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Case studies.

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Case studies are stories that are used as a teaching tool to show the application of a theory or concept to real situations. Dependent on the goal they are meant to fulfill, cases can be fact-driven and deductive where there is a correct answer, or they can be context driven where multiple solutions are possible. Various disciplines have employed case studies, including humanities, social sciences, sciences, engineering, law, business, and medicine. Good cases generally have the following features: they tell a good story, are recent, include dialogue, create empathy with the main characters, are relevant to the reader, serve a teaching function, require a dilemma to be solved, and have generality.

Instructors can create their own cases or can find cases that already exist. The following are some things to keep in mind when creating a case:

• What do you want students to learn from the discussion of the case?
• What do they already know that applies to the case?
• What are the issues that may be raised in discussion?
• How will the case and discussion be introduced?
• What preparation is expected of students? (Do they need to read the case ahead of time? Do research? Write anything?)
• What directions do you need to provide students regarding what they are supposed to do and accomplish?
• Do you need to divide students into groups or will they discuss as the whole class?
• Are you going to use role-playing or facilitators or record keepers? If so, how?
• What are the opening questions?
• How much time is needed for students to discuss the case?
• What concepts are to be applied/extracted during the discussion?
• How will you evaluate students?

To find other cases that already exist, try the following websites:

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science , University of Buffalo. SUNY-Buffalo maintains this set of links to other case studies on the web in disciplines ranging from engineering and ethics to sociology and business
• A Journal of Teaching Cases in Public Administration and Public Policy , University of Washington

For more information:

• World Association for Case Method Research and Application

Book Review :  Teaching and the Case Method , 3rd ed., vols. 1 and 2, by Louis Barnes, C. Roland (Chris) Christensen, and Abby Hansen. Harvard Business School Press, 1994; 333 pp. (vol 1), 412 pp. (vol 2).

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In This Article Expand or collapse the "in this article" section Case Study in Education Research

Introduction, general overview and foundational texts of the late 20th century.

• Conceptualisations and Definitions of Case Study
• Case Study and Theoretical Grounding
• Choosing Cases
• Methodology, Method, Genre, or Approach
• Case Study: Quality and Generalizability
• Multiple Case Studies
• Exemplary Case Studies and Example Case Studies
• Criticism, Defense, and Debate around Case Study

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Case Study in Education Research by Lorna Hamilton LAST REVIEWED: 21 April 2021 LAST MODIFIED: 27 June 2018 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0201

It is important to distinguish between case study as a teaching methodology and case study as an approach, genre, or method in educational research. The use of case study as teaching method highlights the ways in which the essential qualities of the case—richness of real-world data and lived experiences—can help learners gain insights into a different world and can bring learning to life. The use of case study in this way has been around for about a hundred years or more. Case study use in educational research, meanwhile, emerged particularly strongly in the 1970s and 1980s in the United Kingdom and the United States as a means of harnessing the richness and depth of understanding of individuals, groups, and institutions; their beliefs and perceptions; their interactions; and their challenges and issues. Writers, such as Lawrence Stenhouse, advocated the use of case study as a form that teacher-researchers could use as they focused on the richness and intensity of their own practices. In addition, academic writers and postgraduate students embraced case study as a means of providing structure and depth to educational projects. However, as educational research has developed, so has debate on the quality and usefulness of case study as well as the problems surrounding the lack of generalizability when dealing with single or even multiple cases. The question of how to define and support case study work has formed the basis for innumerable books and discursive articles, starting with Robert Yin’s original book on case study ( Yin 1984 , cited under General Overview and Foundational Texts of the Late 20th Century ) to the myriad authors who attempt to bring something new to the realm of case study in educational research in the 21st century.

This section briefly considers the ways in which case study research has developed over the last forty to fifty years in educational research usage and reflects on whether the field has finally come of age, respected by creators and consumers of research. Case study has its roots in anthropological studies in which a strong ethnographic approach to the study of peoples and culture encouraged researchers to identify and investigate key individuals and groups by trying to understand the lived world of such people from their points of view. Although ethnography has emphasized the role of researcher as immersive and engaged with the lived world of participants via participant observation, evolving approaches to case study in education has been about the richness and depth of understanding that can be gained through involvement in the case by drawing on diverse perspectives and diverse forms of data collection. Embracing case study as a means of entering these lived worlds in educational research projects, was encouraged in the 1970s and 1980s by researchers, such as Lawrence Stenhouse, who provided a helpful impetus for case study work in education ( Stenhouse 1980 ). Stenhouse wrestled with the use of case study as ethnography because ethnographers traditionally had been unfamiliar with the peoples they were investigating, whereas educational researchers often worked in situations that were inherently familiar. Stenhouse also emphasized the need for evidence of rigorous processes and decisions in order to encourage robust practice and accountability to the wider field by allowing others to judge the quality of work through transparency of processes. Yin 1984 , the first book focused wholly on case study in research, gave a brief and basic outline of case study and associated practices. Various authors followed this approach, striving to engage more deeply in the significance of case study in the social sciences. Key among these are Merriam 1988 and Stake 1995 , along with Yin 1984 , who established powerful groundings for case study work. Additionally, evidence of the increasing popularity of case study can be found in a broad range of generic research methods texts, but these often do not have much scope for the extensive discussion of case study found in case study–specific books. Yin’s books and numerous editions provide a developing or evolving notion of case study with more detailed accounts of the possible purposes of case study, followed by Merriam 1988 and Stake 1995 who wrestled with alternative ways of looking at purposes and the positioning of case study within potential disciplinary modes. The authors referenced in this section are often characterized as the foundational authors on this subject and may have published various editions of their work, cited elsewhere in this article, based on their shifting ideas or emphases.

Merriam, S. B. 1988. Case study research in education: A qualitative approach . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This is Merriam’s initial text on case study and is eminently accessible. The author establishes and reinforces various key features of case study; demonstrates support for positioning the case within a subject domain, e.g., psychology, sociology, etc.; and further shapes the case according to its purpose or intent.

Stake, R. E. 1995. The art of case study research . Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

Stake is a very readable author, accessible and yet engaging with complex topics. The author establishes his key forms of case study: intrinsic, instrumental, and collective. Stake brings the reader through the process of conceptualizing the case, carrying it out, and analyzing the data. The author uses authentic examples to help readers understand and appreciate the nuances of an interpretive approach to case study.

Stenhouse, L. 1980. The study of samples and the study of cases. British Educational Research Journal 6:1–6.

DOI: 10.1080/0141192800060101

A key article in which Stenhouse sets out his stand on case study work. Those interested in the evolution of case study use in educational research should consider this article and the insights given.

Yin, R. K. 1984. Case Study Research: Design and Methods . Beverley Hills, CA: SAGE.

This preliminary text from Yin was very basic. However, it may be of interest in comparison with later books because Yin shows the ways in which case study as an approach or method in research has evolved in relation to detailed discussions of purpose, as well as the practicalities of working through the research process.

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Face to face or blended learning? A case study: Teacher training in the pedagogical use of ICT

• Published: 17 June 2022
• Volume 27 , pages 12939–12967, ( 2022 )

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• Charalampos Zagouras 1 , 2 ,
• Demetra Egarchou 1 ,
• Panayiotis Skiniotis 1 &
• Maria Fountana 1  

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We are experiencing a transitional period in education: from the traditional, face to face teaching model to new teaching and learning models that apply modern pedagogical approaches, utilize technological achievements and respond to current social needs. For a number of reasons including the recent pandemic covid-19 situation, technology enhanced distance learning, seems to gain ground against traditional face to face teaching and in fact, in a sharp way. Acknowledging that changes in education need time, research and careful steps in order to be successfully applied and established at large scale, in this paper we attempt to compare face to face (“traditional”) teacher training with teacher training through a blended learning approach/ model. The latest combines characteristics of both face to face and distance learning models. The case study is based on a large-scale in-service teacher training initiative which has been taking place in Greece for over a decade to train teachers in the utilization and application of digital technologies in the teaching practice (i.e. B-Level ICT Teacher Training) . The B-Level ICT Teacher Training was initially based exclusively on face to face teaching but it was later adapted to a specially designed blended learning model which combined both face to face and synchronous distance sessions, accompanied by asynchronous activities and supported by specific e-learning platforms and tools. The comparison refers to the effectiveness of the two models/ approaches, as it derives from teacher trainees’ performance, especially in the framework of the certification procedure that takes place through nationwide, independent exams that follow the training and assesses the relevant knowledge and skills acquired. Research findings point out better performances of a small or marginal scale for the teachers of various specialties who participated in blended learning teacher training programs compared to those who participated in traditional teacher training programs. Actually, it is shown that blended learning model trainees i) feel more comfortable to participate in the exams for the certification of knowledge and skills acquired, ii) have some better success rate and iii) get a bit higher grades in these exams. Thus, it can be argued that learning outcomes of the blended learning application in this teacher training initiative, overstep those of the “traditional” model in a small scale and with some slight differentiations among teacher specialties.

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1 Introduction

1.1 the present situation.

It seems that we are experiencing a transitional period in education. Actually, a transition from the traditional, face to face teaching model to new teaching and learning models that apply modern pedagogical approaches, utilize technological achievements and respond to current social needs.

In this framework, for a number of reasons (e.g. technology evolution, costing issues, special needs and situations) distance learning seems to gain ground against traditional face to face teaching (Kentnor, 2015 ; Kemp & Grieve, 2014 ). In fact, during the current unpleasant situation of the Covid-19 pandemic (Kusmaryono et al., 2021 ; Dhawan, 2020 ; Favale et al., 2020 ) the massive application of distance learning was enforced using digital technologies, in most cases without the necessary preparatory work, even in audiences where such a method is not generally considered as appropriate (e.g. school pupils).

On the other hand, changes in education need time in order to be successfully applied and established, prior research is also needed, whereas careful steps should be followed for the application of any change or innovation at large scale.

The study of a large scale teacher training program which a) was initially designed and successfully implemented for face to face teaching approach and subsequently, b) was carefully transformed for the blended learning approach maintaining some of the valuable trainer-trainees physical/synchronous contact and then, c) applied utilizing synchronous and asynchronous distance learning digital tools, may provide us with some interesting conclusions for the comparative learning results of these approaches and suggestions on how technology can effectively and essentially contribute to the learning process.

1.2 Related work

The term Blended Learning, often seen as used with ambigious meaning (Hrastinski, 2019 ) that may signify the combination of two or more teaching or pedagogical approaches, media, contexts or learning objectives and is at times questioned for its aptness as a term (Oliver & Trigwell, 2005 ), is often described as involving a mix of online and face to face teaching (Graham et al., 2014 ; Driscoll, 2002 ). It is with this later definition that Blended learning is being adopted in the current case study, i.e. as a model that combines the characteristics of face to face and distance learning model and which can be utilized for various educational audiences, including training actions for teachers concerning their professional development. The blended learning approach for the teacher training program that concerns our case study in this paper, as described in detail in Section  2.1 , utilizes digital technologies and includes face to face and distance synchronous teaching, as well as asynchronous learning activities.

Actually, training actions, especially those addressing teachers, are implemented either a) face to face (traditional teaching), or b) from a distance, applying synchronous and/or asynchronous teaching and learning methodologies, using digital technologies (online learning), as well as c) combining of all the above-mentioned approaches/ models (blended learning).

Training actions concerning the utilization of digital technologies in school have special characteristics, since the use of digital tools, software and environments is included in the training subject itself, while participants’ interaction and collaboration is needed. Furthermore, the knowledge to be gained and the skills to be acquired by the teacher trainees, in order to integrate digital technologies into their classes, are complicated since they effectively combine disciplines, technological media and pedagogical approaches in everyday teaching practice (Psillos, 2014 ).

These characteristics introduce additional issues, difficulties and challenges when distance education methodologies are selected, that may affect the training outcomes. Thus, some questions arise about the most effective teacher training method in order for participating teachers to meet the learning objectives and acquire the expected skills and competences.

Although many studies have been conducted on the application of distance education methodologies using digital media (online learning) (Moore et al., 2010 ), research on blended learning is scarce and most commonly addresses six (6) thematic categories: design issues, blended model as an education strategy, factors for effectiveness, evaluation, methodology issues, literature review for various levels of education (Zhang & Zhu, 2017 ).

Some research referring to specific case studies in various educational frameworks and to the comparison of different models, can be found in the above-mentioned thematic category of methodology issues. For example, comparative study between traditional and blended learning model applied to K-12 pupils in N. Zealand, based on learning outcomes and on the perceptions of both pupils and their teachers for the model they followed (traditional or blended learning model) didn’t show any difference in pupils’ assessed work between the two groups. On the contrary, there were differences in their perceptions regarding individual learning issues, connectedness, enjoyment and teacher support (Smith, 2013 ). Other indicative comparative studies concern a) English Language teaching for Mechanical Engineering students in Serbia, where higher “involvement” and higher marks were shown for blended learning model students (Šafranj, 2013 ), b) A course on Physical Education in Early Childhood in the Democritus University of Thrace, Greece, where significant differences were revealed in students’ performance in the case of blended learning (Vernadakis et al., 2012 ), c) Courses on Medication administration for new nurses, where it was shown that a blended learning approach is useful and effective for this kind of education programs (Sung et al., 2008 ).

Furthermore, distance e-learning systems and services for covering the educational needs of remote and isolated areas have been developed and successfully tested, for instance: Teaching English Language in Small Remote Primary Schools (Egarchou et al., 2007 ) and Providing Lifelong Learning opportunities to adults living in small remote regions (Hadzilacos et al., 2009 ).

It has also been demonstrated “that in recent applications, purely online learning is equivalent to face to face instruction in effectiveness, and blended learning approaches have been more effective than instruction offered entirely in face to face mode” (Means et al., 2013 ).

More specifically, in studies concerning the application of blended learning model in teacher education or training actions, the feasibility of blending—integrating interactive e-learning and contact learning was shown, especially when learners construct professional knowledge and skills (Kupetz & Ziegenmeyer, 2005 ). It was also indicated that the combination of different training models (in-labs and on-line training, workshops etc.), was perceived as a challenging innovation by teachers and attracted their interest (Mouzakis et al., 2012 ). Moreover, specific issues and difficulties have been met for the design of a blended learning model for teacher training on ICT (Dagdilelis, 2014 ). In parallel, the design and pilot implementation of such a model for teachers of natural sciences (Psillos, 2014 ) and the respective conceptual design of the model for primary school teachers (Komis et al., 2014 ) were described and discussed. Regarding teachers’ perceptions on the integration of digital technologies in their lessons, significant difference, i.e. more positive attitude, has been observed among the teachers trained for this subject, through blended learning approaches (Qasem & Nathappa, 2016 ). Finally, the implementation of blended learning approaches sets specific additional requirements for trainers and trainees as well as for the development of the training material and activities etc., in order to reach the expected results (Byrka, 2017 ).

Nonetheless, there are still limited studies concerning the implementation of blended learning model in teacher education or training and thus, more empirical studies are needed as they could help to stimulate reflections on effective strategies for such a model design and implementation (Keengwe & Kang, 2013 ). This need becomes more imperative especially since the effectiveness of various schemas /structures for blended learning models depends on the specific characteristics of the program, the implementation conditions and the pedagogical approaches applied (Kim et al., 2015 ). Moreover, multiple parameters affect a successful implementation of a blended learning model such as the subject matter, the competences of the instructors, the quality of educational material and learning activities, the support provided for the learning procedure etc. (Lim, 2002 ).

1.3 About this paper

The implementation of the B-Level ICT in-service teacher training in the utilization and application of digital technologies in the teaching practice , a large-scale training action, taking place in Greece for more than ten years, allowed us to compare in this research, the traditional training model with the blended training model as it was designed and implemented in this framework, and to evaluate their results. This comparison refers to the effectiveness of the two models/ approaches, as it derives from teacher trainees’ performances, especially in the framework of the certification procedure regarding the knowledge and skills acquired, through exams that follow the training.

Τhe following sections of this paper include: a description of the research environment, referring to a) the design and implementation of the B-Level ICT in-service teacher training through both the traditional / face to face and the blended learning model, b) the certification procedure which follows, as well as c) the research methodology and d) information about the data that were used (Section  2 ), the results of the two models comparative study in the present framework (Section  3 ) and finally, conclusions of our work in this research study (Section  4 ).

2 The research framework and methodology

2.1 the b-level ict teacher training, the “traditional” and the blended learning model.

The “B-Level ICT Teacher Training” or “In-service teacher training in the utilization and application of information and communication technologies (ICT) in the teaching practice” (full title) is a long-lasting and popular teacher training program of the Greek Ministry of Education, offered to Greek teachers since 2008 ( https://e-pimorfosi.cti.gr , http://b-epipedo2.cti.gr ).

This teacher training, in the form it was implemented from 2010 until 2015 where this study refers to, addressed teachers of the main specialties i.e. Language, Mathematics, Natural Science, Informatics, Primary School and Kindergarten teachers.

The main aim of B-Level ICT teacher training is to provide teachers with the knowledge and skills needed and to help them create a certain stance towards:

the pedagogical utilization of digital technologies (e.g. educational software and tools, educational platforms, school digital infrastructure etc.) in the classroom

being able to adapt new technology developments into their educational practice (i.e. not depend on specific tools and technologies)

Training content and objectives put special emphasis on the design of educational activities and scenarios, since their role in the integration of ICT in class is considered as significant and necessary. Furthermore, the “in-class application of ICT” phase of the program , during which trainees put into practice the knowledge and skills they acquire, by implementing educational activities using ICT in their classes with their pupils, constitutes a mandatory and integral part of the teacher training itself.

The training program had a duration of 5–6 months, including 96 teaching hours, accompanied by 24 more hours of supporting meetings for the preparation and review of “in-class application of ICT” activities Fig.  5 . Trainers who undertook training sessions, are highly qualified teachers, i.e. coming from teachers’ community themselves, selected through an open process, in order to attend a specialized long educational program (380 h) in Universities and subsequently become certified for the role of “B-Level ICT Teacher Trainer” through demanding exams.

At the beginning, the traditional training model was followed, including entirely face to face sessions in Training Centers (Fig.  1 ), which are usually schools that provide for that purpose their computer labs, as well as support staff (e.g. technical support, program administration) during after school hours. In this framework, 2.057 training programs were implemented between 2010 and 2015, each of them addressing a group of 10–12 teacher trainees of the same or similar specialty.

Snapshots from the implementation of B-Level ICT Teacher Training—Face to Face sessions

However, through that method, it was not possible to cover the training needs in small remote and isolated areas, where there aren’t enough trainees (of the same specialty) to form a group or there is no trainer or training center available and thus, there is no possibility for implementing traditional – face to face training programs.

