Pakistan | Facts and History

Pakistan's Delicate Balance

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The nation of Pakistan is still young, but human history in the area reaches back for tens of thousands of years. In recent history, Pakistan has been inextricably linked in the world's view with the extremist movement of al Qaeda and with the Taliban , based in neighboring Afghanistan. The Pakistani government is in a delicate position, caught between various factions within the country, as well as policy pressures from without.

Capital and Major Cities

Islamabad, population 1,889,249 (2012 estimate)

Major Cities:

  • Karachi, population 24,205,339
  • Lahore, population 10,052,000
  • Faisalabad, population 4,052,871
  • Rawalpindi, population 3,205,414
  • Hyderabad, population 3,478,357
  • All figures based on 2012 estimates.

Pakistani Government

Pakistan has a (somewhat fragile) parliamentary democracy. The President is the Head of State, while the Prime Minister is the Head of Government. Prime Minister Mian Nawaz Sharif and President Mamnoon Hussain were elected in 2013. Elections are held every five years and incumbents are eligible for reelection.

Pakistan's two-house Parliament ( Majlis-e-Shura ) is made up of a 100-member Senate and a 342-member National Assembly.

The judicial system is a mix of secular and Islamic courts, including a Supreme Court, provincial courts, and Federal Shari'a courts that administer Islamic law. Pakistan's secular laws are based on British common law. All citizens over 18 years of age have the vote.

Population of Pakistan

Pakistan's population estimate as of 2015 was 199,085,847, making it the sixth most populous nation on Earth.

The largest ethnic group is the Punjabi, with 45 percent of the total population. Other groups include the Pashtun (or Pathan), 15.4 percent; Sindhi, 14.1 percent; Sariaki, 8.4 percent; Urdu, 7.6 percent; Balochi, 3.6 percent; and smaller groups making up the remaining 4.7 percent.

The birth rate in Pakistan is relatively high, at 2.7 live births per woman, so the population is expanding rapidly. The literacy rate for adult women is only 46 percent, compared with 70 percent for men.

Languages of Pakistan

The official language of Pakistan is English, but the national language is Urdu (which is closely related to Hindi). Interestingly, Urdu is not spoken as a native language by any of Pakistan's main ethnic groups and was chosen as a neutral option for communication among the various peoples of Pakistan.

Punjabi is the native tongue of 48 percent of Pakistanis, with Sindhi at 12 percent, Siraiki at 10 percent, Pashtu at 8 percent, Balochi at 3 percent, and a handful of smaller language groups. Most Pakistan languages belong to the Indo-Aryan language family and are written in a Perso-Arabic script.

Religion in Pakistan

An estimated 95-97 percent of Pakistanis are Muslim, with the remaining few percentage points made up of small groups of Hindus, Christians, Sikhs, Parsi (Zoroastrians), Buddhists and followers of other faiths.

About 85-90 percent of the Muslim population are Sunni Muslims, while 10-15 percent are Shi'a.

Most Pakistani Sunnis belong to the Hanafi branch, or to the Ahle Hadith. Shi'a sects represented include the Ithna Asharia, the Bohra, and the Ismailis.

Geography of Pakistan

Pakistan lies at the collision point between the Indian and Asian tectonic plates. As a result, much of the country consists of rugged mountains. The area of Pakistan is 880,940 square km (340,133 square miles).

The country shares borders with Afghanistan to the northwest, China to the north, India to the south and east, and Iran to the west. The border with India is subject to dispute, with both nations claiming the mountain regions of Kashmir and Jammu.

Pakistan's lowest point is its Indian Ocean coast, at sea level . The highest point is K2, the world's second-tallest mountain, at 8,611 meters (28,251 feet).

Climate of Pakistan

With the exception of the temperate coastal region, most of Pakistan suffers from seasonal extremes of temperature.

From June to September, Pakistan has its monsoon season, with warm weather and heavy rain in some areas. The temperatures drop significantly in December through February, while spring tends to be very warm and dry. Of course, the Karakoram and Hindu Kush mountain ranges are snowbound for much of the year, due to their high altitudes.

Temperatures even at lower elevations may drop below freezing during the winter, while summer highs of 40°C (104°F) are not uncommon. The record high is 55°C (131°F).

Pakistani Economy

Pakistan has great economic potential, but it has been hampered by internal political unrest, a lack of foreign investment, and its chronic state of conflict with India. As a result, the per capita GDP is only $5000, and 22 percent of Pakistanis live under the poverty line (2015 estimates).

