesis statement in your first paragraph quickly lets your boss know what you are asking for, why it is necessary, and what the benefits are. In short body paragraphs, you can provide the essential information needed to expand upon your request.

Thesis Statement Revision

Your thesis will probably change as you write, so you will need to modify it to reflect exactly what you have discussed in your essay. Remember from Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” that your thesis statement begins as a working thesis statement , an indefinite statement that you make about your topic early in the writing process for the purpose of planning and guiding your writing.

Working thesis statements often become stronger as you gather information and form new opinions and reasons for those opinions. Revision helps you strengthen your thesis so that it matches what you have expressed in the body of the paper.

The best way to revise your thesis statement is to ask questions about it and then examine the answers to those questions. By challenging your own ideas and forming definite reasons for those ideas, you grow closer to a more precise point of view, which you can then incorporate into your thesis statement.

Ways to Revise Your Thesis

You can cut down on irrelevant aspects and revise your thesis by taking the following steps:

1. Pinpoint and replace all nonspecific words, such as people , everything , society , or life , with more precise words in order to reduce any vagueness.

Working thesis: Young people have to work hard to succeed in life.

Revised thesis: Recent college graduates must have discipline and persistence in order to find and maintain a stable job in which they can use and be appreciated for their talents.

The revised thesis makes a more specific statement about success and what it means to work hard. The original includes too broad a range of people and does not define exactly what success entails. By replacing those general words like people and work hard , the writer can better focus his or her research and gain more direction in his or her writing.

2. Clarify ideas that need explanation by asking yourself questions that narrow your thesis.

Working thesis: The welfare system is a joke.

Revised thesis: The welfare system keeps a socioeconomic class from gaining employment by alluring members of that class with unearned income, instead of programs to improve their education and skill sets.

A joke means many things to many people. Readers bring all sorts of backgrounds and perspectives to the reading process and would need clarification for a word so vague. This expression may also be too informal for the selected audience. By asking questions, the writer can devise a more precise and appropriate explanation for joke . The writer should ask himself or herself questions similar to the 5WH questions. (See Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” for more information on the 5WH questions.) By incorporating the answers to these questions into a thesis statement, the writer more accurately defines his or her stance, which will better guide the writing of the essay.

3. Replace any linking verbs with action verbs. Linking verbs are forms of the verb to be , a verb that simply states that a situation exists.

Working thesis: Kansas City schoolteachers are not paid enough.

Revised thesis: The Kansas City legislature cannot afford to pay its educators, resulting in job cuts and resignations in a district that sorely needs highly qualified and dedicated teachers.

The linking verb in this working thesis statement is the word are . Linking verbs often make thesis statements weak because they do not express action. Rather, they connect words and phrases to the second half of the sentence. Readers might wonder, “Why are they not paid enough?” But this statement does not compel them to ask many more questions. The writer should ask himself or herself questions in order to replace the linking verb with an action verb, thus forming a stronger thesis statement, one that takes a more definitive stance on the issue:

• Who is not paying the teachers enough?
• What is considered “enough”?
• What is the problem?
• What are the results

4. Omit any general claims that are hard to support.

Working thesis: Today’s teenage girls are too sexualized.

Revised thesis: Teenage girls who are captivated by the sexual images on MTV are conditioned to believe that a woman’s worth depends on her sensuality, a feeling that harms their self-esteem and behavior.

It is true that some young women in today’s society are more sexualized than in the past, but that is not true for all girls. Many girls have strict parents, dress appropriately, and do not engage in sexual activity while in middle school and high school. The writer of this thesis should ask the following questions:

• Which teenage girls?
• What constitutes “too” sexualized?
• Why are they behaving that way?
• Where does this behavior show up?
• What are the repercussions?

In the first section of Chapter 8 “The Writing Process: How Do I Begin?” , you determined your purpose for writing and your audience. You then completed a freewriting exercise about an event you recently experienced and chose a general topic to write about. Using that general topic, you then narrowed it down by answering the 5WH questions. After you answered these questions, you chose one of the three methods of prewriting and gathered possible supporting points for your working thesis statement.

Now, on a separate sheet of paper, write down your working thesis statement. Identify any weaknesses in this sentence and revise the statement to reflect the elements of a strong thesis statement. Make sure it is specific, precise, arguable, demonstrable, forceful, and confident.

Collaboration

Please share with a classmate and compare your answers.

In your career you may have to write a project proposal that focuses on a particular problem in your company, such as reinforcing the tardiness policy. The proposal would aim to fix the problem; using a thesis statement would clearly state the boundaries of the problem and tell the goals of the project. After writing the proposal, you may find that the thesis needs revision to reflect exactly what is expressed in the body. Using the techniques from this chapter would apply to revising that thesis.

Key Takeaways

• Proper essays require a thesis statement to provide a specific focus and suggest how the essay will be organized.
• A thesis statement is your interpretation of the subject, not the topic itself.
• A strong thesis is specific, precise, forceful, confident, and is able to be demonstrated.
• A strong thesis challenges readers with a point of view that can be debated and can be supported with evidence.
• A weak thesis is simply a declaration of your topic or contains an obvious fact that cannot be argued.
• Depending on your topic, it may or may not be appropriate to use first person point of view.
• Revise your thesis by ensuring all words are specific, all ideas are exact, and all verbs express action.