Thus, for covering remote or isolated, hard to reach areas (e.g. small islands, mountainous areas), as well as in the case of lack of training facilities, a blended learning model , appropriately designed to serve the specific training needs and objectives, was applied to a number of B-Level ICT training programs.

Interaction, effective communication and collaboration between trainer and trainees, as well as among the trainees themselves, constitute a significant asset of the B-Level ICT teacher training program, mainly achieved through the face to face contact and direct interaction during the lessons in the Training Centers, taking place twice a week, in case of traditional training programs. The pedagogical approach of the training program and the nature of its content, which includes lab classes and workshops (e.g. educational software and tools’ learning), discussions, exchange of experiences, ideas and opinions on educational scenarios etc., as an integral part of the learning process, make the above elements extremely necessary. This frequent contact, the discussions, the exchange of experiences, ideas and opinions contribute to building a team spirit and finally, to the creation of a learning community of practice, which usually remains active even after the end of the training program.

In typical distance education models the above elements are absent or difficult to be achieved. However, they are considered as crucial for the effectiveness of the B-Level ICT teacher training and thus, in the design of the blended learning model emphasis was put on keeping them, through regular (at least, on a weekly basis) synchronous distance learning sessions, using special tools (synchronous distance learning platform), as well as through a few number of face to face training sessions (Fig.  2 ).

Schematic representation of the B-Level ICT Teacher Training

Every blended training program consisted of a group of 10–12 teachers of the same or similar specialty and had a duration of 24 weeks. Training sessions were taking place either face to face in the Training Center or synchronously from a distance (through the synchronous distance learning platform) and were accompanied by asynchronous activities across the course. In the same way as in the traditional B-Level ICT teacher training model, after the first 8 weeks, “in-class application of ICT” activities were introduced through the weekly “supporting meetings”, where the trainees were coached by their trainers for the implementation of educational activities using ICT in their classes with their pupils, and/or they were discussing on the outcomes of them after their application at school Fig.  5 .

Face to face training sessions were taking place in four (4) weekends (3 h on Saturday and 3 h on Sunday, each weekend). Synchronous distance training sessions were taking place on a weekly basis, through the synchronous distance learning platform Blackboard Collaborate (Fig.  3 ), while the asynchronous activities were carried out using the Learning Management system (LMS) Moodle i.e. assignments, upload of work, assessing and grading, communication and collaboration etc.(Fig.  4 ). LMS was also used for the delivery of the training material. Tools for virtual class management and operation like video conferencing, application sharing, whiteboard, chat, voting, recording etc. were also available by the synchronous distance learning platform.

A Snapshot from a synchronous distance B-Level ICT Training session—Screenshot of the synchronous distance learning platform supporting the B-Level ICT blended learning model

Screenshots of the Learning Management System supporting the B-Level ICT Blended Learning Model (course materials, asynchronous activities etc.)

Technical support was offered to the trainers and to the trainees by the technical staff of the training center during both the face to face meetings and the synchronous distance sessions. Help was also provided for various preparatory actions e.g. educational tools and software installation in trainees’ laptops, connection to the platforms.

Consequently, the trainees of a blended training program were participating in face to face meetings of a total duration of 24 h, distributed in the course appropriately (at the beginning, in the middle and before the end). That way the contact and interaction elements that were previously mentioned, could create conditions towards ensuring the effectiveness of the distance communication and collaboration in the weekly synchronous sessions and asynchronous activities that followed, given also the technical support offered by the training center staff (Fig.  5 ).

The B-Level ICT teacher training program—implementation models

The B-Level ICT Blended Training model was applied in a small number of programs, in two phases, in 2013–2014 time period. First pilot phase included ten (10) programs (two for each teacher specialty), that were implemented in order to test and improve the methods, the tools and the training material (formative evaluation). This phase was followed by a second one, including forty-five (45) programs, in order to offer the possibility of a further study of the results, before applying the model in a wider scale.

2.2 The B-Level ICT certification

Teacher Training is followed by a certification process regarding the knowledge and skills acquired by teacher trainees, through special, independent, nationwide, digital exams which take place in University Computer Labs acting as Certification Centers (Fig.  6 ).

Snapshot from a B-Level ICT certification program (Teacher trainees sitting digital exams)

The aim of the certification process is to find out whether the teachers who attended the B-Level ICT Teacher Training, have gained the theoretical knowledge regarding the pedagogical utilization of ICT and have acquired the skills needed to be able to organize their teaching (in their specific specialty subjects) using digital technology tools.

The right to participate in the exams was offered only to the trainees who had successfully completed the training program, according to specific prerequisites regarding their presence in lessons (at least 90%), the “in-class application” activities using ICT, as well as, especially in the case of blended training model for the period studied in this paper, the elaboration of specific project activities (e.g. the development of educational scenarios using ICT) at the asynchronous phase of the course.

The computer-based exams (Fig.  7 ) have a duration of 4 h maximum and include two parts: a first part with automatically graded questions (e.g. multiple-choice questions) and a second one, concerning the development of an educational activity – scenario on a specific topic of a discipline in relation to their specialty (an essay, anonymously graded by a body of assessors consisting of B-Level Teacher Trainers) utilizing ICT.

Screenshot of the software application supporting the B-Level ICT certification process—digital exams

In the first part of the exam, a test is assigned to each candidate who is asked to answer a number of questions of graduated difficulty on the training cognitive subjects. The questions are answered through a specialized certification software application and they are automatically graded. The development of questions follows specific rules and quality assurance processes, in order for a big test item bank to be constructed, which feeds the tests (Christakoudis et al., 2011 ). Some questions and their alternative answers are extremely simple while other ones are more complicated i.e. concerning a combination of concepts, understanding of specific situations, scenarios for software applications etc. Each candidate has to take a separate test i.e. including different but equivalent questions selected randomly from the above-mentioned bank in a way that assures entirety, variety in types of questions, representation of the specific cognitive subjects, objectivity for the process, diversity of the tests while keeping the same difficulty level (Zagouras, 2005 ). The test item bank is frequently renewed following a specific process which includes: a) the addition of new questions in each new certification period, b) the removal of questions after their usage in a specific number of tests, c) improvement or replacement of questions according to a formative evaluation of the test results.

In the second part of the exam, the candidates are asked to free-write an essay on a specific theme concerning a lesson plan and its in-class application using ICT. This theme addresses all concepts that the teacher trainees faced during the training, mainly through the projects and activities they carried out. It mainly concerns educational scenarios and activities where educational or other software tools and environments were used as a significant part of the B-Level ICT Teacher Training process. These themes are only used once in the exams and are totally renewed for each new certification period.

The final certification grade derives from the formula: G cert  = 0,40*G partA  + 0,60*G partB , where G partA and G partB refer respectively to the grades of the first and the second part of the exam, as described above. The participation of a teacher trainee in the exams is successful so that she/he is considered to be certified for the specific B-Level ICT knowledge and skills, if the final certification grade she/he got is at least 60 in 0–100 scale.

2.3 The methodology

This research was carried out by scientific staff of the organization responsible for the implementation of B-Level ICT Teacher training on behalf of the Greek Ministry of Education. It was carried out as part of a broader attempt to compare the B-Level ICT “traditional” and “blended learning” models, before proceeding with the application of the Blended learning model at a wider scale, acknowledging that changes in well-established education processes should be gradually and carefully applied in order to be successful.

The aim of this specific research is to study whether the approach/model i.e. the methodology followed for the implementation of the teacher training (traditional or blended learning model), affects the “performance” of the trainees, in the framework of their participation in the training program and more specifically, in the certification process of the knowledge and skills acquired that follows the training. In this framework the research questions attempted to be answered include: a) How are the rates of the trainees who successfully completed the training program affected by the different training approaches (i.e. the traditional versus the blended learning model)? b) How are the percentages of the trained teachers who participated successfully in the training program and then sat the exams compared in between the two approaches? c) How the success rates at the certification exams of the above two approaches are compared? d) How are the grades achieved at the exams compared in between the two categories of trainees? e) How is certain “poor” performance of the trainees compared in between the two models? f)Is there any difference on the above “performance” factors between the various teacher specialties?

Therefore, the data examined as indicators for the “performance” of the teacher participants in the training and certification process refer to (Fig.  8 ): a) the successful or no completion of the training program, i.e. to the fulfillment of the minimum requirements such as the presence in the training sessions, the implementation of “in-class application” activities using ICT etc., in order to get the right to participate in the certification exams, b) to the participation in or abstention from the exams, as well as to c) the grades achieved at the certification exams (automatically graded questions and free-writing theme/ essay on an educational scenario / activity utilizing ICT).

Comparing the B-Level ICT teacher training program implementation models

For measuring and comparatively processing the above indicators, we used data from all the B-Level ICT Training programs implemented in 2010–2015 time period (of both traditional and blended learning model) all over Greece, where 23.689 teachers of “basic” specialties (Language, Mathematics, Natural Science, Informatics, Primary School and Kindergarten Teachers) participated.

Actually, it was not only a sample of data concerning a number of teacher trainees that was examined, but all the data concerning the trainees who participated in the above-mentioned training initiative in total. The authors of this paper, coming from the organization responsible for the implementation of B-Level ICT Teacher training, were able to access all the data needed for this research, through the Management Information System (MIS) supporting this large scale initiative. In specific, they collected and analysed the following data per teacher specialty and training model: a) the total number of trainees registered in the teacher training course, b) the total number of trainees who successfully completed the training course, c) the total number of trainees who participated in the certification, d) the grades of the trainees in these exams (and consequently the certification result: success or fail).

Based on the above data, the aforementioned indicators were examined through the comparison of the corresponding parameters presented in the following table (Fig.  9 ).

Indicators for assessing the "performance" of trainees and corresponding parameters calculated and compared in between traditional and blended learning model

The comparative study of these parameters and indicators in between the two models (traditional and blended learning model) both in total and per teacher specialty, actually answers to the corresponding research questions above, and leads to the results of this research as presented in the following section.

3 Comparative assessment of the trainees’ “performance” – results

The results of the research are presented below per indicator and per teacher specialty, as well as in total, for all teacher specialties.

3.1 Successful completion of the program

As aforementioned, in order for a teacher trainee to have successfully completed the B-Level ICT Training program and thus be eligible to participate in the respective certification exams, it is required that he/she is present in 90% of the training sessions (face to face and synchronous distance ones) as well as to have carried out a number of “in class application” activities using ICT. Especially in the case of the blended training model, a number of homework activities (e.g. the development of educational activities/ scenarios utilizing ICT) in the framework of the asynchronous part of the program, were also necessary.

The percentage of the teacher trainees who successfully completed the training program per teacher specialty and training model (parameter α 1 in Fig.  9 ), is presented in the following Table 1 and Fig.  10 .

Percentage of teacher trainees who successfully completed the training program

The percentage of the trainees who successfully completed the training program is high, over 93% for all the teacher specialties. However, we can see some small differences between the trainees of blended training programs and those of traditional ones, indicating a small lead of the blended training model for the Primary School, Physics and Language Teachers (up to 3,5 percentage units, in the case of Primary Teachers), as well as a small lead of traditional training model for Kindergarten, Informatics and Mathematics teachers (up to 4,2 percentage units, in the case of Kindergarten teachers).

3.2 Participation in certification exams

The teacher trainee who successfully completes the training program gets the right to participate in the certification exams. As this certification contributes to the professional development of the teachers and their placement in higher positions of responsibility (as a criterion), teachers who successfully complete this training program wish, in general, to get the B-Level ICT certification and thus, they sit the respective exams. The abstention from the exams may show that the trainee feels insecure and unconfident regarding the respective knowledge and skills expected to have been acquired, and for that reason this element was selected as one of the indicators of the trainees’ “performance”.

The percentage of the teacher trainees who participated in the certification exams (parameter α 2 in Fig.  9 ), per teacher specialty and training model is presented in the following Table 2 and Fig.  11 .

Percentage of teacher trainees who participated in certification exams

The percentage of the teacher trainees who sat the exams ranges from 78 to 90% in the case of the traditional training model, and from 85 to 97% in the case of the blended training model. Thus, a noticeably higher percentage was found in the case of the trainees of blended learning programs for all teacher specialties, with the Primary School teachers on top, with a difference of 10,54 percentage units, followed by the Mathematics teachers, with a difference of 7,69 percentage units and the Language teachers on bottom, with a difference of 3,11 percentage units.

3.3 Success in the certification exams

As aforementioned, the participation of a teacher trainee in the certification exams is considered as successful if the final certification grade, deriving from the grades of the first part (automatically graded questions) and the second part (free-writing theme/ essay on an educational scenario / activity utilizing ICT) of the certification exam, she/he got is at least 60 in 0–100 scale.

The percentage of the teacher trainees who succeeded in the certification exams (i.e. those who got final certification grade >  = 60) per teacher specialty and training model (parameter α 3 in Fig.  9 ) is presented in the following Table 3 and Fig.  12 .

Percentage of teacher trainees who succeeded in certification exams

The percentage of the teacher trainees who succeeded in the certification exams is generally high (> 91%), regardless of the teacher specialties and the training model. Besides, in the case of the blended training model a minor overstepping is observed (less than one percentage unit), with a positive exception at the Mathematics teachers where the percentage is 4,65 units higher and a negative exception at the Primary School teachers, where it seems that the percentage for the traditional model is marginally greater (0,24 percentage units).

3.4 Certification exams’ grades

The grades achieved by the teacher trainees in the certification exams and more specifically, both the final certification grade and the grade of each part of the exam (automatically graded questions and free-writing theme) distinctly (since each part corresponds to different knowledge and/or skills – competences), were the next indicators considered appropriate to be examined.

For that reason, the average (AVG) of grades of all the trainees who participated in the certification exams, was calculated per teacher specialty and training model.

The average of all trainees’ final certification grades (regardless of the final result), per teacher specialty and training model (parameter α 4 in Fig.  9 ) is presented in the following Table 4 and Fig.  13 .

Average of teacher trainees final certification grades

It is noted that the blended learning model trainees got 2–3 units better final certification grade on average (in scale 0–100), with an exception in the case of Informatics teachers, where this difference is only 0,16 units.

Below, the average of all trainees’ grades corresponding to the first part (automatically graded questions) and to the second part (free-writing theme/ educational scenario – activity utilizing ICT) of the certification exam are presented distinctly, per teacher specialty and training model (Table 5 , Fig.  14 , Table 6 , Fig.  15 ).

Average of teacher trainees' grades in Part A of certification exams (Automatically Graded Questions)

Average of teacher trainees' grades in Part B of certification exams (Essay—Educational Scenario)

According to this data, the situation with the averages of all trainees’ grades for the first or the second part seems similar to the one of the final certification grades, as no essential differentiation to this is observed. More specifically, both first and second part average grades are similarly 2 – 4 units higher (in scale 0–100) in the case of the blended learning model trainees, with a positive exception at Kindergarten teachers for the first part of the certification exam where a higher overstepping in blended training model is observed (6,75 units difference) and for the second part of the certification exam, negative exceptions at Informatics and Kindergarten teachers where a marginal overstepping of the traditional training model is observed (0,16 and 0,21 units differences, respectively).

3.5 Negative “Performance” indicator

Obviously, unsuccessful completion of the training program or unsuccessful participation in the certification exams mean a negative “performance” for the respective training participants. Thus, the sum of the percentage of the teacher trainees who didn’t successfully complete the training program and the percentage of the teacher trainees who didn’t succeed in the certification exams could be an indicator of “negative (poor) performance” for all the training participants (Negative/ Poor “Performance” rate) and for that reason, it was also examined per teacher specialty and training model.

The percentage of the teacher trainees who either didn’t successfully complete the training program or didn’t succeed in the certification exams (i.e. they got a final grade < 60 in scale 0–100), per teacher specialty and training model (parameter α 5 in Fig.  9 ), is presented in the following Table 7 and Fig.  16 .

Negative "Performance" rate (unsuccessful completion of the training or failure in certification exams)

This indicator, corresponding to “negative/poor” performances of the B-Level ICT Teacher Training, is generally displayed with low values. In traditional training model the values range from 2,2% for Kindergarten teachers to 12,6% for Mathematics Teachers. In blended training model these values appear a little lower, ranging from 2,1% for Primary School Teachers to 9,9% for Mathematics Teachers, indicating in general, a marginally better performance for the blended learning model trainees. However, the higher values of this indicator for Informatics and Kindergarten teachers (a difference of 1,1 and 4,1 percentage units, respectively), present in contrary a better performance of the traditional training model in these cases.

3.6 Overall teacher trainees’ “performance” (regardless of teacher specialty)

In addition, the above mentioned “performance” indicators were examined for all the teachers who participated in traditional training programs or in blended training program, as a total, i.e. regardless of teacher specialty.

In the following Table 8 and Fig.  17 there are presented for all the B-level ICT teacher trainees, regardless their teacher specialty (per training model): a) the percentage of the trainees who successfully completed the training program (parameter α 1 in Fig.  9 ), b) the percentage of the trainees who sat the certification exams (parameter α 2 in Fig.  9 ), c) the percentage of the trainees who succeeded in the certification exams (parameter α 3 in Fig.  9 ), as well as d) the indicator of negative/poor performance corresponding to the sum of the percentages of the trainees who didn’t complete successfully the training program and them who didn’t succeed in the certification exams (parameter α 5 in Fig.  9 ).

Teacher trainees' "Performance" indicators

In the above data a slightly better performance appears among trainees of the blended learning model, as we can see 5,91 units overstepping at the percentage of the trainees who sat the exams and 0,96 units overstepping at the percentage of the trainees who succeeded in the certification exams, as well as 0,43 percentage units decrease to the negative/poor performance indicator. A minor increase of 0,14 units to the percentage of the traditional model trainees who successfully completed the training program, is also noted.

Finally, the grades achieved by the trainees in the certification exams, were studied overall, regardless the teacher specialties.

In the following Table 9 and Fig.  18 , for all the B-level ICT teacher trainees, regardless of their teacher specialty (per training model), the following data are presented (in reference to parameter α 4 in Fig.  9 ): a) the average of all trainees’ grades corresponding to the first part (automatically graded questions) of the certification exams , b) the average of all trainees’ grades corresponding to the second part (free-writing theme/ educational scenario – activity utilizing ICT) of the certification exams and c) the average of all trainees’ final certification grades (deriving from the grades of the above two parts).

Teacher trainees' certification grades

Concerning the final certification grade, according to the above data, higher grades for the trainees of blended learning programs are clearly observed (by 2 units, in 0–100 scale). This difference inheres obviously in the grades of the first and the second part of the exam, where higher grades, by 3 and 1,3 percentage units respectively, appear. This better performance for the trainees of blended learning programs, especially in the second part of the exam (essay/ educational scenario—activity utilizing ICT), could result from the increased involvement of the participants with the training subjects, carrying out relevant projects and activities in the framework of the asynchronous part of the blended training program.