While GDP was growing at 6-8 percent between 2004 and 2007, that slowed to 3.5 percent from 2008 to 2013. Unemployment stands at just 6.5 percent, although that does not necessarily reflect the state of employment as many are underemployed.

Pakistan exports labor, textiles, rice, and carpets. It imports oil, petroleum products, machinery, and steel.

The Pakistani rupee trades at 101 rupees / $1 US (2015).

History of Pakistan

The nation of Pakistan is a modern creation, but people have been building great cities in the area for some 5,000 years. Five millennia ago, the Indus Valley Civilization created great urban centers at Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, both of which are now in Pakistan.

The Indus Valley people mixed with Aryans moving in from the north during the second millennium B.C. Combined, these peoples are called the Vedic Culture; they created the epic stories upon which Hinduism is founded.

The lowlands of Pakistan were conquered by Darius the Great around 500 B.C. His Achaemenid Empire ruled the area for nearly 200 years.

Alexander the Great destroyed the Achaemenids in 334 B.C., establishing Greek rule as far as the Punjab. After Alexander's death 12 years later, the empire was thrown into confusion as his generals divided up the satrapies ; a local leader, Chandragupta Maurya , seized the opportunity to return the Punjab to local rule. Nonetheless, Greek and Persian culture continued to exert a strong influence on what is now Pakistan and Afghanistan.

The Mauryan Empire later conquered most of South Asia; Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka the Great , converted to Buddhism in the third century B.C.

Another important religious development occurred in the 8th century A.D. when Muslim traders brought their new religion to the Sindh region. Islam became the state religion under the Ghaznavid Dynasty (997-1187 A.D.).

A succession of Turkic/Afghan dynasties ruled the region through 1526 when the area was conquered by Babur , founder of the Mughal Empire . Babur was a descendant of Timur (Tamerlane), and his dynasty ruled most of South Asia until 1857 ​when the British took control. After the so-called Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 , the last Mughal Emperor , Bahadur Shah II, was exiled to Burma by the British.

Great Britain had been asserting ever-increasing control through the British East India Company since at least 1757. The British Raj , the time when South Asia fell under direct control by the UK government, lasted until 1947.

Muslims in the north of British India , represented by the Muslim League and its leader, Muhammad Ali Jinnah , objected to joining the independent nation of India after World War II . As a result, the parties agreed to a Partition of India . Hindus and Sikhs would live in India proper, while Muslims got the new nation of Pakistan. Jinnah became the first leader of independent Pakistan.

Originally, Pakistan consisted of two separate pieces; the eastern section later became the nation of Bangladesh .

Pakistan developed nuclear weapons in the 1980s, confirmed by nuclear tests in 1998. Pakistan has been an ally of the United States in the war on terror. They opposed the Soviets during the Soviet-Afghan war but relations have improved.

  • Bangladesh: Facts and History
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  • Benazir Bhutto of Pakistan

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Pakistan: A Political History

people walking near white concrete building during daytime Tomb of Quaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Tomb of Quaid e Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah (Hassan Anwer/Unsplash)

Pakistan 's short history as a country has been very turbulent. Fighting among the provinces--as well as a deep-rooted conflict that led to a nuclear stand-off with India—prevented Pakistan from gaining real stability in the last five decades. It oscillates between military rule and democratically elected governments, between secular policies and financial backing as a "frontline" state during the Cold War and the war against terrorism. Recent declared states of emergency and the political assassination of former Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto indicate a continuing trend of economic and political instability.

When Pakistan became a country on August 14th, 1947, to form the largest Muslim state in the world at that time. The creation of Pakistan was catalyst to the largest demographic movement in recorded history. Nearly seventeen million people-Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs-are reported to have moved in both directions between India and the two wings of Pakistan (the eastern wing is now Bangladesh ). Sixty million of the ninety-five million Muslims on the Indian subcontinent became citizens of Pakistan at the time of its creation. Subsequently, thirty-five million Muslims remained inside India making it the largest Muslim minority in a non-Muslim state.

Scarred from birth, Pakistan's quest for survival has been as compelling as it has been uncertain. Despite the shared religion of its overwhelmingly Muslim population, Pakistan has been engaged in a precarious struggle to define a national identity and evolve a political system for its linguistically diverse population. Pakistan is known to have over twenty languages and over 300 distinct dialects, Urdu and English are the official languages but Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashtu, Baluchi and Seraiki are considered main languages. This diversity has caused chronic regional tensions and successive failures in forming a constitution. Pakistan has also been burdened by full-scale wars with India, a strategically exposed northwestern frontier, and series of economic crises. It has difficulty allocating its scarce economic and natural resources in an equitable manner.