Writing for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

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Volume 42 Issue 1 13 January 2022

Age, Period, and Cohort Effects in Alcohol Use in the United States in the 20th and 21st Centuries: Implications for the Coming Decades

Part of the Topic Series: NIAAA 50th Anniversary Festschrift

Katherine M. Keyes

Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, New York

This article is part of a Festschrift commemorating the 50th anniversary of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA). Established in 1970, first as part of the National Institute of Mental Health and later as an independent institute of the National Institutes of Health, NIAAA today is the world’s largest funding agency for alcohol research. In addition to its own intramural research program, NIAAA supports the entire spectrum of innovative basic, translational, and clinical research to advance the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of alcohol use disorder and alcohol-related problems. To celebrate the anniversary, NIAAA hosted a 2-day symposium, “Alcohol Across the Lifespan: 50 Years of Evidence-Based Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment Research,” devoted to key topics within the field of alcohol research. This article is based on Dr. Keyes’ presentation at the event. NIAAA Director George F. Koob, Ph.D., serves as editor of the Festschrift.

Introduction

Alcohol consumption, including any alcohol use; patterns of high-risk use, including binge drinking; and alcohol use disorder (AUD) incidence and prevalence, differs substantially over time and by life stage. Variation also occurs across demographic groups, and such differences themselves vary across time and place. In the first quarter of the 21st century, changes in incidence and prevalence of alcohol use and alcohol-related health consequences have been accelerating. Understanding the magnitude and direction of these changes informs hypotheses regarding the reasons underlying alcohol consumption changes across time and development, including both long-term historical changes as well as abrupt shifts. It also permits determining the optimal focus of research and targets of services. Such surveillance is informed by science and statistical considerations of variation by age, period, and cohort effects.

Age-, period-, and cohort-effect estimation has proved to be an extraordinarily useful framework for organizing and interpreting data, uncovering patterns, and identifying causes of trends in incidence and prevalence of many health conditions and mortality over time. This article provides an overview of the conceptual basis of such effects as related to alcohol consumption, and reviews recent studies of age-period-cohort variation, especially regarding gender, social class, and specific beverage and drinking patterns.

Age, Period, and Cohort Effects and Their Importance

Age effects.

Age effects refer to the effects of a person’s age on their health. They may be caused by the accumulation of exposure or social experiences; critical and sensitive developmental windows; or immunological periods of vulnerability, such as infancy and end of life. Extensive evidence documents that alcohol use is most likely to begin during adolescence or young adulthood, peak during the transition to adulthood, and generally decrease thereafter. 1,2 However, these age patterns are not static; in the United States, for example, the onset and peak of alcohol use has been shifting in recent decades to a later point in development. 3 Because onset and persistence of alcohol use are in part social phenomena and are amenable to policy interventions (e.g., changes in minimum legal drinking age laws), 4 the specific structure and magnitude of age effects are historically variable. However, the general patterns of onset early in adult maturation, and desistence during adulthood, have been largely stable over historical time.

Period Effects

Period effects refer to changes in outcome that affect all individuals alive in a particular period—that is, a year or set of years. Reasons for period effects include changing environmental or social factors that affect incidence and persistence of certain behaviors or disorders, policy or law changes, or other environmental conditions that affect health. For alcohol use, numerous factors have been associated with substantial changes in consumption patterns, including major policy initiatives to restrict access to alcohol, such as U.S. Prohibition from 1920 to 1933, and broad economic factors, such as booms and recessions that affect spending on nonessential goods. The general social climate for heavy drinking has also changed over time as advocacy movements placed the dangers of heavy consumption into stark focus, followed by policies to increase criminal sanctions on impaired driving. 5 However, as detailed below, such policy changes are not simply period effects because they often impact age groups differently; therefore, their effects may manifest as cohort effects.

Cohort Effects

Against the backdrop of age and period effects, cohort effects have also proven to be powerfully predictive of a range of health behavior, including alcohol use. Cohort effects can perhaps be most efficiently conceptualized as age-by-period interactions. 6 For example, a cohort effect would be apparent if historical change across time in a health behavior such as alcohol consumption resulted in increasing overall prevalence (i.e., a period effect), but the increase in prevalence is faster or slower for people in different age groups (i.e., an age by period interaction). Cohort effects can also be conceptualized as a unique rate of an outcome for individuals depending on birth year. 7

Before reviewing the current literature on cohort effects in alcohol use, it is important to understand that cohort effects are powerfully predictive of many health outcomes, and critical to consider when evaluating trends. There are numerous historical examples of particular birth cohorts with increased rates of disease outcomes and mortality in the United States, including all-cause mortality, 8,9 tuberculosis, 10 peptic ulcer, 11 lung cancer, 12 and other diseases. More recently, the strong influence of generational cohort effects is apparent in the leading U.S. contributors to premature mortality, including obesity, hepatitis C, drug overdose, and suicide. 13–16 Similarly, numerous studies in recent decades have found that alcohol use and health outcomes related to heavy consumption cluster by birth cohort, as well as have exhibited age and period effects at various points in history. Cohort effects have long been documented in substance use, 17,18 including alcohol use and alcohol-related harms, 19 as described in more detail below.