4 Discussion—conclusions

In this paper we attempted to compare “traditional” teacher training (taking place entirely through face to face sessions) with teacher training through blended learning approach/ model (including both face to face and synchronous distance sessions accompanied by asynchronous activities), as it was designed and implemented in the in-service teacher training for the utilization and application of digital technologies in the teaching practice (B-Level ICT Teacher Training) that has been taking place in Greece for more than ten years. In response to a need for further research towards this direction (Garrison & Kanuka, 2004 ; Watson, 2008 ), this comparison refers to assessing the effectiveness of the two models/ approaches, as it derives from teacher trainees’ performances, especially in the framework of the certification procedure regarding the knowledge and skills acquired, through exams that follow the training.

In the present research we haven’t dealt with the various elements of the two training models, but we based their comparison on the final results, focusing on the learning outcomes of the trainees, as they derive from the final certification process (nationwide-independent digital exams).

Research findings show better performances of a small or marginal scale for the teachers who participated in blended leaning teacher training programs compared to those who participated in traditional teacher training programs, in consistency with relevant research that reports blended learning as offering a slight advantage regarding overall student success and withdrawal rates (Dziuban et al., 2018 ; Means et al., 2010 ; Youngers, 2014 ).

Furthermore, some other aspects could be considered as factors that have influenced trainees’ improved performance in the blended training model, such as: a) the fact that the training activities in the technology enhanced blended training model were designed in a way which allowed a satisfying continuation and a strong link between face to face training sessions and synchronous distance training sessions with asynchronous activities, thus a strong integration between the two (Casanova & Moreira, 2017 ; Dagdilelis, 2014 ; Komis et al., 2014 ), b) the flexibility of the technology enhanced blended training model that enabled the trainees to experience a more personalized learning experience, which strengthened their confidence in sitting the certification exams (Casanova & Moreira, 2017 ; Dagdilelis, 2014 ; Komis et al., 2014 ), as well as c) the impact that technology had on the learning process, in the current blended training program (Casanova & Moreira, 2017 ).

Looking closer, B-Level ICT Teacher Training is a popular and successful training action for the Greek educational community and thus, both the percentage of trainees that successfully complete the program and the percentage of trainees who succeed in the certification exams, was always very high as long as the traditional training model was followed (96% and 97%, respectively). So, these too high percentage values don’t allow any major upward differentiation for the case of the blended training model. However, it seems that there is a minor lead at the blended training model percentage values referring to the trainees’ success rate in the certification exams (by around one percentage unit), as well as to the respective certification grades (an average of 2 units in 0–100 scale at the final certification grades and 1–3 units at the grades of part A and B of the exam). In addition, there is a difference at the percentage of the trainees who sat the exams (approximately 6 percentage units), which could mean that the participants of blended training programs feel better prepared for the exams, because of their greater involvement with the training subjects through carrying out projects and educational activities (e.g. educational scenarios-activities utilizing ICT etc.), especially in the framework of the asynchronous sessions of the program.

Studying the various teacher specialties separately, it’s worth noting some better “performance” values in the case of the blended training model a) for the Mathematics teachers, both the percentage of the trainees who sat the exams, which appears about 8 units higher than the one in the case of traditional training model and the percentage of the trainees who succeeded in the certification exams, which appears about 4,65 units higher, with higher average grades as well (by 2,12 units) and b) for the Natural Science teachers, the certification grades which appear about 3 units higher (bigger difference of all specialties). In addition, the case of Informatics teachers seems interesting, as in essence there is no difference at the trainees’ “performance” between the two models, while a few more blended learning model trainees drop out and do not successfully complete the training program (a difference in the order of 1%). Similar picture with the one of the Informatics teachers, with a little bigger difference at the percentage of the blended learning model trainees who do not complete the training program, appears for the Kindergarten teachers. Besides, it’s worth also noting that the success rate in the certification exams for the Kindergarten teachers is extremely high (approximately 100%) and remains the same in both models. This is in line with other research findings on the perceptions and practices for the utilization of ICT addressing Kindergarten teachers who have attended B-Level ICT teacher training, where their satisfaction from the training and their positive attitude for integrating ICT in their everyday teaching practice, are highlighted (Komis et al., 2015 ). Finally, it is impressive that in the case of the Primary School teachers, the percentage of blended learning model trainees who sat the exam are more than 10 units higher than the one of the traditional model trainees. This difference, similarly to the case of Kindergarten teachers, is not reflected in the success rate of the certification exam, which remains at the same high level (approximately 98%).

Consequently, the research findings lead to the basic conclusion that the application of the blended learning model in a teacher training action regarding the utilization of digital technologies in the teaching practice, for instance the combination of face to face training sessions and synchronous distance training sessions with asynchronous activities (supported by digital technologies), presents greater effectiveness of a small or marginal scale (depending on the teacher specialty) than the traditional training model which entirely consists of face to face sessions.

As described in the summary of references in previous related research studies included in the introduction section of this paper (Section  1 ), the results and the basic conclusion of our research in general is in line with related published findings and conclusions (Dziuban et al., 2018 ; Means et al.,  2010 ; Youngers, 2014 ). However, recently, especially in the era of pandemic covid-19, where on line learning or blended learning were implemented in a rough way even in audiencies where such a method is not considered as appropriate, there are some findings stating that face to face learning is preferable and possibly more efficient for the learners (Atwa et al., 2022 ; Nasution et al., 2021 ).

Furhermore, as this research doesn’t deal with the various elements of the two training models, but is limited to the comparison of the trainees’ performance mainly based on the final certification process (through nationwide-independent digital exams), other issues concerning elaboration of qualitative data remain open. These issues could be considered as limitations of our study or subject for further research in the future and include the perceptions of the teacher trainees and the teacher trainers on the application of the training models, the comparison of an entirely distance training model with the blended one including additional face to face activities, the contribution of the particular elements and the characteristics of the models (i.e. the specific design of each model) in the effectiveness of the training program for the utilization of ICT in the teaching practice etc.

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Charalampos Zagouras, Demetra Egarchou, Panayiotis Skiniotis & Maria Fountana

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Zagouras, C., Egarchou, D., Skiniotis, P. et al. Face to face or blended learning? A case study: Teacher training in the pedagogical use of ICT. Educ Inf Technol 27 , 12939–12967 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11144-y

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Issue Date : November 2022

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11144-y

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Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains †

Associated data.

• Appendix 1: Example assessment questions used to assess the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning
• Appendix 2: Student learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool

Following years of widespread use in business and medical education, the case study teaching method is becoming an increasingly common teaching strategy in science education. However, the current body of research provides limited evidence that the use of published case studies effectively promotes the fulfillment of specific learning objectives integral to many biology courses. This study tested the hypothesis that case studies are more effective than classroom discussions and textbook reading at promoting learning of key biological concepts, development of written and oral communication skills, and comprehension of the relevance of biological concepts to everyday life. This study also tested the hypothesis that case studies produced by the instructor of a course are more effective at promoting learning than those produced by unaffiliated instructors. Additionally, performance on quantitative learning assessments and student perceptions of learning gains were analyzed to determine whether reported perceptions of learning gains accurately reflect academic performance. The results reported here suggest that case studies, regardless of the source, are significantly more effective than other methods of content delivery at increasing performance on examination questions related to chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication. This finding was positively correlated to increased student perceptions of learning gains associated with oral and written communication skills and the ability to recognize connections between biological concepts and other aspects of life. Based on these findings, case studies should be considered as a preferred method for teaching about a variety of concepts in science courses.

INTRODUCTION

The case study teaching method is a highly adaptable style of teaching that involves problem-based learning and promotes the development of analytical skills ( 8 ). By presenting content in the format of a narrative accompanied by questions and activities that promote group discussion and solving of complex problems, case studies facilitate development of the higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive learning; moving beyond recall of knowledge to analysis, evaluation, and application ( 1 , 9 ). Similarly, case studies facilitate interdisciplinary learning and can be used to highlight connections between specific academic topics and real-world societal issues and applications ( 3 , 9 ). This has been reported to increase student motivation to participate in class activities, which promotes learning and increases performance on assessments ( 7 , 16 , 19 , 23 ). For these reasons, case-based teaching has been widely used in business and medical education for many years ( 4 , 11 , 12 , 14 ). Although case studies were considered a novel method of science education just 20 years ago, the case study teaching method has gained popularity in recent years among an array of scientific disciplines such as biology, chemistry, nursing, and psychology ( 5 – 7 , 9 , 11 , 13 , 15 – 17 , 21 , 22 , 24 ).

Although there is now a substantive and growing body of literature describing how to develop and use case studies in science teaching, current research on the effectiveness of case study teaching at meeting specific learning objectives is of limited scope and depth. Studies have shown that working in groups during completion of case studies significantly improves student perceptions of learning and may increase performance on assessment questions, and that the use of clickers can increase student engagement in case study activities, particularly among non-science majors, women, and freshmen ( 7 , 21 , 22 ). Case study teaching has been shown to improve exam performance in an anatomy and physiology course, increasing the mean score across all exams given in a two-semester sequence from 66% to 73% ( 5 ). Use of case studies was also shown to improve students’ ability to synthesize complex analytical questions about the real-world issues associated with a scientific topic ( 6 ). In a high school chemistry course, it was demonstrated that the case study teaching method produces significant increases in self-reported control of learning, task value, and self-efficacy for learning and performance ( 24 ). This effect on student motivation is important because enhanced motivation for learning activities has been shown to promote student engagement and academic performance ( 19 , 24 ). Additionally, faculty from a number of institutions have reported that using case studies promotes critical thinking, learning, and participation among students, especially in terms of the ability to view an issue from multiple perspectives and to grasp the practical application of core course concepts ( 23 ).

Despite what is known about the effectiveness of case studies in science education, questions remain about the functionality of the case study teaching method at promoting specific learning objectives that are important to many undergraduate biology courses. A recent survey of teachers who use case studies found that the topics most often covered in general biology courses included genetics and heredity, cell structure, cells and energy, chemistry of life, and cell cycle and cancer, suggesting that these topics should be of particular interest in studies that examine the effectiveness of the case study teaching method ( 8 ). However, the existing body of literature lacks direct evidence that the case study method is an effective tool for teaching about this collection of important topics in biology courses. Further, the extent to which case study teaching promotes development of science communication skills and the ability to understand the connections between biological concepts and everyday life has not been examined, yet these are core learning objectives shared by a variety of science courses. Although many instructors have produced case studies for use in their own classrooms, the production of novel case studies is time-consuming and requires skills that not all instructors have perfected. It is therefore important to determine whether case studies published by instructors who are unaffiliated with a particular course can be used effectively and obviate the need for each instructor to develop new case studies for their own courses. The results reported herein indicate that teaching with case studies results in significantly higher performance on examination questions about chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication than that achieved by class discussions and textbook reading for topics of similar complexity. Case studies also increased overall student perceptions of learning gains and perceptions of learning gains specifically related to written and oral communication skills and the ability to grasp connections between scientific topics and their real-world applications. The effectiveness of the case study teaching method at increasing academic performance was not correlated to whether the case study used was authored by the instructor of the course or by an unaffiliated instructor. These findings support increased use of published case studies in the teaching of a variety of biological concepts and learning objectives.

Student population

This study was conducted at Kingsborough Community College, which is part of the City University of New York system, located in Brooklyn, New York. Kingsborough Community College has a diverse population of approximately 19,000 undergraduate students. The student population included in this study was enrolled in the first semester of a two-semester sequence of general (introductory) biology for biology majors during the spring, winter, or summer semester of 2014. A total of 63 students completed the course during this time period; 56 students consented to the inclusion of their data in the study. Of the students included in the study, 23 (41%) were male and 33 (59%) were female; 40 (71%) were registered as college freshmen and 16 (29%) were registered as college sophomores. To normalize participant groups, the same student population pooled from three classes taught by the same instructor was used to assess both experimental and control teaching methods.

Course material

The four biological concepts assessed during this study (chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication) were selected as topics for studying the effectiveness of case study teaching because they were the key concepts addressed by this particular course that were most likely to be taught in a number of other courses, including biology courses for both majors and nonmajors at outside institutions. At the start of this study, relevant existing case studies were freely available from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) to address mitosis and meiosis and DNA structure and replication, but published case studies that appropriately addressed chemical bonds and osmosis and diffusion were not available. Therefore, original case studies that addressed the latter two topics were produced as part of this study, and case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors and published by the NCCSTS were used to address the former two topics. By the conclusion of this study, all four case studies had been peer-reviewed and accepted for publication by the NCCSTS ( http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/ ). Four of the remaining core topics covered in this course (macromolecules, photosynthesis, genetic inheritance, and translation) were selected as control lessons to provide control assessment data.

To minimize extraneous variation, control topics and assessments were carefully matched in complexity, format, and number with case studies, and an equal amount of class time was allocated for each case study and the corresponding control lesson. Instruction related to control lessons was delivered using minimal slide-based lectures, with emphasis on textbook reading assignments accompanied by worksheets completed by students in and out of the classroom, and small and large group discussion of key points. Completion of activities and discussion related to all case studies and control topics that were analyzed was conducted in the classroom, with the exception of the take-home portion of the osmosis and diffusion case study.

Data collection and analysis

This study was performed in accordance with a protocol approved by the Kingsborough Community College Human Research Protection Program and the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the City University of New York (CUNY IRB reference 539938-1; KCC IRB application #: KCC 13-12-126-0138). Assessment scores were collected from regularly scheduled course examinations. For each case study, control questions were included on the same examination that were similar in number, format, point value, and difficulty level, but related to a different topic covered in the course that was of similar complexity. Complexity and difficulty of both case study and control questions were evaluated using experiential data from previous iterations of the course; the Bloom’s taxonomy designation and amount of material covered by each question, as well as the average score on similar questions achieved by students in previous iterations of the course was considered in determining appropriate controls. All assessment questions were scored using a standardized, pre-determined rubric. Student perceptions of learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the Student Assessment of Learning Gains (SALG) course evaluation tool ( http://www.salgsite.org ), distributed in hardcopy and completed anonymously during the last week of the course. Students were presented with a consent form to opt-in to having their data included in the data analysis. After the course had concluded and final course grades had been posted, data from consenting students were pooled in a database and identifying information was removed prior to analysis. Statistical analysis of data was conducted using the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance and calculation of the R 2 coefficient of determination.

Teaching with case studies improves performance on learning assessments, independent of case study origin

To evaluate the effectiveness of the case study teaching method at promoting learning, student performance on examination questions related to material covered by case studies was compared with performance on questions that covered material addressed through classroom discussions and textbook reading. The latter questions served as control items; assessment items for each case study were compared with control items that were of similar format, difficulty, and point value ( Appendix 1 ). Each of the four case studies resulted in an increase in examination performance compared with control questions that was statistically significant, with an average difference of 18% ( Fig. 1 ). The mean score on case study-related questions was 73% for the chemical bonds case study, 79% for osmosis and diffusion, 76% for mitosis and meiosis, and 70% for DNA structure and replication ( Fig. 1 ). The mean score for non-case study-related control questions was 60%, 54%, 60%, and 52%, respectively ( Fig. 1 ). In terms of examination performance, no significant difference between case studies produced by the instructor of the course (chemical bonds and osmosis and diffusion) and those produced by unaffiliated instructors (mitosis and meiosis and DNA structure and replication) was indicated by the Kruskal-Wallis one-way analysis of variance. However, the 25% difference between the mean score on questions related to the osmosis and diffusion case study and the mean score on the paired control questions was notably higher than the 13–18% differences observed for the other case studies ( Fig. 1 ).

Case study teaching method increases student performance on examination questions. Mean score on a set of examination questions related to lessons covered by case studies (black bars) and paired control questions of similar format and difficulty about an unrelated topic (white bars). Chemical bonds, n = 54; Osmosis and diffusion, n = 54; Mitosis and meiosis, n = 51; DNA structure and replication, n = 50. Error bars represent the standard error of the mean (SEM). Asterisk indicates p < 0.05.

Case study teaching increases student perception of learning gains related to core course objectives

Student learning gains were assessed using a modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool ( Appendix 2 ). To determine whether completing case studies was more effective at increasing student perceptions of learning gains than completing textbook readings or participating in class discussions, perceptions of student learning gains for each were compared. In response to the question “Overall, how much did each of the following aspects of the class help your learning?” 82% of students responded that case studies helped a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 70% for participating in class discussions and 58% for completing textbook reading; only 4% of students responded that case studies helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 2% for class discussions and 22% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2A ). The differences in reported learning gains derived from the use of case studies compared with class discussion and textbook readings were statistically significant, while the difference in learning gains associated with class discussion compared with textbook reading was not statistically significant by a narrow margin ( p = 0.051).

The case study teaching method increases student perceptions of learning gains. Student perceptions of learning gains are indicated by plotting responses to the question “How much did each of the following activities: (A) Help your learning overall? (B) Improve your ability to communicate your knowledge of scientific concepts in writing? (C) Improve your ability to communicate your knowledge of scientific concepts orally? (D) Help you understand the connections between scientific concepts and other aspects of your everyday life?” Reponses are represented as follows: Helped a great amount (black bars); Helped a good amount (dark gray bars); Helped a moderate amount (medium gray bars); Helped a small amount (light gray bars); Provided no help (white bars). Asterisk indicates p < 0.05.

To elucidate the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains related to specific course learning objectives compared with class discussions and textbook reading, students were asked how much each of these methods of content delivery specifically helped improve skills that were integral to fulfilling three main course objectives. When students were asked how much each of the methods helped “improve your ability to communicate knowledge of scientific concepts in writing,” 81% of students responded that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 63% for class discussions and 59% for textbook reading; only 6% of students responded that case studies helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 8% for class discussions and 21% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2B ). When the same question was posed about the ability to communicate orally, 81% of students responded that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 68% for class discussions and 50% for textbook reading, while the respective response rates for helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” were 4%, 6%, and 25% ( Fig. 2C ). The differences in learning gains associated with both written and oral communication were statistically significant when completion of case studies was compared with either participation in class discussion or completion of textbook readings. Compared with textbook reading, class discussions led to a statistically significant increase in oral but not written communication skills.

Students were then asked how much each of the methods helped them “understand the connections between scientific concepts and other aspects of your everyday life.” A total of 79% of respondents declared that case studies help a “good” or “great” amount, compared with 70% for class discussions and 57% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2D ). Only 4% stated that case studies and class discussions helped a “small amount” or “provided no help,” compared with 21% for textbook reading ( Fig. 2D ). Similar to overall learning gains, the use of case studies significantly increased the ability to understand the relevance of science to everyday life compared with class discussion and textbook readings, while the difference in learning gains associated with participation in class discussion compared with textbook reading was not statistically significant ( p = 0.054).

