case study shaping school culture

Shaping School Culture: Pitfalls, Paradoxes, & Promises

Journal of Educational Administration

ISSN : 0957-8234

Article publication date: 23 March 2010

Dodge, H. (2010), "Shaping School Culture: Pitfalls, Paradoxes, & Promises", Journal of Educational Administration , Vol. 48 No. 2, pp. 278-280. https://doi.org/10.1108/09578231011027941

Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Copyright © 2010, Emerald Group Publishing Limited

Culture is as ubiquitous in the function of education as it is in business, the family, and society itself. Yet in an era of standards‐based reforms schools have drifted from their cultural roots. School leaders have the vital task of keeping the balance between managing mandated reforms and preserving the craft knowledge that ultimately molds school culture. In Shaping School Culture: Pitfalls, Paradoxes & Promises , Terrence Deal and Kent Peterson argue that ( Deal and Peterson, 2009 , p. ix) “successful school cultures have leaders who can cope with the paradoxes of their work and take advantage of the opportunities of the future”. They argue that an underlying affect of recent reforms in American education, such as the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, has caused some schools to neglect their unwritten rules, norms, traditions, and expectations.

In Shaping School Culture: Pitfalls, Paradoxes and Promises, Deal and Peterson rethink the importance of school culture in today's educational environment. Deal's diverse career experience as a police officer, teacher, principal, district office administrator, and professor provide a breadth of experience. A scholar of educational research, Peterson is currently professor in the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis at the University of Wisconsin‐Madison. He was the first director of the Vanderbilt Principal's Institute and is former head of the National Center for Effective Schools Research and Development. The authors' combined expertise in business, corporate culture, and educational leadership and policy analysis lends itself to a thorough examination of how teachers and administrators can lead the way to successful schools by reconnecting with the cultural roots.

Shaping School Culture: Pitfalls, Paradoxes, & Promises is the second major reworking of an idea originally presented by Deal and Peterson in The Principal's Role in Shaping School Culture (1990) and then revised in Shaping School Culture: The Heart of Leadership (1999). Building upon their ideas of school culture in this second edition the authors add concepts of paradoxes and “toxic” cultures. Their original discussion on school culture is enriched by an expanded research base that demonstrates how culture influences the way a school functions. Elevating the discussion are examples of rituals and school traditions with regard to the importance of mission and purpose, case examples of the power of stories and history, and symbols in architecture.

The authors offer sage advice to school leaders: to embrace the paradoxical nature of their work. Deal and Peterson aim to guide school leaders to renovate and reinvigorate schools. With this in mind, the book is organized into 15 chapters. The first eight chapters discuss the elements of culture while the last seven chapters examine the symbolic role of school leaders. The authors define culture as (p. 6) “the school's unwritten rules and traditions, norms, and expectation”. Culture is described as what is valued and important in schools; the powerful, pervasive, and elusive force that drives decisions.

The first section of the book, “Elements of culture”, focuses on the building blocks of a meaningful workplace. The case examples, stories, and quotes from teachers and administrators liven the discussion and put a name and face to the elusive concept of school culture. One case example mentioned throughout the book is that of the successful school culture at Ganado Primary School. Discussion on mission and rituals, lore, networks, and creating a culture of learning gives concrete evidence of how school culture benefits schools and ultimately students learning. Deal and Peterson so vividly set the scene and context for the school that even the reader feels included in the thriving community of learners. The discussion is continued in the next two chapters on the power of symbols, tradition, and history.

Deal and Peterson suggest that (p. 33) “symbols represent intangible cultural values and beliefs”. As the outward manifestation of what schools stand for, symbols are powerful in creating cultural cohesion and pride. Artifacts in schools that represent cultural values might include mission statements, displays of student work, banners, and mascots. The sentiments that educators, students, and community connect to these symbols link them to the underlying purpose of the school. School administrators have an important role in safeguarding the symbols, artifacts, and logos that represent a schools' culture.

Deal and Peterson argue that to prevent the ethos of a school from becoming splintered and vulnerable to educational fads, school leaders must examine the leadership, conflicts, relationships, modifications, and reforms of a schools' history. They argue that (p. 47) “Before tinkering with a culture leaders need to initiate, one way or another, an in‐depth and comprehensive history of their school”. Furthermore, they assert that (p. 57) “reconnecting with historical roots is a fundamental step in shaping school culture”. Historical roots can most often be found in the core stories and myths that are passed on from one class to the next. Examples of stories about the mission, purpose, and meaning in chapter four set the tone for solving the current problems with school culture.

The authors contend that the questions that must be answered in order nurture school culture include (p. 69): “How do we recapture the magic and myth of education? How do we restore a core story that enables teachers to believe in their importance and convinces the public that schools are worthy of their confidence and support?”. While Deal and Peterson recognize that achievement data is not the only proof needed to restore the faith in schools, their solution that cultural vitality lies in the myths, missions, purposes, values, beliefs, assumptions, and norms may be too visionary for struggling and new schools.