Recent Alcohol Use Time Trends in the United States

Time trends in alcohol use and alcohol-related harms have been dynamic in the United States, especially over the last 2 decades. Among adolescents, the prevalence of alcohol use has declined. Data from two major nationally representative surveys—Monitoring the Future and the National Survey on Drug Use and Health—converge in demonstrating these reductions. Although the specific prevalence of any alcohol use and binge drinking differs between the two surveys, both document substantial, sustained reductions in adolescent drinking over the last 20 years. 20,21 The most recently published data from the Monitoring the Future Study, depicted in Figure 1, show the trend in past 2-week binge drinking among 12th grade adolescents through 2019; as the figure shows, binge drinking declined from a peak in approximately 1982 to less than 20% for both boys and girls in 2019. 22

In contrast, adult alcohol use and binge drinking has been increasing. A meta-analysis of six national surveys of alcohol use found (Figure 2) that from 2000 to 2016, the overall prevalence of binge drinking increased approximately 7.5% per decade across the 2 decades analyzed. 23 Importantly, however, these increases were primarily concentrated among women, as discussed further below.

The observation that changes over time in alcohol consumption differed by age immediately raises the possibility of cohort effects. Indeed, many studies using different data sources and analytical approaches have documented cohort effects for numerous alcohol-related outcomes. Generally, post-World War II U.S. birth cohorts had higher rates of consumption than earlier cohorts, 19,24 ,25 driving much of the increase in consumption in the 1970s and 1980s. For many of these studies, however, reliance on retrospective recall is a common limitation. Avoiding this limitation, Kerr et al. 24 , 26 used the National Alcohol Surveys, which reports current consumption patterns that are less subject to recall issues. These analyses documented that several birth cohorts had higher risks of alcohol consumption and binge drinking throughout the life course, especially men born in the late 1970s and women born in the early 1980s. In contrast, among cohorts born in the 1990s and later, alcohol use has consistently been declining during adolescence and early adulthood. However, those same cohorts have exhibited accelerating drinking after transition to adulthood. 27

In sum, the cohorts of today’s adults who are now in their 30s and 40s were part of the historical shift toward declining alcohol consumption in adolescence. This decline is explained in part by shifts in the minimum legal drinking age across states, especially in the 1980s, 27 yet declines continued thereafter, potentially aided by focused prevention efforts on reducing underage drinking. However, because drinking then accelerated during the transition to adulthood, adult rates of drinking did not benefit from these prevention efforts. Indeed, Patrick et al. (2019) have documented an overarching historical shift in the age effect on binge drinking among recently born cohorts; thus, the peak age of binge drinking in 1996 to 2004 was 2 years later than it was in 1976 to 1985. 3

In addition to these overall age, period, and cohort effects, additional variation across other levels of dynamic change have implications for prevention, policy, and causal etiology assessments. Three areas of variation that have received substantial attention are gender, socioeconomic status, and beverage type.

Effects of Gender

Men consume more alcohol and are more likely to have AUD compared with women, 1 but the gender gap has been closing for decades in the United States and elsewhere. 19,25 However, the manner in which the gender gap is closing differs by birth cohort. Among today’s birth cohorts of adolescents (i.e., those born in and around the same year), the gender gap is closing because for more than 30 years, alcohol consumption and binge drinking have declined among both boys and girls, but the decline is faster for boys than girls (see Figure 1). 28 Conversely, in adults, alcohol consumption and binge drinking have increased, especially in the past 10 years, and those increases have been greater for women than for men (see Figure 2). 23 The recent increases in drinking among women reflect the high-risk cohorts identified by Kerr et al. 26 as they age into middle-adulthood. Interestingly, compared to earlier generations, these cohorts of women progressed through adolescence with lower alcohol use and binge drinking, yet had a faster acceleration of their drinking during the transition to adulthood, resulting in high levels of alcohol use and strong cohort effects in adulthood. 27

Additional analyses have indicated that the increases in alcohol consumption and binge drinking among women in midlife are concentrated among those with high levels of education, 29 occupational prestige, 30 and income, 29 suggesting that traditional gender norms sanctioning alcohol consumption are shifting among women now occupying traditionally male statuses and spaces. The human costs of these increases in consumption are reflected in alcohol-related mortality rates. These rates have doubled between 1999 and 2016, 31 with the largest increases observed among women and adults emerging into midlife, consistent with alcohol consumption trends.

Effects of Socioeconomic Status

Historically, the role of socioeconomic status has been a critical axis for examining trends over time in alcohol consumption, as exemplified by the higher consumption rates in adult women, who are increasingly occupying high socioeconomic positions. Overall, individuals with a higher socioeconomic status are less likely to fully abstain from alcohol compared to those with a lower status. 32 The relationship between socioeconomic status and binge drinking or AUD, however, is more mixed and depends on the socioeconomic indicator, population, and time period analyzed. 33–35 Further, population distributions of socioeconomic status are an outcome of economic conditions (i.e., income and wealth are functions of times of economic expansions and recessions); therefore, trends in socioeconomic status, and who achieves and maintains high status positions, are important potential drivers of population trends.

Renewed attention to theories of the relationship between social class and health has been prompted by evidence that recent increases in U.S. mortality, including alcohol-related and other substance-related mortality, are concentrated among men with less than a high school education. 36 However, these findings run counter to available data on heavy drinking birth cohorts. The birth cohorts identified by Case and Deaton 36 are different than the birth cohorts emerging into adulthood in the 1970s and 1980s or those of college age in 2002 to 2012, suggesting that the dynamics of alcohol-related harm are likely to substantially change in the decades to come. Indeed, National Alcohol Survey data show that cohort trends in U.S. alcohol consumption are primarily driven by changes in education. 37 As more recent cohorts have entered college at higher rates, drinking and binge drinking have become concentrated in these college-attending young adults. The alcohol consumption cohort effect of those born in the late 1970s and early 1980s is attributable largely to their high rates of college attendance. Conversely, however, there may be signs of emerging socioeconomic differences when considered across gender (more on gendered trends in alcohol consumption below). For example, from 2002 to 2012, binge drinking was largely stable among college-attending young adults, but slightly increased among non-college enrolled women (from 29% to 33%) while decreasing among non-college-enrolled men. 38 Continued surveillance of the role of socioeconomic status within trends in alcohol consumption, and beyond education into other indicators, is warranted.