All of Pakistan's struggles underpin the dilemma they face in reconciling the goal of national integration with the imperatives of national security.

Following a military defeat at the hands of India the breakaway of its eastern territory, which India divides it from, caused the establishment of Bangladesh in 1971. This situation epitomizes the most dramatic manifestation of Pakistan's dilemma as a decentralized nation. Political developments in Pakistan continue to be marred by provincial jealousies and, in particular, by the deep resentments in the smaller provinces of Sind, Baluchistan, and the North-West Frontier Province against what is seen to be a monopoly by the Punjabi majority of the benefits of power, profit, and patronage. Pakistan's political instability over time has been matched by a fierce ideological debate about the form of government it should adopt, Islamic or secular. In the absence of any nationally based political party, Pakistan has long had to rely on the civil service and the army to maintain the continuities of government.

The Emergence of Pakistan

The roots of Pakistan's multifaceted problems can be traced to March 1940 when the All-India Muslim League formally orchestrated the demand for a Pakistan consisting of Muslim-majority provinces in the northwest and northeast of India. By asserting that the Indian Muslims were a nation, not a minority, the Muslim League and its leader, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, had hoped to negotiate a constitutional arrangement that provided an equitable share of power between Hindus and Muslims once the British relinquished control of India. The demand for a "Pakistan" was Jinnah's and the League's bid to register their claim to be the spokesmen of all Indian Muslims, both in provinces were they were in a majority as well as in provinces where they were a minority. Jinnah and the League's main bases of support, however, were in the Muslim-minority provinces. In the 1937 general elections, the league had met a serious rejection from the Muslim voters in the majority provinces.

There was an obvious contradiction in a demand for a separate Muslim state and the claim to be speaking for all Indian Muslims. During the remaining years of the British Raj in India neither Jinnah nor the Muslim League explained how Muslims in the minority provinces could benefit from a Pakistan based on an undivided Punjab, Sind, North-West Frontier Province, and Baluchistan in the northwest, and an undivided Bengal and Assam in the northeast. Jinnah did at least had tried to get around the inconsistencies by arguing that since there were two nations in India-Hindu and Muslim-any transfer of power from British to Indian hands would necessarily entail disbanding of the unitary center created by the imperial rulers. Reconstitution of the Indian union would have to be based on either confederal or treaty arrangements between Pakistan (representing the Muslim-majority provinces) and Hindustan (representing the Hindu-majority provinces). Jinnah also maintained that Pakistan would have to include an undivided Punjab and Bengal. The substantial non-Muslim minorities in both these provinces were the best guarantee that the Indian National Congress would see sense in negotiating reciprocal arrangements with the Muslim League to safeguard the interests of Muslim minorities in Hindustan.

Despite Jinnah's large claims, the Muslim League failed to build up effective party machinery in the Muslim-majority provinces. Consequently the league had no real control over either the politicians or the populace at the base that was mobilized in the name of Islam. During the final negotiations, Jinnah's options were limited by uncertain commitment of the Muslim-majority province politicians to the league's goals in the demand for Pakistan. The outbreak of communal troubles constrained Jinnah further still. In the end he had little choice but to settle for a Pakistan stripped of the non-Muslim majority districts of the Punjab and Bengal and to abandon his hopes of a settlement that might have secured the interests of all Muslims. But the worst cut of all was Congress's refusal to interpret partition as a division of India between Pakistan and Hindustan . According to the Congress, partition simply meant that certain areas with Muslim majorities were 'splitting off' from the "Indian union." The implication was that if Pakistan failed to survive, the Muslim areas would have to return to the Indian union; there would be no assistance to recreate it on the basis of two sovereign states.

With this agreement nothing stood in the way of the reincorporation of the Muslim areas into the Indian union except the notion of a central authority, which had yet to be firmly established. To establish a central authority proved to be difficult, especially since the provinces had been governed from New Delhi for so long and the separation of Pakistan's eastern and western wings by one thousand miles of Indian territory. Even if Islamic sentiments were the best hope of keeping the Pakistani provinces unified, their pluralistic traditions and linguistic affiliations were formidable stumbling blocks. Islam had certainly been a useful rallying cry, but it had not been effectively translated into the solid support that Jinnah and the League needed from the Muslim provinces in order to negotiate an arrangement on behalf of all Indian Muslims.