Deal and Peterson suggest that it is the responsibility of school leaders to keep the stories of a school positive and long‐lasting. They suggest that (p. 75) “stories reinforce a unique identity among mangers and employees of ‘who we are and want we stand for’”. While Deal and Peterson insist that stories help to get people listening, more discussion on whether the transmission of such stories through rituals, ceremonies, and tradition is sufficient. In chapter eight, “Conveyors of Culture”, the positive and negative transmitters of culture are outlined like the cast of characters from a novel. The informal helpers, who create the network of unofficially sanctioned players, are charged with keeping the culture of a school (p. 117) “humming and heading in the right direction”. The cast includes (p. 121) “priests and priestesses” as the guardians of cultural values and beliefs, “storytellers” as the powerful and indispensable members of the cultural network, “gossips” as the real‐time information scuttlebutts, “spies” as the covert observers, and “heroes and heroines” as the emblems of core values. The comical but all too common archetypal roles succinctly describe the hidden players in schools.

In the second section of the book, “The symbolic role of school leaders”, Deal and Peterson describe three case examples of thriving school cultures. By giving examples of successful schools, the authors provide practical pathways to school leaders. By emphasizing that each school will find its own path if school leadership can help people discover the right direction” the authors avoid the one‐size‐fits‐all pitfall that is often the fate of many reform efforts.

By expanding their discussion on school culture to include “toxic cultures”, Deal and Peterson offer a more balanced and thorough examination of school culture. Characteristics of toxic cultures are described as (p. 169) “focused on negative values or parochial self‐interests, fragmented, hostile, students viewed as superfluous, spiritually fractured, and where stories highlight incompetence”. The common pathways to cultural decline include dropping cultural customs, closing out opportunities to build trusting relationships, terminating valued rituals and ceremonies, ignoring or changing core symbols, and neglecting core stories. In chapters ten and eleven, Deal and Peterson offer many tangible suggestions for transforming toxic school cultures.

In the last two chapters of the book, “Living with paradox” and “Achieving balance”, Deal and Peterson discuss the dualistic role that principals have in keeping safeguarding both meaning and order within a school. Core dilemmas are examined in a realistic manner. Finally, Terrence and Deal argue that (p. 247) “effective schools are those that balance structure and culture in a dynamic tension that keeps the fulcrum point on the center”.

This is a book that any school leader would benefit from reading. However, it is best suited for those who aim to renovate and reinvigorate school culture. Shaping School Culture: Pitfalls, Paradoxes, & Promises is both helpful to new administrators looking to build trust among teachers and administrators, researchers who are examining the intricacies of school culture, and professional developers who aim to restore confidence in teachers. Shaping School Culture: Pitfalls, Paradoxes, & Promises is a practical resource, offering advice and insight on how to cultivate successful school cultures. While many reform efforts attempt to address schools from the outside, this book describes how school leaders can affect change from within. The authors conclude by asserting that (p. 248) “As we traverse the new millennium, school leaders will grapple with both paradox and opportunity. How well they balance opposing forces and find promising pathways will have a tremendous impact on America's future”.

Deal , T.E. and Peterson , K. ( 2009 ), Shaping School Culture: Pitfalls, Paradoxes, & Promises , Jossey‐Bass , San Francisco, CA .

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School Culture by Patrick J. Schuermann , James W. Guthrie , Colleen Hoy LAST REVIEWED: 29 July 2020 LAST MODIFIED: 15 December 2011 DOI: 10.1093/obo/9780199756810-0034

Similar to change efforts in other sectors, organizational growth in education does not occur in an isolated environment. Rather, it occurs within institutions that have norms and values, assumptions and expectations. While often used interchangeably, several authors distinguish the constructs of “school climate” and “school culture” on the basis of organizational climate being the descriptive beliefs and perceptions individuals hold of the organization and culture being the shared values, beliefs, and expectations that develop from social interactions within the organization. School culture is “the way we do things around here”—those tangible and intangible norms and values shared by members of a school that help shape the behaviors of teachers and school leaders. This article provides a compilation of the major works that form the literature base on the topic of school culture, with an emphasis on works that discuss ways in which school leaders and teachers can utilize school culture in the service of achieving key educational goals.