Effects of Beverage Type

Another important area for research is variation in alcohol consumption dynamics by type of alcoholic beverage. Although all alcoholic beverages are carcinogenic, beverage types vary in ethanol concentration and potential for harm, as well as in their prevalence and popularity across demographic groups. A growing literature indicates that the types of alcoholic beverages that individuals in the United States are consuming are dynamic and may depend on cohort. Kerr et al. (2004) 39 found that pre-1940s cohorts preferred spirits throughout the life course compared with later cohorts. In contrast, cohorts born in the 1940s through 1970s, especially men, tended to prefer beer, and wine has been gaining dominance in beverage preferences among younger cohorts. These changes may be related at least in part to marketing and sales efforts by the alcohol industry to increase profits. For example, the increase in wine consumption, which has been observed in alcohol sales surveillance, 40 is commensurate with the increases in income and education in the United States, as wine is marketed as a prestige product and is often sold at high price points. Additional analyses have found that the alcohol content of beverages is increasing in the United States, 41 ,42 portending potential further harm and greater rates of AUD.

The dynamics of cohort effects on beverage preferences are particularly salient for the role of alcohol policy and reduction of alcohol-related harms. Sales restrictions and alcohol taxes have a substantial, demonstrable overall impact on population-level consumption and alcohol-related harms, 43 although this varies to some extent by age of consumer, level of consumption, and beverage type. 44 For example, tax variations by beverage type can influence trends in the consumption of particular beverages. Spirit and wine consumption is typically most sensitive to price and tax policy changes, 45 and although consumption of spirits has been increasing in the United States in recent years, there has been little change in tax and price regulations. This suggests that one driver of the increase in spirits consumption is that they are becoming effectively less expensive over time. Beer and wine are also regulated differently in many states; thus, changing dynamics in the popularity of each beverage have implications for how effective beverage-specific alcohol taxes are in reducing sales and, consequently, harm. Regulations related to alcohol sales and consumption that can respond to market changes in beverage preferences (e.g., increased taxes on wine and spirits that reflect their growing share of the alcohol market) may be an important lever for promoting public health in the coming decades.

Differences in Drinking Patterns Among Cohorts

Taken together, the literature on age, period, and cohort effects in alcohol research indicates that different cohorts have different drinking patterns and that socioeconomic and demographic factors are critical to contextualizing the observed trends. Although it is possible to document time and cohort trends with the available data, understanding why alcohol consumption patterns are changing is more challenging.

Certainly, alcohol policies play a fundamental role in determining population-level patterns of consumption, and the way that policies target particular demographic groups (intentionally or unintentionally) creates opportunities for cohort effects to emerge. For example, the adoption of a minimum legal drinking age of 21 across states throughout the 1980s mediates a portion of the decline in alcohol consumption among U.S. adolescents since then. 27 However, consumption has continued to decline for decades after the increase in drinking age, suggesting that additional factors, such as the public health investment in underage drinking prevention, provided further benefits. Numerous other policies have shifted and impacted population-level alcohol consumption since the U.S. Prohibition, including restrictions on where and when alcohol can be sold, state monopolies on sales, criminal penalties for hazardous use, and others. 46,47 These policies likely have affected different age groups in different ways, depending on their developmental stage when exposed to newly restrictive or permissive alcohol policies.

Of course, alcohol policies are not the only determinant of alcohol consumption and, consequently, of age, period, and cohort effects. Substantial research has evaluated the impact of social norms and social roles, as well as community and societal norms and values on changes in alcohol use over time. 48,49 Social values have an inherent role in the use of alcohol, and the acceptability of drinking and drunkenness within and across social groups at different times and different life stages is potentially a powerful factor influencing population-level consumption. For example, heavy consumption on college campuses, especially within social institutions such as Greek life, 50 is often normative and expected, but norms and values around alcohol use swiftly change as young adults encounter the social norms of early adulthood. 51 Moreover, these normative trajectories and patterns become variable as societal roles and values themselves change. For example, religious attendance and the importance of religion have long been a robust predictor of decreased alcohol consumption. 52 However, the centrality of religion to U.S. adolescents and adults has been declining for more than a decade, 53 and this decline explains a portion of the cohort effects in binge drinking among today’s adults. 54 Monitoring these and other broader societal changes is critical to determining the influences that mediate shifts in alcohol consumption over time.

For example, the coming years will be critical to determining the effects of health knowledge regarding alcohol-related risks on population consumption. For decades, low levels of alcohol consumption were considered protective, especially for cardiovascular health. 55 The evidence supporting this hypothesis, however, was subject to substantial confounding, 56 and dissemination of the message of alcohol’s protective effects was well-funded by the alcohol industry, which had a clear financial incentive. 55 Recently, studies using large administrative databases and quasi-experimental designs, such as Mendelian randomization, have called into question and refuted the idea that a moderate level of alcohol consumption benefits health. 57,58 The extent to which public health messages shift to reflect this change in scientific consensus may be important in reducing population-level alcohol-related harms. These changes may further manifest as cohort effects, as the dissemination and implementation of health information and guidelines are likely to affect age groups differently as they progress through the life course.