Student perceptions of learning gains resulting from case study teaching are positively correlated to increased performance on examinations, but independent of case study author

To test the hypothesis that case studies produced specifically for this course by the instructor were more effective at promoting learning gains than topically relevant case studies published by authors not associated with this course, perceptions of learning gains were compared for each of the case studies. For both of the case studies produced by the instructor of the course, 87% of students indicated that the case study provided a “good” or “great” amount of help to their learning, and 2% indicated that the case studies provided “little” or “no” help ( Table 1 ). In comparison, an average of 85% of students indicated that the case studies produced by an unaffiliated instructor provided a “good” or “great” amount of help to their learning, and 4% indicated that the case studies provided “little” or “no” help ( Table 1 ). The instructor-produced case studies yielded both the highest and lowest percentage of students reporting the highest level of learning gains (a “great” amount), while case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors yielded intermediate values. Therefore, it can be concluded that the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains is not significantly affected by whether or not the course instructor authored the case study.

Case studies positively affect student perceptions of learning gains about various biological topics.

Finally, to determine whether performance on examination questions accurately predicts student perceptions of learning gains, mean scores on examination questions related to case studies were compared with reported perceptions of learning gains for those case studies ( Fig. 3 ). The coefficient of determination (R 2 value) was 0.81, indicating a strong, but not definitive, positive correlation between perceptions of learning gains and performance on examinations, suggesting that student perception of learning gains is a valid tool for assessing the effectiveness of case studies ( Fig. 3 ). This correlation was independent of case study author.

Perception of learning gains but not author of case study is positively correlated to score on related examination questions. Percentage of students reporting that each specific case study provided “a great amount of help” to their learning was plotted against the point difference between mean score on examination questions related to that case study and mean score on paired control questions. Positive point differences indicate how much higher the mean scores on case study-related questions were than the mean scores on paired control questions. Black squares represent case studies produced by the instructor of the course; white squares represent case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. R 2 value indicates the coefficient of determination.

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that teaching with case studies produced by the instructor of a course is more effective at promoting learning gains than using case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. This study also tested the hypothesis that the case study teaching method is more effective than class discussions and textbook reading at promoting learning gains associated with four of the most commonly taught topics in undergraduate general biology courses: chemical bonds, osmosis and diffusion, mitosis and meiosis, and DNA structure and replication. In addition to assessing content-based learning gains, development of written and oral communication skills and the ability to connect scientific topics with real-world applications was also assessed, because these skills were overarching learning objectives of this course, and classroom activities related to both case studies and control lessons were designed to provide opportunities for students to develop these skills. Finally, data were analyzed to determine whether performance on examination questions is positively correlated to student perceptions of learning gains resulting from case study teaching.

Compared with equivalent control questions about topics of similar complexity taught using class discussions and textbook readings, all four case studies produced statistically significant increases in the mean score on examination questions ( Fig. 1 ). This indicates that case studies are more effective than more commonly used, traditional methods of content delivery at promoting learning of a variety of core concepts covered in general biology courses. The average increase in score on each test item was equivalent to nearly two letter grades, which is substantial enough to elevate the average student performance on test items from the unsatisfactory/failing range to the satisfactory/passing range. The finding that there was no statistical difference between case studies in terms of performance on examination questions suggests that case studies are equally effective at promoting learning of disparate topics in biology. The observations that students did not perform significantly less well on the first case study presented (chemical bonds) compared with the other case studies and that performance on examination questions did not progressively increase with each successive case study suggests that the effectiveness of case studies is not directly related to the amount of experience students have using case studies. Furthermore, anecdotal evidence from previous semesters of this course suggests that, of the four topics addressed by cases in this study, DNA structure and function and osmosis and diffusion are the first and second most difficult for students to grasp. The lack of a statistical difference between case studies therefore suggests that the effectiveness of a case study at promoting learning gains is not directly proportional to the difficulty of the concept covered. However, the finding that use of the osmosis and diffusion case study resulted in the greatest increase in examination performance compared with control questions and also produced the highest student perceptions of learning gains is noteworthy and could be attributed to the fact that it was the only case study evaluated that included a hands-on experiment. Because the inclusion of a hands-on kinetic activity may synergistically enhance student engagement and learning and result in an even greater increase in learning gains than case studies that lack this type of activity, it is recommended that case studies that incorporate this type of activity be preferentially utilized.

Student perceptions of learning gains are strongly motivating factors for engagement in the classroom and academic performance, so it is important to assess the effect of any teaching method in this context ( 19 , 24 ). A modified version of the SALG course evaluation tool was used to assess student perceptions of learning gains because it has been previously validated as an efficacious tool ( Appendix 2 ) ( 20 ). Using the SALG tool, case study teaching was demonstrated to significantly increase student perceptions of overall learning gains compared with class discussions and textbook reading ( Fig. 2A ). Case studies were shown to be particularly useful for promoting perceived development of written and oral communication skills and for demonstrating connections between scientific topics and real-world issues and applications ( Figs. 2B–2D ). Further, student perceptions of “great” learning gains positively correlated with increased performance on examination questions, indicating that assessment of learning gains using the SALG tool is both valid and useful in this course setting ( Fig. 3 ). These findings also suggest that case study teaching could be used to increase student motivation and engagement in classroom activities and thus promote learning and performance on assessments. The finding that textbook reading yielded the lowest student perceptions of learning gains was not unexpected, since reading facilitates passive learning while the class discussions and case studies were both designed to promote active learning.

Importantly, there was no statistical difference in student performance on examinations attributed to the two case studies produced by the instructor of the course compared with the two case studies produced by unaffiliated instructors. The average difference between the two instructor-produced case studies and the two case studies published by unaffiliated instructors was only 3% in terms of both the average score on examination questions (76% compared with 73%) and the average increase in score compared with paired control items (14% compared with 17%) ( Fig. 1 ). Even when considering the inherent qualitative differences of course grades, these differences are negligible. Similarly, the effectiveness of case studies at promoting learning gains was not significantly affected by the origin of the case study, as evidenced by similar percentages of students reporting “good” and “great” learning gains regardless of whether the case study was produced by the course instructor or an unaffiliated instructor ( Table 1 ).

The observation that case studies published by unaffiliated instructors are just as effective as those produced by the instructor of a course suggests that instructors can reasonably rely on the use of pre-published case studies relevant to their class rather than investing the considerable time and effort required to produce a novel case study. Case studies covering a wide range of topics in the sciences are available from a number of sources, and many of them are free access. The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science (NCCSTS) database ( http://sciencecases.lib.buffalo.edu/cs/ ) contains over 500 case studies that are freely available to instructors, and are accompanied by teaching notes that provide logistical advice and additional resources for implementing the case study, as well as a set of assessment questions with a password-protected answer key. Case study repositories are also maintained by BioQUEST Curriculum Consortium ( http://www.bioquest.org/icbl/cases.php ) and the Science Case Network ( http://sciencecasenet.org ); both are available for use by instructors from outside institutions.

It should be noted that all case studies used in this study were rigorously peer-reviewed and accepted for publication by the NCCSTS prior to the completion of this study ( 2 , 10 , 18 , 25 ); the conclusions of this study may not apply to case studies that were not developed in accordance with similar standards. Because case study teaching involves skills such as creative writing and management of dynamic group discussion in a way that is not commonly integrated into many other teaching methods, it is recommended that novice case study teachers seek training or guidance before writing their first case study or implementing the method. The lack of a difference observed in the use of case studies from different sources should be interpreted with some degree of caution since only two sources were represented in this study, and each by only two cases. Furthermore, in an educational setting, quantitative differences in test scores might produce meaningful qualitative differences in course grades even in the absence of a p value that is statistically significant. For example, there is a meaningful qualitative difference between test scores that result in an average grade of C− and test scores that result in an average grade of C+, even if there is no statistically significant difference between the two sets of scores.

In the future, it could be informative to confirm these findings using a larger cohort, by repeating the study at different institutions with different instructors, by evaluating different case studies, and by directly comparing the effectiveness of the case studying teaching method with additional forms of instruction, such as traditional chalkboard and slide-based lecturing, and laboratory-based activities. It may also be informative to examine whether demographic factors such as student age and gender modulate the effectiveness of the case study teaching method, and whether case studies work equally well for non-science majors taking a science course compared with those majoring in the subject. Since the topical material used in this study is often included in other classes in both high school and undergraduate education, such as cell biology, genetics, and chemistry, the conclusions of this study are directly applicable to a broad range of courses. Presently, it is recommended that the use of case studies in teaching undergraduate general biology and other science courses be expanded, especially for the teaching of capacious issues with real-world applications and in classes where development of written and oral communication skills are key objectives. The use of case studies that involve hands-on activities should be emphasized to maximize the benefit of this teaching method. Importantly, instructors can be confident in the use of pre-published case studies to promote learning, as there is no indication that the effectiveness of the case study teaching method is reliant on the production of novel, customized case studies for each course.

SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS

Acknowledgments.

This article benefitted from a President’s Faculty Innovation Grant, Kingsborough Community College. The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest.

† Supplemental materials available at http://jmbe.asm.org

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Original research article, teachers’ perceptions of their role and classroom management practices in a technology rich primary school classroom.

• 1 Department of Education and Sports Science, Faculty of Arts and Education, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway
• 2 Department of Education, Faculty of Psychology, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway

This case study investigates primary school teachers’ perceptions of their role and practices regarding classroom management in technology-rich classrooms. The data was collected through individual and focus group interviews, observation and a survey at a school where implementation of digital technologies has been a high priority over several years. The study identifies complexity and contemporary elements in teachers’ perceived role and practices, as the rapid evolution of ICT requires teachers to constantly keep up-to-date, gain new competencies and evaluate their practices to be able to facilitate learning in physical classrooms that have expanded to the digital space. In this process, the role of leadership, collegial collaboration, good teacher-pupil relationships and teachers’ ability to adapt and take up a role of a learner have been found pivotal.

Introduction

Digitalization has advanced in leaps in Norwegian schools, and pupils’ and teachers’ personal digital devices have become standard pieces of equipment in the majority of classrooms, including primary education ( Fjørtoft et al., 2019 ). This consequently sets new demands to effective classroom management ( Bolick and Bartels, 2015 ; Ministry of Education and Research, 2017 ). Traditionally, the purpose of classroom management has been establishing a safe, supportive and orderly environment to optimize opportunities for learning and social, emotional and moral growth ( Evertson and Weinstein, 2006 ; Wubbels, 2011 ). While the definition of classroom management itself is still valid, the rapid development in digitalization at all levels of schooling forces us to reconsider the means to reach its goals. Research shows that in general, teachers have expressed insufficient pedagogical digital competence and fear of losing control when digital technologies have been introduced and implemented ( Krumsvik et al., 2013 , 2016 ; Bolick and Bartels, 2015 ; Moltudal et al., 2019 ). However, a synthesis of Cho et al. (2020) finds some positive features and implications in both abovementioned areas, in using digital technologies to aid in classroom management, as well as in understanding the role of digital technologies in the overall flow of classroom practices ( Cho et al., 2020 ). Schools have for example implemented applications that focus on pupil behavior and employed virtual platforms for a variety of classroom management tasks ( Pas et al., 2016 ; Sanchez et al., 2017 ; Cho et al., 2020 ). Overall, there is still little research documenting how introducing digital resources actually influences classroom management in primary school level ( Bolick and Bartels, 2015 ; Cho et al., 2020 ).

The aim of this article is to position the study toward the current state of knowledge, as well as to contribute toward increasing this knowledge base on how teachers perceive their role regarding classroom management in learning environments that are characterized by frequent access and use of digital technologies, and how they practice this role in their everyday classroom management. The context for the case study is particularly related to Norwegian primary schools, and the data was collected in a school that could be defined as a leading-edge school ( Schofield, 1995 ) due to its notable investments in pioneering in ICT implementation. The article examines the following research question:

How does the use of digital technologies influence teachers’ perceptions of their role and practices in terms of classroom management in a technology-rich primary school classroom?

Norwegian Context

In Norway, primary school is divided between lower primary school (ages 6-9, grades 1-4) and upper primary school (ages 10-12, grades 5-7). Norwegian teachers enjoy a significant amount of autonomy compared to their colleagues in many other countries and as a rule, have a fair amount of influence regarding their pedagogical work. The national curriculum (known as LK20) allows a wide spectrum of methods and teaching strategies, while highlighting the importance of educating digitally competent citizens ( Ministry of Education and Research, 2019 ). Teachers and pupils in Norwegian schools have a good access to educational technology, such as one-on-one digital devices, projectors and digital whiteboards ( Fjørtoft et al., 2019 ), and competence in classroom management in technology-rich learning environments has been named as one of the central aspects in the national digitalization strategy for Norwegian schools ( Ministry of Education and Research, 2017 ).

For instance, Blikstad-Balas (2012) , Krumsvik et al. (2013) , Krumsvik (2014) , Fjørtoft et al. (2019) have cast light on the impact of digital technologies to teachers’ role and classroom management practices in secondary education. Some of the main findings are that teachers and school leaders both fear and experience that use of technology causes distractions, and that a large body of pupils do not use technology as instructed. Teachers have expressed doubts regarding their pupils’ maturity to demonstrate an adequate amount of self-regulation and responsibility when the temptations of digital devices are constantly within the reach, but it has been argued that many of such issues could be resolved by better competence in classroom management ( Krumsvik et al., 2013 ). Although several Norwegian studies have examined the relationship between digitalization and classroom disruptions, a recent systematic review shows that this topic has received little attention internationally ( Meinokat and Wagner, 2021 ). Studies also show that while the access to and the use of digital technologies has increased significantly during the past years, there is still great variation in digital practices within and between Norwegian schools ( Krumsvik et al., 2016 ; Fjørtoft et al., 2019 ). National studies and international comparison indicate that in spite of teachers’ positive attitudes and good access to digital technologies, the use of ICT in Norwegian schools has been generally rather mediocre ( Ottestad et al., 2013 ; Throndsen and Hatlevik, 2015 ; Blikstad-Balas and Klette, 2020 ).

Teacher’s Role and Classroom Management

For a long time, classroom management has been considered as one of the teacher’s basic tasks, and in several studies classroom management has been found to be a key predictor of student success ( Hattie, 2009 ; Marquez et al., 2016 ). While traditional classrooms tend to be rather teacher-centered, a technology-rich learning environment requires a paradigm shift toward a more constructivist approach where technology is no longer treated as a mere tool but viewed more holistically in regards to its potential and influence in classroom dynamics and culture ( Säljö, 2010 ; Bolick and Bartels, 2015 ). What separates classroom management in elementary grades from classroom management in secondary level is that everything blends with everything: academic, social, emotional and behavioral aspects merge in such manner that individual achievements are often a result of all of the above, rather than a consequence from formal instruction ( Carter and Doyle, 2006 ). Research has also found that quality classroom management has a stronger footing in primary education, and as pupils get older, teachers have a tendency to assume less need for classroom management or focus on subject-related curriculums and educational goals, at the expense of classroom management ( Beijaard et al., 2000 ; Bru, 2013 ; Kalin et al., 2017 ).

Carter and Doyle (2006) divide classroom management in elementary level in two main strands: firstly, classroom management has emphasis on procedures (methods, techniques, skills and cognitions) that contribute toward an orderly learning environment by capturing pupils’ attention, engagement and focus, in order to allow and execute curricular activities. Secondly, there are the consequences of how classrooms are being managed. This strand consists of the moral and emotional aspect of classroom management, and the outcomes of interacting with children in a school setting. Powell et al. (2001) call this the social curriculum of a classroom. This aspect has been considered to be particularly important in successful classroom management ( Korpershoek et al., 2016 ). Researchers argue that authoritative teachers focusing on positive behavior support are more successful in the prevention of unwanted behavior than those employing reactive strategies and attributing problems to external factors ( Alter and Haydon, 2017 ; Hepburn and Beamish, 2019 ). It is noteworthy that positive behavior support does not rule out negative consequences, as long as they are a logical fit for the rule, and it can be argued that teaching rules with clear positive and negative consequences can be an effective strategy when managing a primary school classroom ( Alter and Haydon, 2017 ).

Teachers and researchers worldwide generally agree that the march of digital technologies has a major influence on teachers’ role in a classroom, and the rapid changes in digital technologies force teachers to adopt a dynamic role where they keep themselves up-to-date regarding new educational technologies ( Albion et al., 2015 ; Martin et al., 2016 ). As the emphasis in the more contemporary way of viewing classroom management is more constructivist and less teacher-centered, it has a direct influence on teachers’ role in the classroom: teachers are urged to become facilitators of learning rather than just transmit knowledge, as well as initiate, guide and influence the way their pupils think about learning ( Beijaard et al., 2000 ). In fact, in order to succeed with digital technologies, teachers themselves should be open to become learners themselves, take some risks, adopt a somewhat playful and curious attitude toward using educational technologies and continuously reflect on the learning and new practices in their professional community ( Desimone, 2009 ). This type of cognitive playfulness, as defined by Webster and Martocchio (1992) , Goodwin et al. (2015) , is a set of personality traits, affective styles and motivational orientations, which often occur spontaneously in an inventive and imaginary way and has been found to have a positive influence in perceived importance of ICT and sense of competence.

Teacher’s Professional Digital Competence and Classroom Management

There have been many attempts to create a framework that explains, defines or facilitates teacher’s pedagogical digital competence, such as TPACK ( Mishra and Koehler, 2006 ), SAMR ( Puentedura, 2015 ), and DigCompEdu ( Punie and Redecker, 2017 ); however, these models offer little concrete recommendations and guidelines for defining and developing teacher’s professional digital competence (PDC) and can therefore be seen as quite generic ( Hjukse et al., 2020 ). Professional Digital Competence Framework for Teachers framework, developed by Kelentrić et al. (2017) for The Norwegian Centre for ICT in Education, was launched by the Norwegian Directory of Education and Training and was chosen to frame this study due to its relevance to the context and design that has targeted primary and secondary education in particular. This PDC framework is divided into seven different categories: Subjects and basic skills, School in society, Ethics, Pedagogy and subject didactics, Leadership of learning processes, Interaction and communication , and Change and development . Particularly the category leadership of learning processes offers relevant outlines to classroom management in a technology rich classroom.

“A professional, digitally competent teacher possesses the competence to guide learning work in a digital environment. This entails understanding and managing how this environment is constantly changing, and challenging the role of the teacher. The teacher makes use of the opportunities inherent in digital resources in order to develop a constructive and inclusive learning environment—” ( Kelentrić et al., 2017 , p.8).