School culture involves many stakeholders—policymakers, principals, teachers, students, and parents—and their behaviors impact the motivations, behaviors, and achievement of students. The history, definition, surrounding debates, measurement, importance, and applications of school culture are provided below in Anderson 1982 and Stolp and Smith 1995 , both widely regarded reviews. Building on these overviews, Eller and Eller 2009 provides for the user both theoretical frameworks and practical activities that inform reform strategies. As schools and teachers are forced to meet increasingly specific standards, school culture scholars espouse the importance of retaining the value and wonder of education when planning and implementing reforms ( Deal and Peterson 2009 ). The ability to foster positive culture while adhering to standards imposed from above requires strong assessment tools that allow leaders to ensure that norms and positive environments are maintained. Deal and Peterson 1999 argues that reforms without these values are unlikely to succeed. Maslowski 2006 reviews an array of inventories and questionnaires used to evaluate school culture and its reforms that will be highly useful for policymakers and school leadership. All of these frameworks and assessment tools inform school leaders in hopes that a strong school culture will improve student achievement levels, which DiMaggio 1982 argues are significantly related in a case study of cultural capital. These authors and resources offer a sampling of the most widely regarded studies of school culture available to the user. Finally, for an international perspective on measuring organizational health, Freiberg 1999 provides a wealth of assessment tools and implementation guides.

Anderson, Carolyn S. 1982. The search for school climate: A review of the research. Review of Educational Research 52.3 (Fall): 368–420.

DOI: 10.3102/00346543052003368 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A vital and thorough review of research on school culture that will be a useful guide for the user. This piece reviews research concerning the history, definitions, debates, and measurement of school culture. The author provides widely accepted conclusions on the topic as well as suggestions and methodologies for providers.

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Deal, Terrence E., and Kent D. Peterson. 1999. Shaping school culture: The heart of leadership . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

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Reforms that do not take a school’s unique culture into account are unlikely to succeed. The authors identify the main attributes of culture as the purposes, traditions, norms, and values within the community. The book uses real-life examples to provide a roadmap for leaders and identify strategies for leaders to use a school’s unique culture to successfully implement change.

Deal, Terrence E., and Kent D. Peterson. 2009. Shaping school culture: Pitfalls, paradoxes, and promises . 2d ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Educational leaders face the paradox of standards-based reforms and the need to preserve the cultural roots of education. These expert authors use this paradox to discuss the influence of culture on school functions. The authors encourage teachers and school leaders to reengage the “magic and myth” of education while reshaping school culture.

DiMaggio, Paul. 1982. Cultural capital and school success: The impact of status culture participation on the grades of U.S. high school students. American Sociological Review 47.2 (April): 189–201.

DOI: 10.2307/2094962 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

A major contribution to the study of school culture, in this study the author investigates the impact of cultural capital, as a component of school culture participation, on high school grades. The author uses Pierre Bourdieu’s definition of cultural capital and status and develops a useful cultural mobility model.

Eller, John, and Sheila Eller. 2009. Creative strategies to transform school culture . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

This comprehensive overview of school culture provides theory, strategies, and practical activities for school leaders to improve culture and teamwork among staff. The authors focus on creating and sustaining strong interpersonal relationships within the organization and address conflict and strategies for reconciliation. This is a valuable resource for leaders implementing change to cultivate staff development and team building.

Freiberg, H. Jerome, ed. 1999. School climate: Measuring, improving, and sustaining healthy learning environments . London: Falmer.

This exemplary work on the measurement of school climate provides the user with myriad assessment tools and implementation guides. Eighteen instruments to measure climate are presented by an international group of authors who analyze culture from multiple perspectives (e.g., student, teacher, principal, community). The authors offer a roadmap for assessing organizational health.

Maslowski, R. 2006. A review of inventories for diagnosing school culture. Journal of Educational Administration 44.1: 6–35.

DOI: 10.1108/09578230610642638 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

In this study, a first of its kind, the author offers a critical review of available school culture inventories and questionnaires. The author finds that questionnaires can be valuable tools to assess school culture and that inventories primarily address specific cultural traits. This review is an important tool for researchers, policymakers, school boards, principals, and teachers to determine which tool best meets their objectives.

Stolp, Stephen Wayne, and Stuart Carl Smith. 1995. Transforming school culture: Stories, symbols, values & the leader’s role . Eugene: ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, University of Oregon.

The authors offer a definitive discussion of school culture: its definition, importance, and application. They define culture as a dynamic process with significant implications on teacher and student performance. The piece offers measurement instruments, processes for improvement, and strategies for principal and staff development.

The strategies for and applications of school culture reforms vary by school level and type and have important effects on student behaviors and achievement. A valuable guide to the background, issues and debates, and strategies for school culture programs is provided for the user in Sashkin and Walberg 1993 . The conditions necessary for successful implementation of school culture reform programs are outlined in Lieberman 1988 , including examples of intervention programs. There are also many stakeholder groups involved in schools that both participate in school culture production and are affected by its application ( Fiore 2001 , Herman and Herman 1998 ). These varied stakeholders require intentional designs tailored to the specific context of the school in question. Issues include staff development programs ( Joyce and Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development 1990 ), urban schools ( Conchas and Rodriguez 2008 ), and public versus private schools ( Conway and ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools 1994 ). This intentional program development will ensure that the maximum benefit will be achieved by the school and its stakeholders; this strategy is outlined in Elbot and Fulton 2008 using the Four Mind-Set Model. To bring many of these variables together, Sarason 1966 provides an early ethnographic study of a single high school over a year-long reform process that examines subtle influences affecting the success or failure of a reform program. The resources provided offer policymakers, school leaders, and teachers valuable guides to the conditions, strategic development, and application of school culture reforms as well as observations and case studies to illustrate real-world examples.