Conclusions

Alcohol consumption continues to be a leading contributor to morbidity and mortality, both in the United States and worldwide. Although significant progress in reducing adolescent and young adult alcohol use has been achieved and sustained for decades, it is offset by increases in drinking during the transition to adulthood. The cohorts currently at midlife, especially women, are increasing alcohol consumption and binge drinking at greater levels than other cohorts, portending health consequences that may persist for decades. Understanding the motivations for consumption, destigmatizing the use of services to reduce consumption, and increasing the availability and accessibility of such services are necessary to improve population health. Moreover, age, period, and cohort effect estimations are critical surveillance tools for epidemiology and population health research. Such assessments have already answered critical questions and uncovered patterns in the data that specifically identify high-risk groups requiring prevention and intervention efforts.

Acknowledgments

Dr. Keyes would like to thank Dr. Deborah Hasin for insightful feedback and edits on this paper. This article was supported by National Institutes of Health grant R01AA026861.

Correspondence

Address correspondence concerning this article to Katherine M. Keyes, Ph.D., Columbia University, Mailman School of Public Health, 722 West 168th Street, Room 724, New York, NY 10032. Email: [email protected]

Disclosures

The author declares no competing financial or nonfinancial interests.

Publisher's note

This article was based on a presentation by Dr. Keyes at the NIAAA 50th Anniversary Science Symposium, “Alcohol Across the Lifespan: 50 Years of Evidence-Based Diagnosis, Prevention, and Treatment Research,” held on November 30–December 1, 2020. Links to the videocast are available on the NIAAA 50th Anniversary Science Symposium agenda webpage. Opinions expressed in contributed articles do not necessarily reflect the views of the NIAAA, National Institutes of Health. The U.S. government does not endorse or favor any specific commercial product or commodity. Any trade or proprietary names appearing in Alcohol Research: Current Reviews are used only because they are considered essential in the context of the studies reported herein.

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One of the first associations that come to mind when talking about alcohol is driving. For citizens of the United States, having a car is seen as a must starting from the age when a teenager is allowed to receive a driving license. According to data provided by the organization Mothers Against Drunk Driving , in 2010, a high percentage of car accidents connected to drunk driving (15.1% out of 10.228 individuals) was observed among young people aged between 18-20 years (PolicyMic). Respectively, if youths were officially allowed to consume alcohol from 18 years old, this index of car accidents would necessarily be much higher. Moreover, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration claims that since establishing the drinking age of 21 in 1975, the number of car fatalities among 18-20 year old drivers in the United States decreased by 13% (SFGate).

The medical irresponsibility of allowing teenagers to drink alcohol on a legal basis is also obvious to those who have at least a basic knowledge in biology. Consuming alcohol on a regular basis can negatively affect the development of an individual’s brain’s frontal lobes, which are responsible for emotional regulation, as well as for planning and organization (ProCon.org). Underage individuals who consume alcohol put themselves at more risk of addiction, decreased ability of decision-making, tend to behave less responsibly, and may become violent, depressed, and even prone to suicide.

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The “trickle-down effect,” well-known to sociologists, is another reason against lowering drinking age that should be taken into consideration. This effect implies individuals who already have a right to legally purchase and consume alcohol tend to buy it for their younger peers (ProCon.org); for example, 21-year-old students buy beer or spirits for themselves and for their friends who can be of the age 18-20. In the case of the drinking age being lowered to 18 years, the age of individuals who in fact have access to alcohol will decrease even more, reaching ages of 15-17 or even less. Considering the specifics of adolescence, granting teenagers with a wider access to alcohol can have negative consequences for their health and wellbeing.

Though in a number of countries worldwide the drinking age is 18 years, in the United States, this index is 21, and it should not be lowered. Lowering the drinking age to 18 years old would lead to an increase of car accidents connected to drunk driving; it would also negatively affect youths’ cognitive development, clouding their ability to make decisions and plans, and would make them more vulnerable to addiction and other negative effects; due to the “trickle-down effect” lowering the drinking age would also mean granting access to alcohol to individuals who are younger than 18 years old. It seems this debate in the U.S. will linger on much longer.

“Minimum Age Limits Worldwide.” ICAP.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Jan. 2014. <http://www.icap.org/table/minimumagelimitsworldwide>.

“Top 3 Reasons Why the Drinking Age Should Not Be Lowered to 18.” PolicyMic. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Jan. 2014. <http://www.policymic.com/articles/14574/top-3-reasons-why-the-drinking-age-should-not-be-lowered-to-18>.

“Keep the Drinking Age at 21.” SFGate. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Jan. 2014. <http://www.sfgate.com/opinion/article/Keep-the-drinking-age-at-21-3271409.php>.

“Should the Drinking Age Be Lowered from 21 to a Younger Age?” ProCon.org. N.p., n.d. Web. 09 Jan. 2014. <http://drinkingage.procon.org/>.