The diversity of Pakistan's provinces, therefore, was a potential threat to central authority. While the provincial arenas continued to be the main centers of political activity, those who set about creating the centralized government in Karachi were either politicians with no real support or civil servants trained in the old traditions of British Indian administration. The inherent weaknesses of the Muslim League's structure, together with the absence of a central administrative apparatus that could coordinate the affairs of the state, proved to be a crippling disadvantage for Pakistan overall. The presence of millions of refugees called for urgent remedial action by a central government that, beyond not being established, had neither adequate resources nor capacities. The commercial groups had yet to invest in some desperately needed industrial units. And the need to extract revenues from the agrarian sector called for state interventions, which caused a schism between the administrative apparatus of the Muslim League and the landed elite who dominated the Muslim League.

Power and Governance

Both the military and the civil bureaucracy were affected by the disruptions wrought by partition. Pakistan cycled through a number of politicians through their beginning political and economic crises. The politicians were corrupt, interested in maintaining their political power and securing the interests of the elite, so to have them as the representative authority did not provide much hope of a democratic state that provided socio-economic justice and fair administration to all Pakistani citizens. Ranging controversies over the issue of the national language, the role of Islam, provincial representation, and the distribution of power between the center and the provinces delayed constitution making and postponed general elections. In October 1956 a consensus was cobbled together and Pakistan's first constitution declared. The experiment in democratic government was short but not sweet. Ministries were made and broken in quick succession and in October 1958, with national elections scheduled for the following year, General Mohammad Ayub Khan carried out a military coup with confounding ease.

Between 1958 and 1971 President Ayub Khan, through autocratic rule was able to centralize the government without the inconvenience of unstable ministerial coalitions that had characterized its first decade after independence. Khan brought together an alliance of a predominantly Punjabi army and civil bureaucracy with the small but influential industrial class as well as segments of the landed elite, to replace the parliamentary government by a system of Basic Democracies. Basic Democracies code was founded on the premise of Khan's diagnosis that the politicians and their "free-for-all" type of fighting had had ill effect on the country. He therefore disqualified all old politicians under the Elective Bodies Disqualification Order, 1959 (EBDO). The Basic Democracies institution was then enforced justifying "that it was democracy that suited the genius of the people." A small number of basic democrats (initially eighty thousand divided equally between the two wings and later increased by another forty thousand) elected the members of both the provincial and national assemblies. Consequently the Basic Democracies system did not empower the individual citizens to participate in the democratic process, but opened up the opportunity to bribe and buy votes from the limited voters who were privileged enough to vote.

By giving the civil bureaucracy (the chosen few) a part in electoral politics, Khan had hoped to bolster central authority, and largely American-directed, programs for Pakistan's economic development. But his policies exacerbated existing disparities between the provinces as well as within them. Which gave the grievances of the eastern wing a potency that threatened the very centralized control Khan was trying to establish. In West Pakistan, notable successes in increasing productivity were more than offset by growing inequalities in the agrarian sector and their lack of representation, an agonizing process of urbanization, and the concentration of wealth in a few industrial houses. In the aftermath of the 1965 war with India, mounting regional discontent in East Pakistan and urban unrest in West Pakistan helped undermine Ayub Khan's authority, forcing him to relinquish power in March 1969.

Bangladesh Secedes

After Ayub Khan, General Agha Muhammad Yahya Khan headed the second military regime from 1969-1971. By that time the country had been under military rule for thirteen of its twenty-five years of existence. This second military regime emphasized the extent to which the process of centralization under bureaucratic and military tutelage had fragmented Pakistani society and politics. The general elections of 1970 on the basis of adult franchise revealed for the first time ever in Pakistan's history how regionalism and social conflict had come to dominate politics despite the efforts at controlled development. The Awami League, led by Mujibur Rahman, campaigned on a six-point program of provincial autonomy, capturing all but one seat in East Pakistan and securing an absolute majority in the national assembly. In West Pakistan the Pakistan People's Party, led by Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, had a populist platform that stole the thunder from the Islamic parties (the Muslim League, the oldest political party captured no more than a few seats) and emerged as the largest single bloc. The prospect of an Awami Leagues government was a threat to politicians in West Pakistan who in conspiracy with the military leadership prevented Mujibur from taking the reins of power. This was the final straw for the east wing who was already fed up with the their under-representation in all sectors of the government, economic deprivation and then the suppression of the democratic process. An armed rebellion in East Pakistan engendered all of these frustrations, which caused Indian military intervention to crush it. Pakistan was now involved in its third war with India, thus clearing the way for the establishment of Bangladesh in 1971.