Conchas, Gilberto Q., and Louie F. Rodriguez. 2008. Small schools and urban youth: Using the power of school culture to engage students . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

The authors examine school culture in the context of the small school reform movement in urban settings by focusing on feedback from students themselves. The authors conduct an in-depth, comparative, qualitative analysis of small schools and their cultures to inform policymakers. The authors offer practical and policy implications for improving urban education and for the small school reform movement.

Conway, George E., and ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools. 1994. Small scale and school culture: The experience of private schools . Charleston, WV: Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools, Appalachia Educational Laboratory.

The authors provide a robust comparison of public schools and private schools in the United States, the latter being roughly half the size of the former. This study considers missions, stakeholders, ability to develop localized goals, evaluation methods, interpersonal relationships, and connectedness. The author argues that current cost-effective policies for large public schools may not be in the best interest of American education.

Elbot, Charles F., and David Fulton. 2008. Building an intentional school culture: Excellence in academics and character . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

The development of culture must be intentional to have maximum impact on students, staff, families, and the community. The authors present and explain their Four Mind-Set Model that describes how the work of schooling can be approached from four perspectives, enabling leaders to intentionally strategize reform with key stakeholders in mind. A key work for leaders and policymakers instituting school reforms.

Fiore, Douglas J. 2001. Creating connections for better schools: How leaders enhance school culture . Larchmont, NY: Eye on Education.

The author provides an extensive study of the stakeholders and participants in school culture. After establishing the definition and importance of school culture, this piece examines the roles and behaviors of key players in creating positive school culture: principals, teachers, students, and parents. The author convenes this information in an argument for community schools and the future of American education.

Herman, Jerry John, and Janice L. Herman. 1998. Effective decision making: Developing ownership for improved school culture . Lancaster, PA: Technomic

The authors discuss means of including various stakeholders in school decisions, with the belief that group decisions will be more effective. Eight chapters examine specific topics, such as strategies for establishing a team culture and crisis and conflict decision making. The authors conclude by providing a summary of best practices and exercises useful in creating a culture of collaboration.

Joyce, Bruce R., and Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 1990. Changing school culture through staff development . Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

The authors concentrate on staff development with the belief that this culture change will alter the nature of schooling over time. The authors discuss the research base for the design of staff development programs based on culture and elements of school culture (such as principalship and school structure) and provide examples of initiatives abroad and in American school systems.

Lieberman, Ann. 1988. Building a professional culture in schools . New York: Teachers College.

Written from a second wave reform perspective, focused on relationships and organizational arrangements, this book examines the conditions necessary to institute culture change in schools and the need for increased collaboration. The role of the teacher is evaluated with emphasis on expanded leadership roles and professionalization. Examples of school interventions at various levels are provided. An important work for individuals cultivating a professional school culture.

Sarason, Seymour Bernard. 1966. The school culture and processes of change . College Park: College of Education, University of Maryland.

This ethnographic study examines a single high school undergoing reform for one year. The study finds that despite visible successes, such as mentoring programs and curriculum changes, subtle culture changes undermined the overall success of these reforms. The author discusses the conceptualization of success as the interaction between the organizational whole and its parts.

Sashkin, Marshall, and Herbert J. Walberg, eds. 1993. Educational leadership and school culture . Berkeley, CA: McCutchan.

This book considers school culture, leadership, and the relationship between the two. With contributions from leading experts in the field, this piece will be an important guide to school leaders, policymakers, and researchers on the implications and components of school culture and its relationship to school success. The chapters include background, issues debates, and practical strategies for the user.

School culture involves a mutual exchange among schools, staff, and students, argues Robinson and Brady 1948 . This article lays the groundwork for the user on the importance and changes of school culture. Barr and Higgins-D’Alessandro 2009 takes this theoretical foundation to inform its two-year case study of thirty students to assess relationships between school culture and empathy and prosocial behavior. Further positive impacts of school culture improvements were found among Israeli schools by Gaziel 1997 , whose use of the Perceived School Culture Inventory revealed a correlation between culture and student achievement. Testing this relationship, Marcoulides, et al. 2005 suggests that school culture has not just a correlated effect but a causal relationship with student achievement. School culture improvements or changes not only can increase these positive qualities but also can decrease negative ones. For instance, Twemlow, et al. 2001 discusses the impact of low-cost antiviolence campaigns in their experimental study, revealing reduced infractions and improved achievement significantly related to changes in culture. Hotchkiss, et al. 2005 considers the above and other potential impacts and outcomes of fostering strong and positive school culture among students in their case study of college freshmen and discusses how institutions should strategize their own programs. These targeted studies reflect the broader findings of Felner, et al. 2001 that a strategic implementation of whole-school reform can dramatically improve school culture, bringing benefits revealed above, such as positive behaviors, achievement, and a more peaceful environment.