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Example Of The Us Drinking Age Argumentative Essay

Type of paper: Argumentative Essay

Topic: Law , Hazard , Trauma , Alcohol , Criminal Justice , Democracy , Alcoholism , Disabilities

Words: 1250

Published: 12/23/2019

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The Prohibition era of the United States, where the consumption and sale of all alcohol was firmly prohibited by the American government and punishable by law, was one of the most volatile eras in its history. Bootleggers and speakeasies made the criminal underworld thrive in America until, due to this activity and the unpopular nature of the law, Prohibition was repealed in 1933. Since then, the minimum drinking age was put into practice to make sure that no one below a certain age was allowed to drink, a declaration that has changed dramatically over time. However, there have been questions as to whether or not the legal drinking age should be lowered from 21 to 18. There is precedent in the history of the legal drinking age, and the debate rages over whether or not it keeps people safe, or whether it just arbitrarily limits the freedoms of individuals who can do more dangerous things legally already.

The drinking age has not always been set at 21; there are many states that have their own provisos and provisions regarding a lower drinking age. Post-Prohibition, following the 1933 repeal of the Amendment, most states decided on a minimum drinking age of 21. Colorado, however, still had no drinking age, and only set it at 18 in the year 1945. In Illinois, while men had to be 21 to drink, women only had to be 18 years old to drink. Idaho allowed you to be 20 and still drink beer, but liquor retained the 21-year stipulation. New York, North Carolina, Ohio, West Virginia (for beer and wine) and others all had a minimum drinking age of 18, and still others had minimums set at 19 (Miron and Tetelbaum, 2007).

In 1971, the 26th Amendment of the Constitution was passed, lowering the voting age from 21 to 18; this also had an effect on minimum drinking ages, as a lot of states equated the right to vote with the right to drink. Many states lowered their drinking age minimums in the early 70s; all states but Arkansas, California, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, Nevada, New Mexico, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington and Wyoming lowered their drinking ages to between the ages of 18 and 20, depending on the state (Cultice, p. 172).

There are those who believe in the lower drinking age; consuming alcohol is considered to be a socially acceptable practice, and many people claim that 18 year olds should be allowed to drink alcohol since they are already allowed to do more dangerous things - like join the military or drive a motor vehicle. Lowering the drinking age, it is argued, will more strictly regulate the consumption and sale of alcohol, and permit underage drinkers to have a legal means of obtaining alcohol. This would free up law enforcement resources allocated to enforcing these higher legal drinking ages, and they would keep underage drinkers from seeking out dangerous alternative options for obtaining alcohol.

Despite the varying degrees to which states determined their minimum drinking ages, this all changed with the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984, which stated that all states would set their minimum drinking ages to 21. This was enforced by lowering the federal highway apportionment of each state that did not follow through by ten percent. This amendment came about from the study of drunk driving accidents started by Ronald Reagan's commission and Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD). The phenomenon of drunk driving is the major reasoning behind those who seek to have the drinking age minimums remain at 21 - studies have shown that a high legal drinking age lowers the prevalence of fatal injuries among adolescents (Jones et al., p. 112). There is also a spillover effect, as a lower drinking age would permit 18 year olds to grant 15-16 year olds access to alcohol, leading to even higher fatal injuries. The more experience with alcohol one has, the lower the likelihood is to have a fatal injury, suggesting that the higher drinking age leads to fewer injuries.

Since the NMDA of 1984, there has been tremendous opposition to the setting of the minimum drinking age to 21. Studies have indicated that binge drinking most often occurs in those under 21, perhaps due to the illegal and taboo nature of underage drinking that is established by the rule. Difficulty in enforcing the 21 age minimums and the subjective unfairness of the bill has led some, including New York assembly members, to push forward bills that would set a drinking age back at 18. These individuals and organizations argue that the 21-year-old drinking age does not do anything to solve dangerous college drinking binges, and only serves to make them worse (Engs, 2003).

Even now, there are states that still do not abide by the Minimum Drinking Age Law. Louisiana, for example, still has its minimum age set at 18, though this mostly applies only to certain exceptions. Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, both US territories, have 18 year drinking ages. There is sufficient precedent to suggest that these states have been doing just fine with an 18 year old drinking age, and that the rest of the country should follow suit. Those who wish to lower the LDA seem to suggest that teen drinking continues unabated regardless of the illegality of it, but it moves to less controllable areas. This increases the likelihood of injury (Jones et al., 1992), and promotes even more risky behavior along with drinking, since the threshold of rebellion and illegality has already been crossed. It is also said that it should not be the purview of government to regulate certain age limits for certain activities, as 18 year olds are already permitted to do very dangerous things - in most states, that age is considered the "age of majority," meaning that they have all of the responsibilities inherent to adulthood. Continuing said regulation into years beyond the age of majority is confusing and unnecessary for many who oppose the drinking age limit.

In conclusion, the legal drinking age limit is a huge controversy for many. Some believe that it should remain at 21, because it will limit the access youths have to alcohol, and will cut down on the number of car accidents and fatal injuries among adolescents. However, there are others who believe alcohol consumption falls into the age of majority, and that this particular liberty should not be infringed upon; they also feel as though lowering the drinking age would bring regulation to an already existing problem of youth drinking. The debate has no clear answer, but each side has their unique advantages and talking points.

Works Cited

Cultice, Wendell W. Youth’s Battle for the Ballot: A History of Voting Age in America. New York: Greenwood Press, 1992. Engs, Ruth. "Drinking Practices and Patterns Among Collegians", November 2003. Jones, Nancy E., Pieper, Carl F., and Robertson, Leon S. "The Effect of Legal Drinking Age on Fatal Injuries of Adolescents and Young Adults." American Journal of Public Health vol. 82, no. 1, pp. 112-115. January 1992. Print. Miron, Jeffrey A., and Elina Tetelbaum. "Does the Minimum Drinking Age Save Lives?" Nber.org. 2007-07-12.