When discussing teachers’ pedagogical digital competence, it is noteworthy to point out that the term is more than a compilation of technical skills and knowledge. Krumsvik (2011) has defined teacher’s digital competence as their proficiency in using ICT in school with good pedagogical judgment and with their awareness of its implications for learning strategies and the digital Bildung of their pupils. Based on this definition, Krumsvik and colleagues found a significant correlation between teachers’ classroom management and their digital competence ( Krumsvik et al., 2013 ). Recent trends in research indicate that in a broader context, teachers should view digital technologies not only as tools but artifacts, which act as cultural extensions and reflect how knowledge and social aspects of our lives are organized and presented in our society ( Säljö, 2010 ; Lund et al., 2014 ). In other words, a teacher with pedagogical digital competence sees technology as a more comprehensive concept than just a collection of applications, software and devices, and understands how a digital culture in 21st century schools and society influences their role and everyday practices beyond the tool-value of technologies. It is not unusual that variety in teachers’ PDC – and their willingness to use technology to facilitate learning – has led to a variety of different classroom practices, which in a broader context could even widen the gap between practices ( Moltudal et al., 2019 ). Therefore, to support a cohesive development of pedagogical competence and practices, school leaders should, through support and supervision, shift the teachers’ focus from their individual motives and preferences to a mutual goal, and create a supportive, motivating community ( Phelps and Graham, 2014 ).

Case Study Design

This article examines teachers’ perceptions of their role and practices regarding classroom management in technology-rich classrooms The data draws from a more comprehensive case study, with the aim of generating a holistic picture of how the teachers generally perceive their role in a technology-rich primary school environment, and how using technology has influenced their perceived classroom management practices. The study follows the principles of an intrinsic case study design, as defined by Stake (1995) , with its focus on empirical, descriptive and interpretive knowledge of that one particular case. The complexity of the phenomenon advised a qualitatively driven mixed methods study, where the data was collected cumulatively by employing individual interviews, observation, focus group interviews and a survey. Triangulation of qualitative data was used to increase validity and reliability when analyzing and interpreting the results. This article has a focus on teachers’ own perceptions; therefore the main sources of data for this paper are the interviews and the survey, while observation findings have a more supplementary role in providing examples and adding in-depth information to interview results.

Context and Participants

Due to the nature of this case study, it served the purpose to apply the principles of purposeful sampling ( Bryman, 2016 ; Creswell and Guetterman, 2021 ). The data was collected in a Norwegian primary school where PDC training of the staff and ICT implementation have a high priority. The school has made significant investments in utilizing digital technologies in a best possible way; thus, a social constructivist approach highlighting the interaction between individual experiences, ideas and environment was considered a relevant epistemological standpoint. Seven teachers on two different grade levels were first interviewed individually and then observed. Focus group interviews rounded the qualitative data collection, and the same seven teachers were then interviewed in their respective grade level teams. The survey was sent to all teachers teaching in the school after a thorough analysis of interview and observation data, and all 19 teachers working at the time submitted their answers, as well as one informant with a combined role as a teacher and administrator. The participants had been working in primary and lower secondary education for varying lengths of time: their seniority ranged from 3 to 27 years, with the median value of 14.

Instruments

Seven one-on-one interviews were chosen to start the data collection process, to map out how the teachers themselves perceived their role and changes in their classroom management practices. An abductive approach in their interviews enabled a semi-structured interview design where the interviewer was able to collect data about some of the preselected topics, while also enabling elaboration and ranging out when the interviewees brought up other perspectives. One of the well-known disadvantages of individual interviews ( Creswell and Guetterman, 2021 ) is that the informants can present somewhat deceptive data by answering based on their assumptions about what the interviewer wants to hear. To address this disadvantage, the interviewees were observed for a duration of four weeks (56 observed lessons, 3515 min in total) after the individual interviews had been conducted. Observation data has also been used to exemplify and to get a more in-depth understanding of the information the participants provided in the interviews. The observation part was based on Merriam and Tisdell’s (2015) checklist of elements important for observation (1) the physical settings, (2) the participants, (3) activities and interactions, (4) conversation, (5) subtle factors, and (6) the researchers’ own behavior.

Two focus group interviews were carried out after the observation period, mainly for two purposes. Firstly, they were executed to gain more in-depth information and understanding of the individual interview and observation data. The same participants who were interviewed individually, and thereafter observed in action, were also interviewed in groups. A semi-structured interview guide was developed in line with the conceptual framework and tentative analysis of the one-on-one interviews and observation data. Focus group approach was considered relevant, as talking to the teachers as a group allowed them to challenge and elaborate on each other’s answers, as well as help the researcher understand how they collectively made sense of their role and classroom management practices in a technology-rich classroom ( Bryman, 2016 ). Focus group interviews also helped avoid misinterpretations and validate previously collected data. The second purpose for focus group interviews was to gain some information regarding the school’s resources and philosophy regarding technology, teaching and learning in general. This third focus group interview was carried out with the school’s development team (three members of the school leadership and a teacher member). Also in this interview, it was of interest to find out how individuals discuss the matter as a group, building out an understanding from the interaction between the members of the group ( Bryman, 2016 ).

The survey was based on an analysis of the interview and observation data and took place approximately 9 months after the focus interviews. The purpose of the survey was to verify interpretations of the qualitative data and to obtain a more representative sample of the qualitative data ( Maxwell, 2010 ; Hesse-Biber et al., 2015 ). In addition, the intention with the survey was to identify and check for diversity vs. uniformity in the data material, in order to avoid the claim of cherrypicked data for only supporting certain interpretations ( Maxwell, 2009 ). The survey consisted of 56 questions. Five of these questions were administered to gain more knowledge about the participant demographics, and nine of the questions were open-ended, allowing the informants to comment freely or complement their other answers. The main part of the questionnaire consisted of 42 questions where the informants reflected on their personal beliefs, experiences and practices in regards to education and technology. They used two different scales to provide their answers: one to express their personal beliefs, and another one to reflect on their own practices and experiences.

A simultaneous analysis and collection of data was used during the project, during which the methodological approaches built on and informed the subsequent steps ( Merriam, 1998 ). This cumulative process was carried out to increase the ecological validity ( Gehrke, 2014 ) and minimize researcher bias and reactivity ( Maxwell, 2009 ). Such approach to the analysis is considered both relevant and necessary in a case study with constructive epistemological commitments and holistic perspectives as some of the central characteristics ( Stake, 1995 ; Merriam, 1998 ).

The analysis of individual interviews followed the main principles of thematic analysis ( Bryman, 2016 ), and NVivo was used to organize and code the interview data. Once all interviews were transcribed, the data was first organized in main themes that draw from the research questions of the case study. This was done to separate results relevant for this particular article from all case study data and coded using the main themes as codes. During the second cycle, the data was coded into preselected categories that derive from the most relevant frameworks and literature, which were also employed when developing interview and observation guides. These frameworks and literature define and discuss teacher’s role in a 21st century classroom (e.g., Hattie, 2009 ), teacher’s competence in a technology-rich classroom (e.g., Kelentrić et al., 2017 ) and different aspects of classroom management (e.g., Bolick and Bartels, 2015 ). The third cycle of interview data analysis prompted new codes, which emerged from the data itself. Ryan and Bernard’s (2003) checklist was employed to identify and develop possible new categories, as well as for analyzing the data. During this phase, for instance repetition, similarities, differences, transitions and what is missing from the data were analyzed. The same procedure was used to code and analyze the focus group interviews; however, no new categories emerged from focus group interview data. During the interviews, the topics had a tendency to overlap and emerge several times during one interview. For instance, during the 9 interviews, teacher’s competence was discussed – or at least mentioned – 54 times, so 54 excerpts of the data were tagged with the code ‘teacher’s competence’. All codes and their frequency in data are presented in Table 1 .

Table 1. Overview of coding of the interviews and observations.

Table 2. Example of qualitative interview data coding: classroom management practices.

Observation data was coded analogically twice: first, using cycle 1 categories and later, cross-referencing with cycle 2 and 3 categories from the interviews. While many of the categories were present during all lessons, the focus was on how technology influenced either teacher’s role or their chosen classroom management practices. For instance, all lessons were organized in one way or the other, and teacher-pupil relationships are an integral part of every single lesson, but when coding and categorizing the contents of the observed lessons, only lessons where technology clearly influenced teachers’ role or classroom management practices were coded.

As the interview and observation data were used to develop the survey , there were questions directly and indirectly linked to all categories. Due to the small sample size, Microsoft Excel offered sufficient tools for analysis of quantitative data. All multiple-choice survey data was converted into numeric values, after which an analysis was run to detect patterns, repetition and other features. Sorting, filtering, conditional formatting and visualization of data were used to not only detect patterns in general, but also to compare results between teachers with and without higher education PDC training.

Results are presented in Tables 3 , 4 in the Section “Results” and divided into categories matching the coding cycles and categories.

Table 3. Teachers’ perceptions of their role and competence in regard to classroom management in a technology-rich primary school classroom – summary of data.

Table 4. Teachers’ perceptions of classroom management in a technology-rich primary school classroom – summary of data.

The main findings regarding classroom management from each stage of data collection were organized in tables, as pictured below ( Tables 3 , 4 ). As visible in the tables, the same themes were often discussed in both, individual interviews and focus group interviews, and the participants in both types of interviews were the same teachers. In most cases, a topic was first brought up by the interviewer or the interviewee in one or more one-on-one interviews, and later, the topic was revisited in a focus group interview, in order to elaborate, gain more perspectives and find out about the informants’ collective views on it. The actual results from both types of interviews were very similar, with the focus group perspectives commonly offering more detail and exemplification, and that is why all interviews in the Section “Results” are simply referred to as “interviews,” without making a distinction between individual and focus group results.

The results of the coding and analysis introduce several interesting aspects of classroom management, such as changes in the traditional role and competence of a teacher. In what follows, these aspects will be further investigated in terms of the categories presented in Tables 1 – 4 . All interviewees considered teacher’s role in a classroom somewhat different today than what it used to be, prior to the march of educational technologies. Teacher interviews indicated that one of the most notable changes regarding teacher’s role as a classroom manager is having to constantly keep up-to-date with the rapid developments of digital technologies and understanding how technology can be used – or abused – in a classroom.

“You have to be ready for change yourself.—. That’s how it is with technology, too, all the time. You can’t just stop. You have to keep developing yourself to secure learning.” (Teacher T, Grade 5).

Some interviewees pointed out that in their busy work days, it could be difficult to find time for keeping up with the rapid developments of educational technologies, finding out about new possibilities and taking full advantage of the existing technologies. They noted that the leadership in the school has a major role in securing enough time for teachers to get the time and training that they need to perform their job in a satisfactory manner. The interviewees found that professional development opportunities offered by the school and particularly sharing in their own professional community had been important sources of new competencies, but that one also has to take initiative oneself and want to learn more.

“But we have PD time when we sit together and get a glimpse of and learn so that everyone can feel that they can use it [ICT]. And they [leadership] want that we use it, so that all the pupils can use it. So, there is a little bit of pressure, but that just fun. — And it’s important to have a little bit of a push, so that everyone learns it.” (Teacher S, Grade 1).

In the survey, teachers reported that they gain new competencies through formal professional development, such as attending higher education courses and programs, courses offered by the municipality or a commercial provider, and workshops within their own professional community. Informal professional development channels, such as social media and particularly impromptu collegial collaboration, also held a significant role. In the survey, 18 out of 20 informants reported that their employer offered them opportunities for professional development in regard to educational technologies to a great or very great extent, and 19 out of 20 informants felt that their leaders supported the development of their professional digital competence in other ways to a large or very large extent. 13 out of 20 informants had completed or were in the process of completing a formal PDC training program in higher education (30 ECTS points) and 13 out of 20 teachers reported that they use informal methods, for example social media and other web resources, for professional development to a great, or very great extent.

All interviewees found that while they are just as needed in the technology-rich classrooms than before, the way they view themselves as the classroom authority has changed. In the interviews the teachers described how the more traditional leader role, where a teacher should know and be able to do everything, has become obsolete in the 21st century.

“It’s always difficult to know what’s happening, but we are a little bit more exploratory together with our pupils. Like, we were always the know-it-alls, but we don’t have to be that anymore. We are a team with them [pupils], and I think it’s a good thing. More exciting: we can’t do this; we need to find out!” (Teacher I, Grade 1).

During the observed lessons, teachers exercised this type of approach for example by allocating time for experimenting and exploring with their pupils, for example when learning about the basic principles of coding and using robotics to measure and define angles. The teachers had created a structure for these lessons and guided their pupils, but had chosen an approach similar to guided inquiry, where they helped their student to learn through exploration, investigation and active dialogue. While there were several examples where the teachers had adopted more of a facilitator role in their pupils’ learning process, more traditional use of technologies, such as to search information, create digital products that reproduce old knowledge or using an application targeting specific skills, were also used regularly.

All 20 survey informants agreed teachers are as much needed in the classrooms than before, but that it is necessary to gain new competencies in regard to classroom management, such as knowledge about digital technologies, solid basic skills with technology, student-active approaches to pedagogy, and ability to let go of some of the control in the classroom.

Structure and Organization

All interviewees reported that they use technology in their classrooms to organize contents and create structure for their lessons, and they found that digital technology had made contributions to classroom management in this area, such as better transitions between subjects and assignments, and easy platforms for lesson plans and contents.

“It can actually create better structure in teaching because the different parts we work on build on one another.” (Teacher D, Grade 1).

“You have lots of tools available right there on your iPad, so when you transition from one exercise to another you use digital tools, so you don’t have to get up and fetch things.” (Teacher T, Grade 5).

When observing how teachers used digital tools to organize instruction and create structure for their lessons, much of what they did and used was based on mutual agreements of tools used within the professional community. They used the same applications, for example iThoughts and Showbie, to organize and distribute information, resources and assignments, and pupils could find assignments and resources, as well as organize and submit their own work through these platforms. This, according to the teacher interviews, was a result of leadership, collaboration and ongoing professional development, to help teachers feel confident and competent when managing the pedagogical work, and to create predictability and frequent opportunities for self-direction for their pupils. Interviewees found that the ease of access to pupils’ work and giving feedback had enabled the teachers to give more feedback to their pupils, which in return had contributed toward better teacher-student relationships. They also felt that they were given the freedom to try out and experiment with new potential technologies or how to use old technologies in a new way.

“They (leadership) are not going to make you accountable if you have used… you have taught and tried… wanted to try something. They won’t make you accountable. They rather say that cool that you tried that, and now you can rather learn from it, how to do it.” (Teacher T, Grade 5).

Survey results reveal that only one of the 20 teachers did not believe that technology could contribute toward better structure, and similarly only one informant reported little or no routines in the structure and organization in a technology-rich classroom. 13 out of 20 informants found that digital technologies make transitions easier, and 14 out of 20 teachers had routines in their classroom where technology contributed toward smoother transitions.

Risk-Taking and Relationships

When discussing different themes during the interviews and reading comments on the survey, a recurring aspect of teacher’s role was teacher’s willingness to take risks and its importance in personal professional development and when using technology to model learning to the pupils. One of the seven interviewees admitted that they sometimes feel somewhat anxious about trying new things, while the other interviewees reported no fear toward technologies, as long as they can test out the new technologies beforehand. Some of the interviewees pointed out that while they had received a significant amount of professional development within educational technologies and felt rather confident about working in technology-rich learning environments, they also found that with technology, unexpected setbacks inevitably happen; however, it did not frighten them or make them shun technology. They found it important to “take the plunge” and dare to model also a trial-and-error approach to their pupils, and be a teacher who takes risks and learns together with their pupils. Such approach was observed for example when using the new podcast studio for the first time and composing music with micro:bit.

Survey results indicate that the teachers in this school are generally not avoiding risk taking, nor are they afraid of making mistakes in front of their pupils: 14 out of 20 teachers reported little or no fear toward taking risks or failing in front of their pupils when using digital technologies, while 5 out of 20 teachers had concerns about this to some or great extent.

While it was emphasized in many of the interviews and comments in the survey that it is important to plan meticulously and be well-prepared when incorporating digital technologies in everyday classroom work, the informants also found that witnessing a teacher fail with their plan could provide learning opportunities for the students.

“I think that the kids learn also from it, that things don’t always work out as they should. That’s how it is.” (Teacher S, Grade 1).

In the individual interviews, teachers mentioned good relationships in the classroom as the main reason for not being afraid to try something new and take a risk. The importance of having good teacher-pupil relationships in the classroom was also highlighted in the survey, as 17 of the 20 informants agreed that good teacher-pupil relationships are particularly important in technology-rich classrooms. Also trust between teachers and pupils was seen as an important factor, as 18 of the 20 informants agreed that trust between teachers and pupils is particularly important in a technology-rich environment. When pupils and teachers knew each other and were comfortable in each other’s presence, teachers were more willing to take risks.

“When I have good relationships with them… that’s important to have first because I understand if someone finds it uncomfortable, pupils that I haven’t had much, but now I can luckily say that you know what, this is the first time I try this, first time that you try this, so we’ll see together how it works out.” (Teacher B, grade 5).

While good relationships and trust were highlighted as a prerequisite for effective work with digital technologies also in the survey, routines where technology actually contributes toward building relationships were found in a great or very great extent in only seven classrooms, and to some extent in ten classrooms. Three teachers reported little use of technology in regard to promoting relationships.

Rules and Routines

Having clear rules and routines has been a classroom management corner stone as long as classroom management has existed, and according to the participants in this case study, this isn’t any different in a technology-rich classroom. When asked about such rules in the interviews, teachers listed mostly rules and routines that were created to protect the devices and diminish distractions; however, some teachers focused on rules that were more relevant for ethical aspects of using digital technologies.

“Perhaps we need to be extra clear with technology. — It can be damaged if it falls on the floor. With a pencil it’s not that dangerous if it’s lying on the floor.” (Teacher N, Grade 1).

“The importance of privacy and everything that goes with netiquette, yes, we have rules at school about how that works.” (Teacher O, Grade 5).

Much like with structure and organization, also with rules and routines the interviewees found it to be important that there are some mutual agreements across the whole school, to create consistence for pupils and assist them with delf-direction and self-regulation. For example, when a teacher called “Apple up” in any of the observed classrooms, all the pupils knew what to do and placed their devices on the desks screen down. With rules also came consequences for not following the rules, and in the few observed violations the consequence was always the same: after a few reminders from the teacher, the pupil had to shift from digital devices to paper and pen.