Barr, Jason J., and Ann Higgins-D’Alessandro. 2009. How adolescent empathy and prosocial behavior change in the context of school culture: A two-year longitudinal study. Adolescence 44.176: 751–772.

This two-year, longitudinal study following thirty students in two school settings is the first to assess associations between school culture and empathy over time. The study reveals a correlation between change score of school culture and empathy but not prosocial behavior. The authors suggest implementing policies to improve school culture will increase students’ positive perspective, social development, and academic achievement.

Felner, Robert D., Antoinette Favazza, Minsuk Shim, Stephen Brand, Kenneth Gu, and Nancy Noonan. 2001. Whole school improvement and restructuring as prevention and promotion: Lessons from STEP and the Project on High Performance Learning Communities. Journal of School Psychology 39.2 (March–April): 177–202.

The authors consider the model for comprehensive school reform, the High Performance Learning Communities Model, and its predecessors. Their findings suggest that an intentional and comprehensive implementation of whole-school change can have significant impact on school culture. They argue that the benefits can be long-lasting life skills as well as achievement among students, and these benefits should be an important part of program design.

Gaziel, Haim H. 1997. Impact of school culture on effectiveness of secondary schools with disadvantaged students. Journal of Educational Research 90.5 (May–June): 310–318.

Twenty Israeli schools, with primarily disadvantaged students, were examined to investigate school culture differences between high-performing and average secondary schools. Teachers were given the Perceived School Culture Inventory, which is presented here. The school culture variations were shown to correlate with student achievement differences. This practical analysis of effective and average schools informs school culture best practices.

Hotchkiss, Julie L., Robert E. Moore, and M. Melinda Pitts. 2005. Freshman learning communities, college performance, and retention. Working Paper 2005-22. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta Working Paper Series (September): 1–25.

This study evaluates the impact of culture within the student population on academic outcomes. The authors investigate the effect of freshman learning communities on student academic performance and retention. Controlling for self-selection to these learning communities enables appropriate conclusions to be drawn in allocating resources to these learning communities by institutions.

Marcoulides, George A., Ronald H. Heck, and Constantinos Papanastasiou. 2005. Student perceptions of school culture and achievement: Testing the invariance of a model. International Journal of Educational Management 19.2: 140–152.

DOI: 10.1108/09513540510582435 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

Conducted in Cyprus, this study tests the generalizability of a hypothetical model of organization culture. The authors do this by applying the model to a sample of Cyprus eighth-grade student achievement; they found that their achievement can be explained by school culture environment. This proposed causal link makes school culture a highly salient factor in policymaking and leadership decisions.

Robinson, John T., and Elizabeth H. Brady. 1948. The school culture and educational planning. Journal of Educational Psychology 21.9: 499–507.

This piece examines the exchange of cultural values, traditions, and behaviors between schools and students. The authors argue that the school culture influences and largely determines members’ behaviors and learning. School composition, design, and purpose evolve and with them so should the school culture. The authors consider the importance of school culture and what should be done to address current contexts in schools.

Twemlow, Stuart W., Peter Fonagy, Frank L. Sacco, Martin L. Gies, Richard Evans, and Russell Ewbank. 2001. Creating a peaceful school learning environment: A controlled study of an elementary school intervention to reduce violence. American Journal of Psychiatry 158: 808–810.

DOI: 10.1176/appi.ajp.158.5.808 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

This brief report studies the longitudinal impact of a manual-based antiviolence program on the culture and learning in an elementary school over four years in comparison with a control school. The antiviolence program was a zero-tolerance intervention for bullying, while the control school received psychiatric consultations only. The authors found that the experimental school experienced significant reductions in disciplinary infractions and improved achievement.

The resources below provide specific guidelines and measurement instruments for leaders involved in school culture reform programs. Ramsey 2008 offers a valuable comprehensive guide to school culture and its applications for various stakeholders as well as tips and guidelines for implementing new programs. Freiberg 1999 provides the user with an overview of numerous school culture assessments and implementation strategies gleaned from school systems and organizations worldwide. Two specific instruments and examples of their implementation are also found among these resources: the School Culture Triangle Survey in Wagner 2006 and the Teachers Perception of Principal’s Leadership and School Learning Questionnaire in Oluremi 2008 .