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Home — Essay Samples — Law, Crime & Punishment — Legal Drinking Age — Why Should the Drinking Age Stay at 21: The Reasons

Why Should The Drinking Age Stay at 21: The Reasons

• Categories: Legal Drinking Age Underage Drinking

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Words: 1549 |

Published: Dec 5, 2018

Words: 1549 | Pages: 3 | 8 min read

Table of contents

Introduction, why should the drinking age stay at 21, works cited.

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• U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (n.d.). The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Reduce Underage Drinking. Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK37515/
• Whiting, A. S. (2011). Underage Drinking: Understanding and Reducing Risk in the Context of Human Development. Alcohol Research & Health, 34(2), 199–200. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22330220/
• Main, C. T. (2009). Not Everyone Thinks the Drinking Age Should Be Lowered. In D. H. Debates (Ed.), Should Drinking Age Be Lowered from 21 to a Younger Age? (pp. 63–70). Greenhaven Publishing.
• Hanson, D. J. (2013). Lowering the Drinking Age: A Balanced View. Retrieved from https://www.alcoholproblemsandsolutions.org/lowering-the-drinking-age-a-balanced-view/
• Nelson, T. F., Xuan, Z., Lee, H., Weitzman, E. R., & Wechsler, H. (2013). Persistence of Heavy Drinking and Binge Drinking Among Late Adolescents into Young Adulthood. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 74(5), 714–722. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2013.74.714
• O'Malley, P. M., & Wagenaar, A. C. (2011). Effects of Minimum Drinking Age Laws on Alcohol Use, Related Behaviors and Traffic Crash Involvement Among American Youth: 1976-2007. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 72(5), 742–752. https://doi.org/10.15288/jsad.2011.72.742
• Keyes, K. M., Schulenberg, J. E., O'Malley, P. M., Johnston, L. D., Bachman, J. G., Li, G., & Hasin, D. (2011). Birth Cohort Effects on Adolescent Alcohol Use: The Influence of Social Norms From 1976 to 2007. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(12), 1282–1290. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.131
• DuRant, R. H., & Wolfson, M. (2011). Social and Environmental Factors That Contribute to Underage Drinking: Influence and Implications. Pediatrics, 121(Supplement 4), S311–S319. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2007-2243L
• Wagenaar, A. C., Toomey, T. L., & Erickson, D. J. (2005). Preventing Youth Access to Alcohol: Outcomes from a Multi-Community Time-Series Trial. Addiction, 100(3), 335–345. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2004.00972.x
• Voas, R. B., Tippetts, A. S., & Fell, J. C. (2013). The Relationship of Alcohol Safety Laws to Drinking Drivers in Fatal Crashes. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 55, 9–25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2012.08.020

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The legal drinking age in the United States has been a topic of debate for many years. Currently, the legal drinking age is set at 21 years old. This law was established in the mid-1980s in response to the high number of [...]

Underage drinking is a pervasive issue with far-reaching consequences that affect not only individuals but also communities and society at large. In this essay, we will explore the causes and consequences of underage drinking, [...]

The legal drinking age has been a topic of debate for many years. Some argue that it should be lowered to 18, aligning it with the legal age for voting and military service, while others believe that it should remain at 21. In [...]

The drinking age in the United States has been a topic of controversy for many years. Currently, the legal drinking age is 21, but there are ongoing debates about whether it should be lowered to 18. In this speech, I will [...]

You’re finally 18, you can now vote, you can enlist, you can do whatever you want it seems like but for some reason you are not able to buy alcohol. When you are 18 you are finally seen as an adult so why is it that in court you [...]

For the reasons that it is hazardous, causes health problems, and abused almost all of the time, the drinking age should remain at 21. If the drinking age were to be lowered to 18, this will allow themselves less time to get [...]

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Best Argumentative Essay Examples

Argumentative outline: increasing the drinking age to 25 years old.

954 words | 4 page(s)

Topic: Increasing the Drinking Age to 25 years old. General Purpose: The general purpose of this outline is to present arguments for increasing the drinking age to 25 years old.

Specific Purpose: The specific purpose of this outline is to persuade people that the legal drinking age needs to be raise to 25 years old in the interest of public safety as well as the safety of those ages 21 through 24 who are more likely to die in drunk driving accents that any other age group.

Use your promo and get a custom paper on "Argumentative Outline: Increasing the Drinking Age to 25 Years Old".

Central Idea/Thesis Statement: Nearly one out of every three drunk driving fatalities involves someone between the age of 21 and 24 years old; therefore, raising the legal drinking age to 25 years old will help save lives and preserve public safety.

Introduction One out of every three drunk driving fatality victims is between the ages of 21 and 24 years old.

Twenty one through twenty four years olds are qualified to serve in the armed forces for this country, raise children, and hold important jobs, however, they have been shown not to be responsible enough to consume alcohol.

Approximately 12,000 people a year die in drunk driving fatalities across the country and more than one third of these people are between the ages of twenty one and twenty five years old according to the Centers for Disease Control.

Raising the legal drinking age to 25 years old will cut down on the number of drunk driving fatalities; thus, saving lives and preserving public safety. Transition: Throughout this outline, I will state arguments in support of raising the legal drinking age to twenty five years old.