All the data in this study indicates that the pupils across grade levels had generally a good understanding of how to treat their devices and when and how to use them. Teacher interviews indicated very little distractions and inappropriate use of technology, and the interviewees mentioned single cases where a student had misused their device during class, but none of the interviewees found it to be a recurring problem; however, the interviewees did acknowledge that without clear structures, instructions and routines, technology could become a distraction or lead to accidents with devices. Only few minor incidents were detected during the observed lessons, as well: in a typical scenario, a pupil spend a short time on a website with no relevance to the task, but was quickly returned to the task either by a peer, teacher or themselves. In the survey, 18 out of 20 informants agreed with the statement “it is particularly important to have clear rules and routines in a technology-rich classroom.” 17 out of 20 teachers reported very or quite little inappropriate use of technology during their lessons, and three teachers reported it to some extent. 17 out of 20 teachers found it to be a good idea to include pupils in the decision-making when the rules and routines where formed.

While the teachers had rather similar thoughts about changes regarding teacher’s role, rules, risk-taking and structure and organization, an aspect which they did not entirely agree on was how much they needed to be in control over what was happening on pupils’ personal devices. Some interviewees found that younger pupils, who were new to technology and school, had perhaps more need for teacher’s monitoring. Some teachers, however, found that it was the older pupils who might have to be monitored more closely, but that teachers can have a great influence on how well pupils follow up by planning ahead well.

“Yes, yes, one has to create such structure that they actually stay focused. I think this specifically concerns older pupils, as they would like to surf on the Internet and get distracted with other things.” (Teacher S, Grade 1).

Observations revealed that it was rather common in this school that groups got mixed and teachers and pupils took advantage of expanded physical learning space outside their classrooms, for instance hallways, library and smaller work rooms. The interviewees found that digital technologies are useful when the physical learning space expands but that it sets challenges to classroom management, as the teacher is no longer physically in the same space with the student. Using applications that allow teachers to view and partially control pupils’ devices, such as Apple Classroom and ZuluDesk, was observed mostly in grade 5, where the students were also more often trusted to spread out in the physical space. Using such applications was something that teachers had somewhat controversial views and practices on. Those using them found it important to always inform their students when they were using the apps and explain why. They wanted to emphasize that they used it for supervision, not for surveillance: the purpose was not to “get” pupils that had gotten distracted but to communicate and support the pupils through the application when the teacher could not be physically present. Teachers also used it to get an overview for themselves, and in some rare cases for intervention. The complexity of using such applications was reflected in the interview dialogue:

“I believe that the pupils should get the… they should feel trusted to do what they are supposed to do. But sometimes, you see, like generally in the working environment, it gets a little out of hand. It makes it a little more effective, also for myself. I use it more with some groups than the others, because there is a greater need for motivating. So, the danger with these things is that you almost monitor the pupils constantly, that they… like, that they are under surveillance. But the positive is that you can help those who don’t always stick with what they are supposed to. — I use it a lot to, in a way, to get a glimpse myself, where everyone’s at. I can’t do that if they’re using books. — With Classroom app it is easy to see where everyone’s at, is it time to move on with the class or do we need to wait a little.” (Teacher T, Grade 5).

Also survey results reveal variation, and that teachers with more formal PDC training (minimum of 30 ECTS points in PDC in higher education, either in process or completed) seemed to find it less necessary to have constant control over pupil screens (average value 3) than those who had less formal training (average value 3.86). There were no obvious differences between grade levels; however, during the observations, control-related aspects seemed to play a larger role in lower grades than in upper primary school. There teachers reinforced particularly rules revolving around safety of the device: how to hold it, where to store it and how to carry it. In upper primary grades, pupils were more often taking advantage of an extended physical learning space, and more use of applications that allow access to pupils’ devices was more common.

Discussion and Concluding Remarks

The purpose of this study was to find out how the use of digital technologies influences the way teachers perceive their role and classroom management practices in a technology-rich primary school. To sum up the informants’ perceptions of their role in technology-rich environment, they agreed in many aspects regarding the teacher’s role. They found that a teacher has become more of a facilitator, who creates structure and opportunities for learning and models learning processes, for example through experimenting and collaborating with their pupils. An authoritative teacher role in a classroom environment characterized by good relationships and clear routines and rules was considered foundational, and such appreciation was in line in many of the informants’ classroom management practices. The informants also agreed that due to the rapid developments of digital technologies, keeping up-to-date and gaining new competences, such as mastering basic technological skills and understanding the possibilities and pitfalls of digital technologies, has become increasingly important. They found that the leadership has a crucial role in not only offering professional development opportunities, but also expecting the teachers to take advantage of them. School leaders that facilitate for a school culture where experimenting with technologies was encouraged, and which builds on collegial collaboration, was found important for supporting teachers in their never-ending quest for those new competencies and skills. These components had helped the informants to “take the plunge” and elevate their PDC in regards to classroom management.

The contemporary aspects of teacher’s role as a classroom manager in a technology-rich environment are reflected in many of the classroom management practices of the informants. It is important to emphasize that the data for this case study was collected in a school that can rather be viewed as a frontrunner than mainstream, as they had made significant investments in digital technologies, teacher training and generally building a school culture where digital technologies are a natural part of everyday practices. This can in part explain the generally positive and progressive perceptions the informants had toward classroom management in technology-rich learning environment, as well as explain some of the interesting deviation from previous research. One of such elements is the informants’ willingness to adopt practices that demonstrate experimenting and playfulness. The teachers in this study reported very little fear for risk-taking and failing when using digital technologies, in contrast to many previous studies ( Blikstad-Balas, 2012 ; Krumsvik et al., 2013 ). The reasons can be many, but one could assume that the investment in teachers’ PDC has made the teachers more confident when implementing new technologies, and thus, they are also more willing to be more exploratory in their own practices. An indication that supports the abovementioned assumption is that in this case study, teachers with more formal PDC training were generally less concerned about control and more often found that digital technologies contribute toward better classroom management than their colleagues with less formal professional development. Such results imply that although collegial collaboration is often seen as one of the most significant ways of gaining more competence ( Borko, 2004 ; Voogt et al., 2011 ; Fjørtoft et al., 2019 ), the role of more systematic, knowledge-based professional development should not be undervalued ( Hughes, 2005 ). A good socio-emotional learning environment has also been found meaningful in technology-rich settings ( Nordenbo et al., 2008 ), and the teachers in this study found good teacher-pupil relationships foundational for establishing an environment where also a teacher can experiment with new approaches, reflecting a somewhat playful attitude, which is in line with the concept of cognitive playfulness and its affordances ( Webster and Martocchio, 1992 ; Goodwin et al., 2015 ). As mentioned earlier in this article, teacher’s ability to build good relationships and an encouraging learning environment can be viewed as one of the key classroom management competences ( Powell et al., 2001 ; Evertson and Weinstein, 2006 ; Korpershoek et al., 2016 ) and teachers have a tendency to invest in quality classroom management more in primary level than in later years ( Beijaard et al., 2000 ; Bru, 2013 ; Kalin et al., 2017 ). As much of the previous research has been executed in secondary and higher education settings, an intriguing question is how much of the fear and negative experiences teachers have experienced when using digital technologies derive from the lack of time or effort in developing good relationships and a safe social classroom environment.

Results from national mappins of digitalization of Norwegian schools also report about a trend where disruptions and inappropriate use of digital technologies are steadily decreasing in Norwegian schools ( Hatlevik et al., 2013 ; Egeberg et al., 2016 ; Fjørtoft et al., 2019 ). While the informants in this study acknowledged that there had been single events where pupils had misused their devices, and that technology could potentially cause distractions, none of them found this to be a recurring issue. The informants in this study could name multiple factors that can contribute toward better engagement and less issues with non-instructional use of technology: teachers’ own competence in classroom management, meticulous planning, good relationships with their students and a school culture with mutual and clear rules and routines for technology use worked effectively in preventing such behavior ( Erstad, 2012 ; Wang et al., 2014 ; Baker et al., 2016 ; Alter and Haydon, 2017 ; Tondeur et al., 2017 ; Moltudal et al., 2019 ). Bjørgen (2021) suggests that we should in a much larger extent invite pupils’ framings and priorities into school-related digital practices, to learn and understand how they engage in digital practices outside school. Building such a connection could assist in creating an engaging and supportive learning environment, which is essential for quality classroom management.

During the past decade, as teachers’ awareness and competence regarding digital technologies has increased ( Fjørtoft et al., 2019 ), rules and routines framing how and when to use technology at school have also evolved substantially. While teachers and pupils reported less mutual rules for technology use in class a decade ago ( Krumsvik and Jones, 2015 ), the teachers in this study found that practicing classroom management with clear and consistent rules and routines is foundational in technology-rich learning environments. It could be argued that while there was some variation between grade levels in this study, the mutual ground rules for technology use across the whole school can help pupils internalize the rules and routines and makes it more predictable and consistent for them, which in turn makes it easier for the pupils to follow them and easier for the teachers to reinforce them. A positive socio-emotional learning environment does not rule out negative consequences, should rules be violated ( Alter and Haydon, 2017 ), and logical consequences that the pupils are aware of, such as having their device confiscated, can be effective in preventing disruptions ( Baker et al., 2016 ; Bjørgen, 2021 ).

A somewhat contradictory finding in this case study is that while the teachers in the interviews and survey highlighted the importance of trust, good relationships and risk-taking, more than half of the teachers still found that a teacher should have control over pupils’ screens at all times. A similar perspective was visible in some of the other findings, as well; for instance, some teachers wanted the devices to be placed and held in a certain way in a classroom, to have a visual on the screens, and teachers used applications that allowed them access to pupils’ screens from a distance. This invites us to ponder why so many teachers still feel a need to have control over pupils’ screens at all times , when they self-report very little non-instructional and otherwise disruptive use of digital technologies. Active monitoring can be efficient to prevent disruptions ( Storch and Juarez-Paz, 2019 ), but one can nevertheless speculate if the pupils still feel trusted – a perspective also discussed in the focus group interviews. It is natural that the teachers want to know what their pupils are doing, and not just to find out if they’re on-task but also to see how far along they’ve come, but this alone does not explain why so many teachers find it important to know about their pupils’ screen activity at all times .

The informants found also that digital technologies have many affordances in creating structure for their lessons. Also in this context, teachers had uniform approaches, in order to create consistency and to support their own professional development, and the findings in all data accentuate the high appreciation of collegial collaboration. In this school, much of the practices, awareness and competence in regards to PDC and digital technologies in general derive from mutual agreements and collaboration. Such approach addresses the risk of widening the gap between teachers’ PDC and classroom practices, and helps create a supportive and motivating community – for teachers and pupils ( Phelps and Graham, 2014 ; Moltudal et al., 2019 ). Meanwhile, the teachers felt that they were allowed and even encouraged to experiment with alternative approaches, and such culture can be highly valuable to make sure that common practices can be questioned, re-evaluated and even criticized.

The results presented in this article confirm what previous research already has suggested: technology-rich learning environments require contemporary competencies and pedagogical approaches to classroom management. A somewhat playful attitude, meticulous planning, frequent opportunities for professional development, collegial collaboration and good teacher-pupil relationships all seem to make considerable contributions toward more effective classroom management in technology-rich classroom environment, while ethical and philosophical questions regarding the overall understanding of the use of ICT in classroom management seem to require further attention. Naturally, as an intrinsic case study ( Stake, 1995 ), these findings have their limitations regarding generalizability, but at the same time, they do provide us with important descriptions and examples regarding teacher’s role and classroom management practices in a technology-rich primary school. In this study, we have delved into teachers’ perceptions in order to cast light on how they perceive their role and classroom management practices in technology-rich environments, but the field certainly has more space for pupils’ voices, as well ( Meinokat and Wagner, 2021 ). In the light of lack of uniform definitions and practices, as well as scarcity of relevant studies from primary education ( Bolick and Bartels, 2015 ; Cho et al., 2020 ; Meinokat and Wagner, 2021 ) we find these results promising regarding implications toward succeeding in classroom management in technology-rich learning environments but acknowledge the need for gaining more knowledge and further research focusing particularly on classroom management in primary education.

Limitations

In this case study certain limitations can be identified. One limitation is related to that the majority of the empirical data applied in this article is based on self-reported data (interviews, focus groups and survey) and might reflect the teachers’ intentions more than the actual situation in their daily practices. Another limitation might be that the selected school has a clear digital agenda, the majority of the sample consists of teachers participating in professional development within PDC and the study has been carried out among young pupils (grades 1 to 7) with less pronounced digital lifestyle and with less digital distractions in classrooms than among older pupils ( Fjørtoft et al., 2019 ). In terms of coding, all coding was executed by a single person. While this eliminates discussion regarding intercoder reliability, it can raise questions about the reliability of the results and a researcher looking to confirm certain expectations or hypothesis. Potential bias related to one coder has been addressed in the design, which relies on triangulation of rich qualitative data, as well as mixed methods design. Executing an excessive cumulative data collection process and analysis during a long period of time allowed the researcher to confirm their interpretations along the way, as well as detect contrary evidence and reach saturation during the coding and analysis ( Creswell and Guetterman, 2021 ).

Data Availability Statement

The anonymized datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

Ethics Statement

The studies involving human participants were reviewed and approved by the NSD - Norwegian Centre for Research Data. The patients/participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study.

Author Contributions

MJ is the primary author of the manuscript. RJK, HEB, and NH have made significant contributions to article revisions. All authors have approved the submitted version.

This research and the publication fees related to it were funded by the University of Stavanger as a part of Johler’s doctorate training program.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s Note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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Keywords : primary school, technology, teacher’s role, pedagogy, classroom management

Citation: Johler M, Krumsvik RJ, Bugge HE and Helgevold N (2022) Teachers’ Perceptions of Their Role and Classroom Management Practices in a Technology Rich Primary School Classroom. Front. Educ. 7:841385. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2022.841385

Received: 22 December 2021; Accepted: 01 March 2022; Published: 07 April 2022.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2022 Johler, Krumsvik, Bugge and Helgevold. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Minttu Johler, [email protected]

• Our Mission

Making Learning Relevant With Case Studies

The open-ended problems presented in case studies give students work that feels connected to their lives.

To prepare students for jobs that haven’t been created yet, we need to teach them how to be great problem solvers so that they’ll be ready for anything. One way to do this is by teaching content and skills using real-world case studies, a learning model that’s focused on reflection during the problem-solving process. It’s similar to project-based learning, but PBL is more focused on students creating a product.

Case studies have been used for years by businesses, law and medical schools, physicians on rounds, and artists critiquing work. Like other forms of problem-based learning, case studies can be accessible for every age group, both in one subject and in interdisciplinary work.

You can get started with case studies by tackling relatable questions like these with your students:

• How can we limit food waste in the cafeteria?
• How can we get our school to recycle and compost waste? (Or, if you want to be more complex, how can our school reduce its carbon footprint?)
• How can we improve school attendance?
• How can we reduce the number of people who get sick at school during cold and flu season?

Addressing questions like these leads students to identify topics they need to learn more about. In researching the first question, for example, students may see that they need to research food chains and nutrition. Students often ask, reasonably, why they need to learn something, or when they’ll use their knowledge in the future. Learning is most successful for students when the content and skills they’re studying are relevant, and case studies offer one way to create that sense of relevance.

Teaching With Case Studies

Ultimately, a case study is simply an interesting problem with many correct answers. What does case study work look like in classrooms? Teachers generally start by having students read the case or watch a video that summarizes the case. Students then work in small groups or individually to solve the case study. Teachers set milestones defining what students should accomplish to help them manage their time.

During the case study learning process, student assessment of learning should be focused on reflection. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick’s Learning and Leading With Habits of Mind gives several examples of what this reflection can look like in a classroom: 

Journaling: At the end of each work period, have students write an entry summarizing what they worked on, what worked well, what didn’t, and why. Sentence starters and clear rubrics or guidelines will help students be successful. At the end of a case study project, as Costa and Kallick write, it’s helpful to have students “select significant learnings, envision how they could apply these learnings to future situations, and commit to an action plan to consciously modify their behaviors.”

Interviews: While working on a case study, students can interview each other about their progress and learning. Teachers can interview students individually or in small groups to assess their learning process and their progress.

Student discussion: Discussions can be unstructured—students can talk about what they worked on that day in a think-pair-share or as a full class—or structured, using Socratic seminars or fishbowl discussions. If your class is tackling a case study in small groups, create a second set of small groups with a representative from each of the case study groups so that the groups can share their learning.

4 Tips for Setting Up a Case Study

1. Identify a problem to investigate: This should be something accessible and relevant to students’ lives. The problem should also be challenging and complex enough to yield multiple solutions with many layers.

2. Give context: Think of this step as a movie preview or book summary. Hook the learners to help them understand just enough about the problem to want to learn more.

3. Have a clear rubric: Giving structure to your definition of quality group work and products will lead to stronger end products. You may be able to have your learners help build these definitions.

4. Provide structures for presenting solutions: The amount of scaffolding you build in depends on your students’ skill level and development. A case study product can be something like several pieces of evidence of students collaborating to solve the case study, and ultimately presenting their solution with a detailed slide deck or an essay—you can scaffold this by providing specified headings for the sections of the essay.

Problem-Based Teaching Resources

There are many high-quality, peer-reviewed resources that are open source and easily accessible online.

• The National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University at Buffalo built an online collection of more than 800 cases that cover topics ranging from biochemistry to economics. There are resources for middle and high school students.
• Models of Excellence , a project maintained by EL Education and the Harvard Graduate School of Education, has examples of great problem- and project-based tasks—and corresponding exemplary student work—for grades pre-K to 12.
• The Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning at Purdue University is an open-source journal that publishes examples of problem-based learning in K–12 and post-secondary classrooms.
• The Tech Edvocate has a list of websites and tools related to problem-based learning.

In their book Problems as Possibilities , Linda Torp and Sara Sage write that at the elementary school level, students particularly appreciate how they feel that they are taken seriously when solving case studies. At the middle school level, “researchers stress the importance of relating middle school curriculum to issues of student concern and interest.” And high schoolers, they write, find the case study method “beneficial in preparing them for their future.”

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Case Study Compilation

The SEL Integration Approach  Case Study Compilation  was developed with and for educators who work in a K-12 school setting, including teachers, paraprofessionals, counselors, SEL Directors, teacher leaders, & school principals, to provide examples of practice related to three questions:

• What does it mean to focus on social-emotional development and the creation of positive learning environments?
• How can educators integrate their approaches to social, emotional, and academic development?
• What does it look, sound, and feel like when SEL is effectively embedded into all elements of the school day?

When read one at a time, the case studies offer snapshots of social-emotional learning in action; they describe daily routines, activities, and teachable moments within short vignettes. When read together, the case studies provide a unique picture of what it takes for a school to integrate social, emotional, and academic learning across grade levels, content areas, and other unique contexts.