This exemplary work on the measurement of school climate provides the user with myriad assessment tools and implementation guides. Eighteen instruments to measure climate are presented by an international group of authors who analyze culture from multiple perspectives (e.g., student, teacher, principal, community). The authors offer a roadmap for assessing organizational health and suggestions for next steps.

Oluremi, Olayele Florence. 2008. Principals’ leadership behaviour and school learning culture in Ekiti state secondary schools. Journal of International Social Research 1.3: 301–311.

A descriptive survey examined the effect of principal leadership behavior on school learning culture in Nigerian secondary schools. The survey instrument, the Teachers Perception of Principal’s Leadership and School Learning Questionnaire, is presented. The author found that leadership behavior of the principal impacts school learning and makes recommendations for enhanced professional development for principals.

Ramsey, Robert D. 2008. Don’t teach the canaries not to sing: Creating a school culture that boosts achievement . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

This handbook defines school culture, its applications, and its importance in maximizing achievement, staff leadership, parental engagement, and community support. The author provides assessment tips, frequently asked questions, warning signals, and real-world examples to help the user best achieve a positive and successful school culture. A useful guidebook for school leaders, staff, and policymakers.

Wagner, Christopher R. 2006. The school leader’s tool for assessing and improving school culture. Principal Leadership 7.4: 41–44.

The author provides a research-based tool for principals to evaluate school culture, the School Culture Triage Survey. The survey has been used extensively in the United States and Canada. It allows schools to evaluate three main components of school culture: professional collaboration, affiliative and collegial relationships, and efficacy or self-determination. The author provides implementation suggestions for leaders.

The following reports to US national education authorities provide the user with valuable policy considerations of school culture issues. An overview of school culture’s components and the conflicting perspectives on the topic can be found in Brown 2004 . The outcomes of the productive school cultures found in the former are related to motivation and achievement in Fyans, et al. 1990a . The author’s work finds causal links between culture and motivation, and motivation and achievement. This relationship is extended by incorporating student ethnicity as a variable, arguing that ideal school environments differ between groups ( Fyans, et al. 1990b ). Finally, Fyans, et al. 1990b examines culture differences between ethnic groups as Midgley, et al. 1990 outlines the differences that exist between school levels on variables such as principal leadership behavior and perceptions of culture. These distinctions provide valuable information for policymakers, school leaders, and teachers.

Brown, Rexford. 2004. School culture and organization: Lessons from research and experience. Background Paper for the Denver Commission on Secondary School Reform , 1–17.

This valuable compilation of research considers conflicting cultures of schooling and the ingredients of a productive school culture. The author discusses numerous leaders and studies in the field to provide a more comprehensive body of information on these two topics. Useful for researchers, school leaders, and policymakers.

Fyans, Leslie J., Martin R. Maehr, and Educational Resources Information Center. 1990a. School “culture,” motivation, and achievement . Washington, DC: Educational Resources Information Center.

This study investigates students’ perceptions of stress on goals of learning activities and relates that to motivation and achievement. The results supported a causal model linking school culture to motivation and motivation to achievement, with some school-level variation. Different dimensions of culture also varied as predictors of motivation. This work can be used to inform policymakers and school leaders considering school reforms.

Fyans, Leslie J., Martin R. Maehr, and Educational Resources Information Center. 1990b. “School culture,” student ethnicity, and motivation . Washington, DC: Educational Resources Information Center.

This study investigates the importance of school culture to motivation as a function of student ethnicity. In regards to facilitating motivation, school culture was found to be more important for minority than white students, and one type of school environment may not be optimal for all groups. This presents challenging but invaluable information for leaders and policymakers attempting school change.

Midgley, Carol, Martin L. Maehr, Julia Smith, and Educational Resources Information Center. 1990. A preliminary assessment of school level differences in instructional leadership, school culture, and student commitment . Urbana: National Center for School Leadership, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology.

This study examines school-level differences in principal leadership behavior, perceptions of school culture, and student and teacher commitment. Assessments included data from principals, teachers, and students from elementary, junior, and senior high schools. The variations of perceived stress between school levels and between respondent groups within a single school level reveal important implications for policy decisions.