Body The legal drinking age needs to be raised in response to the percentage of drunk driving accidents that involve fatalities where the drunk driver is between the ages of twenty one and twenty four years old. Twenty one through twenty four year olds account for thirty four percent of all drunk drivers involved in fatal crashes in the United States. Young people are more likely than older people to be involved in fatal crashes at all level of blood alcohol concentration. Younger drivers are more vulnerable to the effects of alcohol. Younger drivers are more inexperienced drivers. The higher the BAC of the driver, the more likely the driver is to cause a fatal accident. Raising the drinking age has been shown to decrease the amount of alcohol consumption among person who are legally able to drink. Younger people are more likely to binge drink. Transition: It is important to take into account the safety reasons for other privileges when considering raising the legal limit to twenty five for safety reasons.

There are many laws for public safety and in the interest of the public that have higher age limits that are twenty one or higher. State laws have raised the age required to own a handgun, enter a casino, adopt a child, and run for public office. You cannot own a handgun in most states until you are twenty one years old. At the point when the age has been raised from eighteen in the interest of public safety, the legal limit for drinking can be raised to 25 in the interest of public safety. You cannot run for many public offices until you reach the age of thirty to ensure that you are responsible. If twenty one through twenty four year olds are not responsible enough to drink the age limit should be raised. Transition: There are critics that claim that the legal drink ages is already too high. They believe that raising the legal limit would have little effect on safety on the roadways.

Refutation Argument: The raising the legal drinking age would make those between the ages of twenty one and twenty four more likely to binge and overdoes on alcohol. According to ABC News, raising the drinking age make drinking more attractive to young people. According to the Huffington Post, the legal drink age is the most violated law in the country. Raising the drinking age promotes binge drinking. Raising the drinking age promotes drinking behind closed doors for the purposes of drinking

Refutation Argument: Raising the drinking age should not be credited with a decrease in drunk driving fatalities between the ages of 18 and 21. Therefore, it is not effective. Education can be credited with decreasing the number of drunk driving accidents in this age group. MADD and other organizations went on a campaign to educate young people about the dangers of drunk driving. Public awareness about drunk driving accidents was increase around the same time the drinking age was raised.

Impact Statement: There is nothing to prove that the raising the legal limit encourages drinking. These young people who drink illegally would probably drink the same amount legally if the limit were lower. In addition, public awareness was not as effective as making sure there were penalties for providing young people with alcohol and making alcohol harder to buy in reducing fatalities in that age group.

Conclusion One out of every three drunk driving fatalities involves someone between the age of 21 and 24 years old; therefore, raising the legal drinking age to 25 years old will help save lives. Younger people are less experienced both with drinking and driving. This coupled with the fact that younger people are more likely to drink and drive makes it important to consider raising the legal limit to 25 years old. Other laws in the public interest have higher age limits. The legal limit for the purchase and consumption of alcohol should be raised to 25 to make our roadways safer.

• Jacinto, Leela. ‘Should the Drinking Age Stay at 21?’ ABCNews.com. 1 June 2014. Web. 25 October 2014.
• Tracy, Sam. ‘Is the National Drinking Age Doing More Harm Than Good?’ The Huffington Post. 23 January 2014. Web. 25 October 2014.

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• Communication

lowering the drinking age to 18

Updated 28 April 2021

Subject Communication ,  Hero

Downloads 119

Category Law ,  Sociology

Topic Audience ,  Challenges ,  Legal Drinking Age

According to Gabrielle Glaser's article "Return the Drinking Age to 18, and Impose It (2015)," teenagers between the ages of 18 and 21 should be licensed to consume alcohol. The author backs up his arguments by stating that since the stated age group is permitted by the constitution to vote, marry, buy weapons, and join the military, they should also be allowed to drink. Glaser's goal is to include a detailed case that opposes the 21-year-old drinking age in order to persuade lawmakers that lowering the drinking age to 18 years is necessary. Glaser is talking to a broad audience through her article's plain words. Work Cited Glaser, Gabrielle. "Return the Drinking Age to 18, and Enforce It." The New York Times, [New York City], 10 Feb. 2015.Drinking Age should be lowered to 18 Years Glen Hanson, Peter Venturelli, and Annette Fleckenstein book, _x0093_Drug and Society (2015)_x0094_, argues that the college students with the age of 18 years should be permitted to drink. They support their claims by arguing that despite increasing the drinking age to 21 years, the America as a nation has continued to experience series of problems related to irresponsive drinking. The purpose of the mentioned authors is to provide a lengthy discussion that clearly elaborates that the restrictive measures on the drinking age have been ineffective in order to convince the public that the drinking age should be reduced to 18 years. Considering their passionate and persuasive tone, they are writing to the American legislatures. Work Cited Hanson, Glen, Peter Venturelli, and Annette Fleckenstein. Drugs and society. Jones & Bartlett Publishers, 2011.Drinking Age should be lowered to 18 Years Mathew R. Lippman_x0092_s book, _x0093_Essential Criminal Law, (2017)_x0094_, claims that the college students with the age of 18 years and above should be permitted to drink. He supports his argument by noting that there is a small margin between the age of 18 and 21 years; therefore, it is needless to bar those with the age of 18 from consuming alcohol. The purpose of the author is to portray the restrictive drinking measure as discriminative in order to convince the American legislators to reduce the drinking age to 18 years. Basing on the legal language used in the book, Mathew is writing to a well-educated audience with some knowledge of the law.

Lippman, Matthew R. Essential Criminal Law. 2017.

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