The Case Study Compilation includes:

• Eleven case studies:  Each case study highlights educator ‘moves’ and strategies to embed social-emotional skills, mindsets, and competencies throughout the school day and within academics. They each  conclude with a reflection prompt that challenges readers to examine their own practice. The case studies are written from several different perspectives, including teachers in the classroom and in distance learning environments, a school counselor, and district leaders.
• Reflection Guide for Professional Learning:  The Reflection Guide offers an entry point for educators to think critically about their work with youth in order to strengthen their practice. School leaders or other partners may choose to use this Reflection Guide in a variety of contexts, including coaching conversations and staff professional development sessions.

View our accompanying Quick Reference Guide , Companion Guides , and Educator & School Leader Self-Reflection Tools .

“We must resist thinking in siloed terms when it comes to social-emotional learning (SEL), academics, and equity. Rather, these elements of our work as educators and partners go hand in hand.”

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Case Method Teaching and Learning

What is the case method? How can the case method be used to engage learners? What are some strategies for getting started? This guide helps instructors answer these questions by providing an overview of the case method while highlighting learner-centered and digitally-enhanced approaches to teaching with the case method. The guide also offers tips to instructors as they get started with the case method and additional references and resources.

On this page:

What is case method teaching.

• Case Method at Columbia

Why use the Case Method?

Case method teaching approaches, how do i get started.

• Additional Resources

The CTL is here to help!

For support with implementing a case method approach in your course, email [email protected] to schedule your 1-1 consultation .

Cite this resource: Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning (2019). Case Method Teaching and Learning. Columbia University. Retrieved from [today’s date] from https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/resources/case-method/  

Case method 1 teaching is an active form of instruction that focuses on a case and involves students learning by doing 2 3 . Cases are real or invented stories 4  that include “an educational message” or recount events, problems, dilemmas, theoretical or conceptual issue that requires analysis and/or decision-making.

Case-based teaching simulates real world situations and asks students to actively grapple with complex problems 5 6 This method of instruction is used across disciplines to promote learning, and is common in law, business, medicine, among other fields. See Table 1 below for a few types of cases and the learning they promote.

Table 1: Types of cases and the learning they promote.

For a more complete list, see Case Types & Teaching Methods: A Classification Scheme from the National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science.

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Case Method Teaching and Learning at Columbia

The case method is actively used in classrooms across Columbia, at the Morningside campus in the School of International and Public Affairs (SIPA), the School of Business, Arts and Sciences, among others, and at Columbia University Irving Medical campus.

Faculty Spotlight:

Professor Mary Ann Price on Using Case Study Method to Place Pre-Med Students in Real-Life Scenarios

Read more  

Professor De Pinho on Using the Case Method in the Mailman Core

Case method teaching has been found to improve student learning, to increase students’ perception of learning gains, and to meet learning objectives 8 9 . Faculty have noted the instructional benefits of cases including greater student engagement in their learning 10 , deeper student understanding of concepts, stronger critical thinking skills, and an ability to make connections across content areas and view an issue from multiple perspectives 11 . 

Through case-based learning, students are the ones asking questions about the case, doing the problem-solving, interacting with and learning from their peers, “unpacking” the case, analyzing the case, and summarizing the case. They learn how to work with limited information and ambiguity, think in professional or disciplinary ways, and ask themselves “what would I do if I were in this specific situation?”

The case method bridges theory to practice, and promotes the development of skills including: communication, active listening, critical thinking, decision-making, and metacognitive skills 12 , as students apply course content knowledge, reflect on what they know and their approach to analyzing, and make sense of a case. 

Though the case method has historical roots as an instructor-centered approach that uses the Socratic dialogue and cold-calling, it is possible to take a more learner-centered approach in which students take on roles and tasks traditionally left to the instructor. 

Cases are often used as “vehicles for classroom discussion” 13 . Students should be encouraged to take ownership of their learning from a case. Discussion-based approaches engage students in thinking and communicating about a case. Instructors can set up a case activity in which students are the ones doing the work of “asking questions, summarizing content, generating hypotheses, proposing theories, or offering critical analyses” 14 . 

The role of the instructor is to share a case or ask students to share or create a case to use in class, set expectations, provide instructions, and assign students roles in the discussion. Student roles in a case discussion can include: 

• discussion “starters” get the conversation started with a question or posing the questions that their peers came up with; 
• facilitators listen actively, validate the contributions of peers, ask follow-up questions, draw connections, refocus the conversation as needed; 
• recorders take-notes of the main points of the discussion, record on the board, upload to CourseWorks, or type and project on the screen; and 
• discussion “wrappers” lead a summary of the main points of the discussion. 

Prior to the case discussion, instructors can model case analysis and the types of questions students should ask, co-create discussion guidelines with students, and ask for students to submit discussion questions. During the discussion, the instructor can keep time, intervene as necessary (however the students should be doing the talking), and pause the discussion for a debrief and to ask students to reflect on what and how they learned from the case activity. 

Note: case discussions can be enhanced using technology. Live discussions can occur via video-conferencing (e.g., using Zoom ) or asynchronous discussions can occur using the Discussions tool in CourseWorks (Canvas) .

Table 2 includes a few interactive case method approaches. Regardless of the approach selected, it is important to create a learning environment in which students feel comfortable participating in a case activity and learning from one another. See below for tips on supporting student in how to learn from a case in the “getting started” section and how to create a supportive learning environment in the Guide for Inclusive Teaching at Columbia . 

Table 2. Strategies for Engaging Students in Case-Based Learning

Approaches to case teaching should be informed by course learning objectives, and can be adapted for small, large, hybrid, and online classes. Instructional technology can be used in various ways to deliver, facilitate, and assess the case method. For instance, an online module can be created in CourseWorks (Canvas) to structure the delivery of the case, allow students to work at their own pace, engage all learners, even those reluctant to speak up in class, and assess understanding of a case and student learning. Modules can include text, embedded media (e.g., using Panopto or Mediathread ) curated by the instructor, online discussion, and assessments. Students can be asked to read a case and/or watch a short video, respond to quiz questions and receive immediate feedback, post questions to a discussion, and share resources. 

For more information about options for incorporating educational technology to your course, please contact your Learning Designer .

To ensure that students are learning from the case approach, ask them to pause and reflect on what and how they learned from the case. Time to reflect  builds your students’ metacognition, and when these reflections are collected they provides you with insights about the effectiveness of your approach in promoting student learning.

Well designed case-based learning experiences: 1) motivate student involvement, 2) have students doing the work, 3) help students develop knowledge and skills, and 4) have students learning from each other.  

Designing a case-based learning experience should center around the learning objectives for a course. The following points focus on intentional design. 

Identify learning objectives, determine scope, and anticipate challenges. 

• Why use the case method in your course? How will it promote student learning differently than other approaches? 
• What are the learning objectives that need to be met by the case method? What knowledge should students apply and skills should they practice? 
• What is the scope of the case? (a brief activity in a single class session to a semester-long case-based course; if new to case method, start small with a single case). 
• What challenges do you anticipate (e.g., student preparation and prior experiences with case learning, discomfort with discussion, peer-to-peer learning, managing discussion) and how will you plan for these in your design? 
• If you are asking students to use transferable skills for the case method (e.g., teamwork, digital literacy) make them explicit. 

Determine how you will know if the learning objectives were met and develop a plan for evaluating the effectiveness of the case method to inform future case teaching. 

• What assessments and criteria will you use to evaluate student work or participation in case discussion? 
• How will you evaluate the effectiveness of the case method? What feedback will you collect from students? 
• How might you leverage technology for assessment purposes? For example, could you quiz students about the case online before class, accept assignment submissions online, use audience response systems (e.g., PollEverywhere) for formative assessment during class? 

Select an existing case, create your own, or encourage students to bring course-relevant cases, and prepare for its delivery

• Where will the case method fit into the course learning sequence? 
• Is the case at the appropriate level of complexity? Is it inclusive, culturally relevant, and relatable to students? 
• What materials and preparation will be needed to present the case to students? (e.g., readings, audiovisual materials, set up a module in CourseWorks). 

Plan for the case discussion and an active role for students

• What will your role be in facilitating case-based learning? How will you model case analysis for your students? (e.g., present a short case and demo your approach and the process of case learning) (Davis, 2009). 
• What discussion guidelines will you use that include your students’ input? 
• How will you encourage students to ask and answer questions, summarize their work, take notes, and debrief the case? 
• If students will be working in groups, how will groups form? What size will the groups be? What instructions will they be given? How will you ensure that everyone participates? What will they need to submit? Can technology be leveraged for any of these areas? 
• Have you considered students of varied cognitive and physical abilities and how they might participate in the activities/discussions, including those that involve technology? 

Student preparation and expectations

• How will you communicate about the case method approach to your students? When will you articulate the purpose of case-based learning and expectations of student engagement? What information about case-based learning and expectations will be included in the syllabus?
• What preparation and/or assignment(s) will students complete in order to learn from the case? (e.g., read the case prior to class, watch a case video prior to class, post to a CourseWorks discussion, submit a brief memo, complete a short writing assignment to check students’ understanding of a case, take on a specific role, prepare to present a critique during in-class discussion).

Andersen, E. and Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide . Harvard Business Press. 

Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains†. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education , 16 (1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846

Davis, B.G. (2009). Chapter 24: Case Studies. In Tools for Teaching. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. 

Garvin, D.A. (2003). Making the Case: Professional Education for the world of practice. Harvard Magazine. September-October 2003, Volume 106, Number 1, 56-107.

Golich, V.L. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. International Studies Perspectives. 1, 11-29. 

Golich, V.L.; Boyer, M; Franko, P.; and Lamy, S. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. Pew Case Studies in International Affairs. Institute for the Study of Diplomacy. 

Heath, J. (2015). Teaching & Writing Cases: A Practical Guide. The Case Center, UK. 

Herreid, C.F. (2011). Case Study Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning. No. 128, Winder 2011, 31 – 40. 

Herreid, C.F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . National Science Teachers Association. Available as an ebook through Columbia Libraries. 

Herreid, C.F. (2006). “Clicker” Cases: Introducing Case Study Teaching Into Large Classrooms. Journal of College Science Teaching. Oct 2006, 36(2). https://search.proquest.com/docview/200323718?pq-origsite=gscholar  

Krain, M. (2016). Putting the Learning in Case Learning? The Effects of Case-Based Approaches on Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching. 27(2), 131-153. 

Lundberg, K.O. (Ed.). (2011). Our Digital Future: Boardrooms and Newsrooms. Knight Case Studies Initiative. 

Popil, I. (2011). Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. Nurse Education Today, 31(2), 204–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002

Schiano, B. and Andersen, E. (2017). Teaching with Cases Online . Harvard Business Publishing. 

Thistlethwaite, JE; Davies, D.; Ekeocha, S.; Kidd, J.M.; MacDougall, C.; Matthews, P.; Purkis, J.; Clay D. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education: A BEME systematic review . Medical Teacher. 2012; 34(6): e421-44. 

Yadav, A.; Lundeberg, M.; DeSchryver, M.; Dirkin, K.; Schiller, N.A.; Maier, K. and Herreid, C.F. (2007). Teaching Science with Case Studies: A National Survey of Faculty Perceptions of the Benefits and Challenges of Using Cases. Journal of College Science Teaching; Sept/Oct 2007; 37(1). 

Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass.

Additional resources 

Teaching with Cases , Harvard Kennedy School of Government. 

Features “what is a teaching case?” video that defines a teaching case, and provides documents to help students prepare for case learning, Common case teaching challenges and solutions, tips for teaching with cases. 

Promoting excellence and innovation in case method teaching: Teaching by the Case Method , Christensen Center for Teaching & Learning. Harvard Business School. 

National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science . University of Buffalo. 

A collection of peer-reviewed STEM cases to teach scientific concepts and content, promote process skills and critical thinking. The Center welcomes case submissions. Case classification scheme of case types and teaching methods:

• Different types of cases: analysis case, dilemma/decision case, directed case, interrupted case, clicker case, a flipped case, a laboratory case. 
• Different types of teaching methods: problem-based learning, discussion, debate, intimate debate, public hearing, trial, jigsaw, role-play. 

Columbia Resources

Resources available to support your use of case method: The University hosts a number of case collections including: the Case Consortium (a collection of free cases in the fields of journalism, public policy, public health, and other disciplines that include teaching and learning resources; SIPA’s Picker Case Collection (audiovisual case studies on public sector innovation, filmed around the world and involving SIPA student teams in producing the cases); and Columbia Business School CaseWorks , which develops teaching cases and materials for use in Columbia Business School classrooms.

Center for Teaching and Learning

The Center for Teaching and Learning (CTL) offers a variety of programs and services for instructors at Columbia. The CTL can provide customized support as you plan to use the case method approach through implementation. Schedule a one-on-one consultation. 

Office of the Provost

The Hybrid Learning Course Redesign grant program from the Office of the Provost provides support for faculty who are developing innovative and technology-enhanced pedagogy and learning strategies in the classroom. In addition to funding, faculty awardees receive support from CTL staff as they redesign, deliver, and evaluate their hybrid courses.

The Start Small! Mini-Grant provides support to faculty who are interested in experimenting with one new pedagogical strategy or tool. Faculty awardees receive funds and CTL support for a one-semester period.

Explore our teaching resources.

• Blended Learning
• Contemplative Pedagogy
• Inclusive Teaching Guide
• FAQ for Teaching Assistants
• Metacognition

CTL resources and technology for you.

• Overview of all CTL Resources and Technology
• The origins of this method can be traced to Harvard University where in 1870 the Law School began using cases to teach students how to think like lawyers using real court decisions. This was followed by the Business School in 1920 (Garvin, 2003). These professional schools recognized that lecture mode of instruction was insufficient to teach critical professional skills, and that active learning would better prepare learners for their professional lives. ↩
• Golich, V.L. (2000). The ABCs of Case Teaching. International Studies Perspectives. 1, 11-29. ↩
• Herreid, C.F. (2007). Start with a Story: The Case Study Method of Teaching College Science . National Science Teachers Association. Available as an ebook through Columbia Libraries. ↩
• Davis, B.G. (2009). Chapter 24: Case Studies. In Tools for Teaching. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. ↩
• Andersen, E. and Schiano, B. (2014). Teaching with Cases: A Practical Guide . Harvard Business Press. ↩
• Lundberg, K.O. (Ed.). (2011). Our Digital Future: Boardrooms and Newsrooms. Knight Case Studies Initiative. ↩
• Heath, J. (2015). Teaching & Writing Cases: A Practical Guide. The Case Center, UK. ↩
• Bonney, K. M. (2015). Case Study Teaching Method Improves Student Performance and Perceptions of Learning Gains†. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education , 16 (1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v16i1.846 ↩
• Krain, M. (2016). Putting the Learning in Case Learning? The Effects of Case-Based Approaches on Student Knowledge, Attitudes, and Engagement. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching. 27(2), 131-153. ↩
• Thistlethwaite, JE; Davies, D.; Ekeocha, S.; Kidd, J.M.; MacDougall, C.; Matthews, P.; Purkis, J.; Clay D. (2012). The effectiveness of case-based learning in health professional education: A BEME systematic review . Medical Teacher. 2012; 34(6): e421-44. ↩
• Yadav, A.; Lundeberg, M.; DeSchryver, M.; Dirkin, K.; Schiller, N.A.; Maier, K. and Herreid, C.F. (2007). Teaching Science with Case Studies: A National Survey of Faculty Perceptions of the Benefits and Challenges of Using Cases. Journal of College Science Teaching; Sept/Oct 2007; 37(1). ↩
• Popil, I. (2011). Promotion of critical thinking by using case studies as teaching method. Nurse Education Today, 31(2), 204–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2010.06.002 ↩
• Weimer, M. (2013). Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice. Second Edition. Jossey-Bass. ↩
• Herreid, C.F. (2006). “Clicker” Cases: Introducing Case Study Teaching Into Large Classrooms. Journal of College Science Teaching. Oct 2006, 36(2). https://search.proquest.com/docview/200323718?pq-origsite=gscholar ↩

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Tech ed from Teacher-authors

Case Study Resources for Modern Teachers

In education, case studies are widely used as a pedagogical tool to encourage critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and the application of theoretical knowledge. They serve as a bridge between theory and practice, promote active learning and the development of practical skills that improve their teaching methods. Our Ask a Tech Teacher crew has several resources for you to consider when you’re looking for case studies that relate to your next project:

Introducing case studies in your course can help prepare your students to deal with real-world situations. Well-planned case studies can challenge students’ problem-solving and critical-thinking skills. This teaching approach can help them analyze and find realistic solutions to complex problems.

As educators embarking on the application of case studies, creating your individual case studies or incorporating existing ones is pivotal. If the pursuit is to provide students with a custom assignment as you get started , opting for an online case study writing service is highly beneficial; services such as EduBirdie or Studybay extend premier case study writing services tailored to your needs. 

Henrique Bertulino, the brand manager of Studybay, underscores the commonality of students encountering difficulties with various case studies and illuminates the extensive range of assistance available online to surmount such challenges. This provision is particularly beneficial for students struggling with creating content and ensures they receive high-quality, custom-made solutions, aiding them in understanding and resolving complex problems meticulously.

If you want to use published cases instead of writing one, this article will give you a list of online resources, as well as several guides for case method teaching.

Where to Find Case Studies?

For educators in pursuit of enhancing their teaching methods, numerous high-quality, open-source, peer-reviewed resources are available online. The following are some notable platforms where diverse and credible case studies can be accessed:

Harvard Business School Publishing

The Harvard Business School produces various curated course content that learners and teachers can use. You will find many different types of content in their extensive catalog. There are articles, core curriculum, pod cases, and simulation. In terms of case studies, the  Harvard Business School  publishes on different disciplines. So, no matter the field of study, you will find a relevant case in the Harvard collection. 

National Science Teaching Association

The National Science Teaching Association (NSTA) offers an extensive knowledge base for science educators. From books and journals to blogs, you will find something that can be beneficial for your students. The NSTA also has nearly a thousand peer-reviewed case studies on various science topics. This comprises the NCCSTS collection, which you can access online for free. 

NCCSTS stands for National Center for Case Study Teaching in Science at the University of Buffalo. It is the creator and curator of the NCCSTS case collections, which you can use for teaching middle to high school students. 

Kellogg Northwestern University

Kellogg is a global business school with hundreds of case studies neatly organized by publishing year and date. Cases cover a wide array of business-related topics, including leadership and management. The collection may not be the most extensive, but it is a good place to start your search. 

CLEO Collection of Free Case Studies

CLEO is a curated library of teaching resources. It is primarily designed for business school instructors. The site offers access to thousands of resources, including the most recent business cases, articles, and issue reports. The case studies are in full text and downloadable. You can use these cases to facilitate classroom discussion and allow students to grapple with real-world situations.