Professional learning communities (PLCs) are increasingly recognized as cost-efficient and useful tools for sustained improvements in teacher capacity and student achievement. The following resources offer valuable studies on the importance, composition, and effects of PLCs on schools, teachers, and students. Overviews of the topic can be found in Stoll, et al. 2006 , McLaughlin and Talbert 2006 , and Hord and Southwest Educational Development Laboratory 2004 . Guidelines for developing and implementing positive and productive PLCs are provided in Rasberry 2009 and Castle and Estes 1995 . Hurd and Stein 2004 considers PLCs and their application to universities in particular by examining the experiences of Syracuse University. A review of research and a useful array of observations of school reform efforts by Whitford and Wood 2010 shows the utility and limitations of PLCs in addressing culture and achievement issues. Finally, two specific types of PLCs included below—culturally proficient learning communities ( Lindsey 2009 ) and a collaborative learning community model ( Roberts and Pruitt 2003 )—offer PLCs with targeted missions, on which the authors elaborate while providing specific activities and strategies used in each. PLCs are useful tools to improve teacher skills, build strong leadership behaviors, and create intentional strategies to build positive school cultures, which has significant impact on student achievement.

Castle, Dian K., and Nolan Estes. 1995. High-performance learning communities: Roadmaps to success . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

The authors present strategies for change in school districts to cultivate high-performing learning communities. Main topics include: the need for systemic and systematic change; the characteristics of successful learning communities; and the elements that inform leaders to create and sustain these learning communities. Examples of learning communities using these strategies are discussed. The authors provide a planning checklist and competency model for curriculum construction.

Hord, Shirley M., and Southwest Educational Development Laboratory. 2004. Learning together, leading together: Changing schools through professional learning communities . New York: Teachers College.

The authors assert that PLCs enhance teaching quality without dramatically increasing costs. This book defines PLCs, what they do, and the conditions necessary for their success. Twenty-two schools across levels and their models for PLCs are discussed.

Hurd, Sandra N., and Ruth Federman Stein. 2004. Building and sustaining learning communities: The Syracuse University experience . Bolton, MA: Anker.

This book describes the rationale behind learning communities, the process of their creation, and universities’ experience with them. The book includes two parts focused on the theoretical benefits and issues of learning communities and current experiences of students and faculty at Syracuse University. Users will have a strong understanding of the benefits of learning communities and the steps necessary to create them.

Lindsey, Delores B., ed. 2009. Culturally proficient learning communities: Confronting inequities through collaborative curiosity . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

The diversity of American schools requires educators to be aware of cultural issues in the classroom. Culturally proficient PLCs provide a venue for engaging staff on cultural issues and change their day-to-day framework in a supportive and open environment. This heightened awareness, acceptance, and transparency will have important benefits to the overall school culture and student success.

McLaughlin, Milbrey Wallin, and Joan E. Talbert. 2006. Building school-based teacher learning communities: Professional strategies to improve student achievement . New York: Teachers College.

This book examines the importance, practice, and implementation of teacher learning communities. Arguing that these communities enhance student achievement, the authors provide stages of learning community development, transition challenges, and the process of consensus building among teachers and other stakeholders to establish these learning communities. District support and the outcomes of teacher learning communities are illustrated by examining the Boston school system.

Rasberry, M. A. 2009. From isolation to collaboration: Promoting teacher leadership through PLCs. Childhood Education 86.2: 127.

The Center for Teaching Quality established professional learning communities in several schools to address isolation and attrition among teachers. These teachers worked in PLCs to continue their own learning to better meet student needs. This report of their experience provides guidelines for policies and practices that best encourage teacher leadership in PLCs.

Roberts, Sylvia M., and Eunice Z. Pruitt. 2003. Schools as professional learning communities: Collaborative activities and strategies for professional development . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin.

The collaborative learning community model offers research-based strategies to build community in schools as a means of improving learning outcomes among students and teachers. This piece discusses the knowledge and skills necessary for successful teachers. The authors provide staff activity guides for leaders building these learning communities, such as study groups, student assessments, building portfolios, and other professional development tools.

Stoll, Louise, Ray Bolam, Agnes McMahon, Mike Wallace, and Sally Thomas. 2006. Professional learning communities: A review of the literature. Journal of Educational Change 7:221–258.

DOI: 10.1007/s10833-006-0001-8 Save Citation » Export Citation » Share Citation »

The authors define “capacity” as the combination of motivation, skill, positive learning, organizational conditions and culture, and infrastructure of support. These characteristics impact the learning processes of individuals, groups, and school systems. Professional learning communities, the authors argue, have the potential to build capacity among teachers for improved achievement and sustained learning success. The authors provide a rich review of the literature on this topic.

Whitford, Betty Lou, and Diane R. Wood, eds. 2010. Teachers learning in community: Realities and possibilities . Albany: State University of New York Press.

This book raises questions about the impact, viability, and sustainability of PLCs. The authors offer observations and research of school reform, learning community programs, and cultural conflict to inform strategies of professional development and school improvement. While PLCs are not a cure-all for cultural problems, they can be a valuable tool for school leaders and staff.