MIT Sloan School of Management Teaching Resources Library

Case studies in the Teaching Resources Library facilitate discussion on a specific business-related issue. Some case studies highlight the decision-making process in a management or business setting. Other cases showcase something that has happened or is happening in a particular business environment.

University of British Columbia Open Case Studies

Faculty and students at the University of British Columbia (UBC) have created and published hundreds of open case studies. And you can find them online on UBC’s open case study page. The UBC case collection features a broad range of topics across different disciplines, including the following:

• Civil Engineering
• Conservation
• Digital Literacy
• Political Science
• Social Justice

Sage Knowledge

Sage Knowledge is an online library of quality case studies. The cases are for instructors teaching public policy, public administration, and related subjects. The cases are available in several policy areas and may include notes for teaching and assignments. 

Finding case studies these days is easier than ever because of the internet. The resources on this list are just some of what you can access. Countless websites exist waiting for you to discover. Some are premium and require a fee to use, while others are available for free.  

Exploring these platforms can yield invaluable materials that can significantly elevate the learning experience, providing fresh insights and diverse perspectives to students and fostering an environment of enriched learning and critical thinking.

Instructors with the budget to spend on learning materials can consider purchasing case studies. There are many stores online that offer case studies as products. But if you need a specific study, consider   a custom case study writing service.

Teaching Using Case Studies: Resources to Help You Get Started

If you’re new to teaching by the case method, below are some resources to help you. 

Christensen Center for Teaching and Learning

The Christensen Center for Teaching and Learning promotes and supports teaching innovation and excellence within Harvard Business School. This center develops and shares materials showcasing best practices in case method teaching. There are also resources for preparing to teach case studies, providing students with feedback, etc.

Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning

The Columbia Center for Teaching and Learning has published articles on case method teaching. The article is written specifically for instructors in the Center. However, the tips and information can be useful no matter where you teach. 

The Case Centre

The Case Centre offers a diverse range of case studies on all aspects of national and international management and business. In addition, the center publishes articles discussing how teachers can teach using case studies. You can find a brief guide to case teaching, tips for choosing a case study, and case writing features. 

From Search Engines to Services: Your Toolkit for Case Method Teaching Success

Case method teaching is becoming more significant as we transition to student-centered learning. With this method, students are encouraged to use higher-level thinking and their problem-solving skills instead of just memorizing. 

To get started with case method teaching, you will need a case. The case study should be relevant, engaging, and clearly written. You can use search engines, like Google, to search for case studies you need for your class. You will get hundreds of results with just one click, but the problem is not all of them are high quality.

Case Method Teaching and Learning | Columbia CTL . (n.d.). https://ctl.columbia.edu/resources-and-technology/resources/case-method/

Gila Herald. (2023). How to write a lab report: Step-by-step guide. The Gila Herald . https://gilaherald.com/how-to-write-a-lab-report-step-by-step-guide/

Harvard Business Publishing Education . (n.d.). https://www.hbsp.harvard.edu/cases/

Library guides: open educational resources: open case studies . (n.d.). https://guides.library.sc.edu/OER/casestudies

NCCSTS case studies . (n.d.). NSTA. https://www.nsta.org/case-studies

Resources – Christensen Center for Teaching & Learning – Harvard Business School . (n.d.). https://www.hbs.edu/teaching/resources/Pages/default.aspx

Teaching by the case Method – Christensen Center for Teaching & Learning – Harvard Business School . (n.d.). https://www.hbs.edu/teaching/case-method/Pages/default.aspx

Using Case Studies to Teach | Center for Teaching & Learning . (2001, October 5). © 2023 Boston University. https://www.bu.edu/ctl/teaching-resources/using-case-studies-to-teach/

Maggie S. Parker, Curriculum Content Writer and Education Content Writer,  has extensive educational experience and is a skilled curriculum developer and education content writer. Because of her background in Educational Development, she has extensive knowledge of learning theories, instructional design, and content development. Her life’s work is dedicated to assisting students and teachers in reaching their full potential by creating high-quality content that promotes knowledge and skill growth.

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Jacqui Murray  has been teaching K-18 technology for 30 years. She is the editor/author of over a hundred tech ed resources including a  K-12 technology curriculum ,  K-8 keyboard curriculum,   K-8 Digital Citizenship curriculum . She is an adjunct professor in tech ed, Master Teacher, webmaster for four blogs, an  Amazon Vine Voice , CSTA presentation reviewer, freelance journalist on tech ed topics, contributor to  NEA Today , and author of the tech thrillers,  To Hunt a Sub  and  Twenty-four Days . You can find her resources at  Structured Learning.

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We are a group of dedicated technology teachers with tons of experience in teaching K-18 t ech, unraveling its problems, and making it exciting for kids (and adults). We blog here, teach online grad school classes, provide curricula (like K-12 Technology curriculum ,  K-8 keyboard curriculum,   K-8 Digital Citizenship curriculum ). Jacqui Murray (the face of AATT) also authors tech thrillers,  To Hunt a Sub  and  Twenty-four Days . You can find our resources at  Structured Learning.

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What the Case Study Method Really Teaches

• Nitin Nohria

Seven meta-skills that stick even if the cases fade from memory.

It’s been 100 years since Harvard Business School began using the case study method. Beyond teaching specific subject matter, the case study method excels in instilling meta-skills in students. This article explains the importance of seven such skills: preparation, discernment, bias recognition, judgement, collaboration, curiosity, and self-confidence.

During my decade as dean of Harvard Business School, I spent hundreds of hours talking with our alumni. To enliven these conversations, I relied on a favorite question: “What was the most important thing you learned from your time in our MBA program?”

• Nitin Nohria is the George F. Baker Jr. Professor at Harvard Business School and the former dean of HBS.

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• Knowledge Base

Methodology

• What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

What Is a Case Study? | Definition, Examples & Methods

Published on May 8, 2019 by Shona McCombes . Revised on November 20, 2023.

A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject, such as a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. Case studies are commonly used in social, educational, clinical, and business research.

A case study research design usually involves qualitative methods , but quantitative methods are sometimes also used. Case studies are good for describing , comparing, evaluating and understanding different aspects of a research problem .

Table of contents

When to do a case study, step 1: select a case, step 2: build a theoretical framework, step 3: collect your data, step 4: describe and analyze the case, other interesting articles.

A case study is an appropriate research design when you want to gain concrete, contextual, in-depth knowledge about a specific real-world subject. It allows you to explore the key characteristics, meanings, and implications of the case.

Case studies are often a good choice in a thesis or dissertation . They keep your project focused and manageable when you don’t have the time or resources to do large-scale research.

You might use just one complex case study where you explore a single subject in depth, or conduct multiple case studies to compare and illuminate different aspects of your research problem.

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Once you have developed your problem statement and research questions , you should be ready to choose the specific case that you want to focus on. A good case study should have the potential to:

• Provide new or unexpected insights into the subject
• Challenge or complicate existing assumptions and theories
• Propose practical courses of action to resolve a problem
• Open up new directions for future research

TipIf your research is more practical in nature and aims to simultaneously investigate an issue as you solve it, consider conducting action research instead.

Unlike quantitative or experimental research , a strong case study does not require a random or representative sample. In fact, case studies often deliberately focus on unusual, neglected, or outlying cases which may shed new light on the research problem.

Example of an outlying case studyIn the 1960s the town of Roseto, Pennsylvania was discovered to have extremely low rates of heart disease compared to the US average. It became an important case study for understanding previously neglected causes of heart disease.

However, you can also choose a more common or representative case to exemplify a particular category, experience or phenomenon.

Example of a representative case studyIn the 1920s, two sociologists used Muncie, Indiana as a case study of a typical American city that supposedly exemplified the changing culture of the US at the time.

While case studies focus more on concrete details than general theories, they should usually have some connection with theory in the field. This way the case study is not just an isolated description, but is integrated into existing knowledge about the topic. It might aim to:

• Exemplify a theory by showing how it explains the case under investigation
• Expand on a theory by uncovering new concepts and ideas that need to be incorporated
• Challenge a theory by exploring an outlier case that doesn’t fit with established assumptions

To ensure that your analysis of the case has a solid academic grounding, you should conduct a literature review of sources related to the topic and develop a theoretical framework . This means identifying key concepts and theories to guide your analysis and interpretation.

There are many different research methods you can use to collect data on your subject. Case studies tend to focus on qualitative data using methods such as interviews , observations , and analysis of primary and secondary sources (e.g., newspaper articles, photographs, official records). Sometimes a case study will also collect quantitative data.

Example of a mixed methods case studyFor a case study of a wind farm development in a rural area, you could collect quantitative data on employment rates and business revenue, collect qualitative data on local people’s perceptions and experiences, and analyze local and national media coverage of the development.

The aim is to gain as thorough an understanding as possible of the case and its context.

In writing up the case study, you need to bring together all the relevant aspects to give as complete a picture as possible of the subject.

How you report your findings depends on the type of research you are doing. Some case studies are structured like a standard scientific paper or thesis , with separate sections or chapters for the methods , results and discussion .

Others are written in a more narrative style, aiming to explore the case from various angles and analyze its meanings and implications (for example, by using textual analysis or discourse analysis ).

In all cases, though, make sure to give contextual details about the case, connect it back to the literature and theory, and discuss how it fits into wider patterns or debates.

If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Normal distribution
• Degrees of freedom
• Null hypothesis
• Discourse analysis
• Control groups
• Mixed methods research
• Non-probability sampling
• Quantitative research
• Ecological validity

Research bias

• Rosenthal effect
• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Selection bias
• Negativity bias
• Status quo bias

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Study of teachers leaving the classroom offers hope for schools struggling with shortage

Ricci Shepherd loves working as an engagement officer for a charity, but it is very different to her previous career as a primary school teacher.

She is among a growing number of teachers opting for a complete career change.

"The stress involved with teaching and the amount of work, and at the time I was a mum with younger children, I found that really challenging," Ms Shepherd said.

"I no longer have my registration.

"I kept it for about three years and then thought, 'You know what? I'm pretty sure I'm done'."

But Federation University research offers some hope for schools plagued by staff shortages.

The study found that teachers who had left may not be permanently lost to the education system.

Professor Robyn Brandenburg said previous studies focused on teachers' intentions to leave the profession.

"The common narrative around that is 50 per cent of teachers intend to leave within the first five years, post-graduation," she said.

"This research is different because it's the first national study that has spoken with teachers who [have] actually left the profession.

"We wanted to know why they left, where they've gone and whether they intend to return."

Where are they now?

The study found that one in 10 teachers who left the profession had moved into an entirely different sector, including defence, trade, or small business.

But most teachers who left the classroom continued to work in the education sector.

"What they're doing is moving into a different professional role, for example, writing curriculum and policy development," Professor Brandenburg said.

"They're leaving classroom teaching, which is critical for schools and the way schools function, but they're not leaving education completely."

Professor Brandenburg said respondents tended to cite a combination of factors for their decision, including workload, stress, leadership concerns, parent or student behaviour, lack of respect and, to a lesser extent, salary concerns.

She said a mix of the factors over an extended period meant teachers took "typically between two to five years to actually make that decision to leave the profession".

The study also found schools were losing more teachers with between seven and 10 years' experience, which Professor Brandenburg said risked creating a leadership vacuum.

"There is some hope some of these teachers may return if the conditions change," she said.

"But we will only know that for sure when we do the next phase of this research project."

'I don't think all is lost'

Professor Brandenburg said one of the more interesting findings was that more than 80 per cent of teachers who left the profession had retained their registration.

She said that inspired optimism that "there may be an opportunity for those people, perhaps, to return in the future if conditions and systems change or become more flexible".

"I don't think all is lost," Professor Brandenburg said.

But Ms Shepherd said she was quite happy to stay out of the profession.

"I look at my teaching years with a lot of fondness — working with the kids is really what makes teaching so great," she said.

"It wasn't with any animosity that I left teaching.

"It's just that I fell into a different role and found that it was a lot easier working in an office-style environment where I could go and have a coffee whenever I wanted to."

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Arkansas' LEARNS Act on education faces a federal court challenge: What to know about the case

A new judge and predictions for the outcome of a legal battle over teaching african american history, at the site of one of america's most infamous civil rights flashpoints..

In a legal complaint filed late last month in federal court for the Eastern District of Arkansas, two students, their parents and one teacher of African American Studies from Little Rock Central High School challenged Arkansas’ LEARNS Act, calling it “an unconstitutional law that violates plaintiffs' First Amendment and Fourteenth Amendment rights.”

The LEARNS Act is an omnibus bill passed in March 2023 that changed many rules and policies for public schools in the state. The plaintiffs seek to stop the law from being implemented and also claim compensatory damages from Gov. Sarah Huckabee Sanders and Education Secretary Jacob Oliva.

In a statement after its passage, Sanders called the act "the boldest, most far-reaching, most conservative education reforms in the country" and said that it and a similar executive order she made earlier that year were necessary "to ensure Washington bureaucrats can’t bully Arkansas schools into teaching racist indoctrination."

Here's what to know about the lawsuit and the case.

Why is there a new judge on the case?

Last week, Judge Kristine Baker, who was assigned to the case, recused herself and Judge Lee Rudofsky was assigned to replace her.

Baker hasn’t publicly explained why she recused herself.

Danielle Weatherby, a professor of law at the University of Arkansas, said judges might recuse themselves for any number of real or apparent conflicts of interest.

“It could be that they have a close family member who was involved either as a proponent or opponent of the law. It could be that she… [had spoken] publicly about the LEARNS Act," Weatherby said. "It could be a lot of reasons she felt like she could not be impartial.”

She said the change could have an impact on the outcome of the case.

“Having served as Solicitor General under Governor Hutchinson and then appointed in 2019 by President Trump, it seems as if Judge Rudofsky has more conservative political leanings, and that may influence his judicial decision making.”

Why is Section 16 of the law targeted in the lawsuit?

Some of the LEARNS Act’s better-known provisions raised teacher pay, make it easier to fire teachers without cause by rolling back the Fair Teacher Dismissal Act and allowed the state to issue vouchers which can be used to pay private and parochial school tuition, without requiring that those schools meet state curriculum standards.

Sanders, according to the lawsuit, explained that the LEARNS Act was also intended, in part, to “prevent a ‘left-wing political agenda’ from ‘brainwashing our children’ with ‘political indoctrination.’”

But the lawsuit is targeted narrowly at Section 16 of the LEARNS Act, which broadly restricts what material is allowed to be taught in public schools.

Section 16 requires that the education secretary ban material that would “promote teaching that would indoctrinate students with ideologies, such as Critical Race Theory.”

The first plaintiff, Ruthie Walls, teaches AP African American History, which, as part of the LEARNS Act, was removed from the state’s course code listings before the start of the 2023-24 school year.

The act specifies that Section 16 is meant to ensure that “employees, contractors, guest speakers, and lecturers are in compliance with Title IV and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964,” which concern desegregation and discrimination.

But Najja Baptist, of the University of Arkansas Department of Sociology, said the law has “hijacked the Civil Rights Movement’s playbook … in order to revert and reverse some of [its] accomplishments.” He criticized restricting the curriculum and the voucher component, saying it will defund public schools and “usher in a new form of what many would consider to be de facto segregation.”

“That trauma that occurred with the integration of students into Little Rock High in 1957 is what will be erased from the curriculum if the LEARNS Act has its way," Baptist said.

What are the five counts in the lawsuit?

The lawsuit alleges the state violated the First and Fourteenth Amendments to the U.S. Constitution on five overlapping counts.

It alleges:

• That the LEARNS Act violates the First Amendment’s protection of free speech and expression.
• That it leads to “content and viewpoint based discrimination in violation of First Amendment right to receive information.”
• That it’s unconstitutional because its wording is so vague and broad that it “fails to provide… fair notice of what is prohibited [and] is so standardless that it authorizes or encourages seriously discriminatory enforcement.”
• That it discriminates based on race.
• And, finally, that it deprives the plaintiffs of civil liberties without due process.

“By restricting AP [African American Studies] curriculum due to certain subject matter but not restricting the curriculum of similar AP courses covering the same subject matter, it creates two different classes along racial lines,” the complaint reads.

Each count will have to be adjudicated separately. Weatherby said that each one will have different hurdles to clear. Those hurdles, though, are different for the plaintiffs and for the state.

“Anytime there's an allegation that a statute or a measure violates equal protection” under the Fourteenth Amendment, she said, “then it's the government's burden to justify the measure.”

The state will “have to prove a compelling government interest, and that the measure at stake here is the least restrictive means of achieving that interest. And that is a very high bar.”

“I think the First Amendment claim is going to be a little bit more challenging” than the one made under the Fourteenth Amendment, she said.

Suing over freedom of speech in primary and secondary education “is just a difficult, uphill battle… because of the local control and the discretion that's given to school administrators and to the government to set curriculum.”

The First Amendment argument, she said, relies in some ways on establishing that the state violated the Fourteenth Amendment’s equal protection clause because, as long as the state is not “chilling some speech over other speech, then you won’t have a First Amendment problem.”

What’s next in the case?

Weatherby said that, regardless of the ruling in the Eastern District of Arkansas, where the case is now, that it will be appealed to the next highest court, the 8th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals.

“Historically,” she said, “the Eighth Circuit has been more government friendly.”

With several other similar cases being adjudicated around the country, there’s the possibility of “split in the circuits,” or a disagreement between two circuit courts of appeal. Those conflicts would need to be decided by the U.S. Supreme Court.

With that in mind, Weatherby said that, in all likelihood, “This is going to take years.”

CBSE Board Exams 2024 Highlights: History Paper Was Moderate, Case Study Questions Bit Tricky, Says Teacher

Cbse board exams 2024: this year, a total of 39 lakh students from 26 countries are taking the examinations. in the national capital, the examinations are being held at 877 examination centers, with 5.80 lakh students appearing..

CBSE Board Exams 2024: The examination began at 10.30am and concluded at 1.30pm.

The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) on Thursday conducted Class 12 board exams for History paper. The examinations began at 10.30am and concluded at 1.30pm. This year, a total of 39 lakh students from 26 countries are taking the examinations. In the national capital, the examinations are being held at 877 examination centers, with 5.80 lakh students appearing.

Read Also |   CBSE Board Exams 2024 Highlights: Student Describes Business Studies Paper As Tough  

CBSE Board Exams 2024 Live Updates: Here Are The Latest Updates On History Paper

CBSE Releases Syllabus For Classes 9-12 For Academic Year 2024-25  

• Arrive at the examination center at least 30 minutes before the commencement of the exam.
• Prohibited items should not be brought into the examination hall, as doing so may result in the exam cancellation.
• Students must bring their stationery; borrowing is not permitted.
• The admit card is a crucial document and must be carried to the examination hall.
• Students should abstain from spreading fake news regarding paper leaks or other matters.
• Familiarise themselves with exam guidelines before the exam.

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