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• Principal Leadership
• Volume 18 (2017–2018)
• Principal Leadership January 2018

Changing School Culture: A Case Study

Studies show that the climate and culture of a school is linked to adults and that a poor climate and culture for the adult leaders has a direct effect on student performance. According to “Teacher Mental Health, School Climate, Inclusive Education, and Student Learning: A Review” by Christine Gray, Gabrielle Wilcox, and David Nordstokke, “Positive school climate also has the potential to contribute to teacher mental health and to provide an optimal environment to support student learning and growth.” This is the goal behind any effort at improving school culture and climate.

As the associate principal of State College Area High School in Pennsylvania, a piece of the responsibility for making culture and climate changes rested on my shoulders. However, it was our principal, Curtis Johnson, who determined that 2016 was the final year of complaining; it was time to get to the heart of the matter. His approach was unconventional, bold, and painful. But as the saying goes: “No pain and no risk—no change.” 

Johnson’s approach took on three critical steps that, in less than a year, have begun to change the culture and climate at our high school of 2,300 students (and more than 200 staff) from negative to positive. Those three steps included getting and taking critical feedback about why the culture was negative, creating a unified administrative team, and cultivating teacher leadership to create ownership. 

No Pain, No Gain

I have always believed that it’s best to get the painful part of change over with so you can move on to the good stuff, and this is exactly how we began. The first step of fixing the negative culture meant getting the perspectives of the teachers to find out why things were not good. Combining that need with the desire to create buy-in and teacher leadership, Johnson assembled a group of teachers he knew would be honest and forthright about the school’s culture issues, and he listened to their perspectives. From there, he supported this group of teacher leaders to get the faculty into discussions (minus the administrative team) to bring the issues to the surface. Using a survey and small group discussions, the faculty created a document that listed the problems they believed were causing the poor climate and culture. Once the discussions took place and the data was assembled, Johnson and his team of one associate principal and three assistant principals sat down together and went through every issue. This was where the “painful” part became a reality.

Faculty Feedback

Feedback from the faculty was bold, blunt, accusatory, and often true. It was a personally painful process sitting together and absorbing the brutal honesty of the people who we all work with each day. As a faculty, we felt like we were at fault, but as hard as it was, we had to admit that there was room for big improvement. After digesting the information and letting time ease the sting of reality, the team set to work. We started by arranging the issues according to actionable changes. After hours of discussion and brainstorming, we settled on the following areas for immediate improvement:

• Visibility. Teachers felt like they never saw the administrators. So, the principals agreed they would be in the halls between classes and at the beginning and end of the day. This sounds simple; however, it had to be balanced with the complaint that sometimes teachers couldn’t find us in our offices when they needed us.
• Communications. Teachers were frustrated with blanket “scolding” done through email or in faculty meetings. Administrators vowed they would send out blanket emails only when the majority of the faculty needed a reminder; otherwise, they would go directly to the people who were in need of a firmer reminder. 
• Relationships. The teachers felt like they were unknown by some of the administrators. We are currently a two-building high school campus, and it was true that it was hard to get to know those in the other building. To solve this, we began by having our technology people make us a faculty/staff picture album that scrolls across our computers to help us put faces to names. We hired more than 30 new people last year, so this was a way for everyone to learn new faces. With the suggestion of one of our teachers, we created a “One State” committee to create social events for the full faculty and staff. We also agreed to spend extra time in the halls having personal conversations with all members of the school. 

As I am writing these things, they appear, perhaps, a bit trivial. It seems silly that we weren’t doing them before, but as any principal knows, every minute of every day is important. “Simple” seems to be what goes out the window when the schedule gets packed. We now realize that simple changes are everything! By the end of September, we could already see and feel a difference in our school culture. Teachers were saying, “It’s nice to see you all more.” They have told us that it has been one of the most upbeat and encouraging starts to a year that they remember. (And this is no easy feat, considering we’re in the middle of a building construction project where everyone is misplaced or packed in small spaces and sharing space.) The culture is changing.

I remember thinking that Johnson was making a mistake in giving power to the negative complaints when he hatched this plan. I was wrong. The faculty needed to see and hear our hearts and know that we were willing to face difficult feedback to bring us all together as “one state.” We have more work to do, and things aren’t perfect. However, our principal was bold enough to take feedback that we knew would hurt, lead his team to make changes together, and use his teacher leaders to cultivate ownership in the process of making positive changes in the climate and culture of one high school. 

Kathy Pechtold is the associate principal of State College Area High School in Pennsylvania, where she has served as a teacher, dean of students, and assistant principal prior to her current role.

Making It Work

Three things principals can do to improve the culture and climate at their schools:

• Build a strong team that works together. But, be prepared to take tough feedback and empower teacher leaders.
• Build solid relationships. Don’t let teachers feel they are “unknown.” Make an effort to greet and talk with each person as often as you can, even though it takes time.
• Get back to the simple steps. Be visible by building culture issues into your schedule. Avoid sending blanket emails when you only need to address specific individuals. Remember, face-to-face interaction is often best.

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