A Democratic Government

The dismemberment of Pakistan discredited both the civil bureaucracy and the army, General Yahya Khan was left no choice but to hand all power over to the Pakistan's People's Party (PPP) who saw the formation of a representative led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. Bhutto's electoral strength, however, was confined to the Punjab and Sind, and even there it had not been based on solid political party organization. This, together with the PPP's lack of following in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, meant that Bhutto could not work the central apparatus without at least the implicit support of the civil bureaucracy and the military high command. The 1973 constitution made large concessions to the non-Punjabi provinces and provided the blueprint for a political system based on the semblance of a national consensus. But Bhutto failed to implement the federal provisions of the constitution. He relied on the coercive arm of the state to snuff out political opposition and by neglecting to build the PPP as a truly popular national party. The gap between his popular rhetoric and the marginal successes of his somewhat haphazard economic reforms prevented Bhutto form consolidating a social base of support. Thus, despite a temporary loss of face in 1971 the civil bureaucracy and the army remained the most important pillars of the state structure, instead of the citizens of Pakistan who were still struggling to be recognized in the democratic process. Although Bhutto's PPP won the 1977 elections, the Pakistan National Alliance-a nine-party coalition-charged him with rigging the vote. Violent urban unrest gave the army under General Zia-ul Haq the pretext to make a powerful comeback to the political arena, and on July 5, 1977 Pakistan was placed under military rule yet again and the 1973 Constitution was suspended.

Upon assuming power General Zia banned all political parties and expressed his determination to recast the Pakistani state and society into an Islamic mold. In April 1979 Bhutto was executed on murder charges and the PPP's remaining leadership was jailed or exiled. By holding nonparty elections and initiating a series of Islamization policies, Zia sought to create a popular base of support in the hope of legitimizing the role of the military in Pakistani politics. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 caused Zia's regime to receive international support as a stable government bordering Soviet territory. Although Pakistan had now formally disentangled its self from both SEATO and CENTO and joined the nonaligned movement, was regarded by the West as an important front-line state and is a major recipient of American military and financial aid. Despite a string of statistics advertising the health of the economy, murmurs of discontent, though muffled, continued to be heard. On December 30, 1985, after confirming his own position in a controversial "Islamic" referendum, completing a fresh round of nonparty elections of the provincial and national assemblies, and introducing a series of amendments to the 1973 constitution, Zia finally lifted martial law and announced the dawn of a new democratic era in Pakistan.

This new democratic era was just as turbulent as Pakistan's previous political history. Major political parties called for a boycott the 1985 election due to the non-party bias platform. In absence of political parties the candidates focused on local issues that superseded the majority of the candidates affiliations to particular parties. The Pakistani people were obviously interested in participating in the democratic process and disregarded the urge to boycott, 52.9% cast ballots for the National Assembly and 56.9% cast ballots for the provincial elections.

President Zia first initiative was to introduce amendments to the 1973 constitution that would secure his power over the parliamentary system. The eighth amendment turned out to be the most detrimental to the people's faith in the democratic system. Now the president could possess complete control and power to take any step, which he felt was necessary to secure national integrity. For the next twelve years the presidents used this amendment to expel a number of prime ministers from their post, mainly due to either personal struggles or insecurity over shift in power.

Following the 1988 election, Muhammad Khan Junejo was nominated as the prime minister, who had a unanimous vote of confidence by the National Assembly. Junejo seemed to be a promising component to the Pakistani government; he fostered a smooth transition from the army to civil authority, which generated optimism about the democratic process of Pakistan. For the first of his years in office, Junejo was able to strike a balance between establishing the parliamentary credentials as a democratic body and maintaining President Zia's blessing. He developed the five-point program that aimed at improving development, literacy rate, eliminating corruption and improvement of the common man's lot. He was as well improving foreign policy abroad and was grappling a major budgetary deficit from the heavy expenditure of the martial law regimes. But on May 29th 1988 President Zia dissolved the National Assembly and removed the prime minister under the article 58-2-b of the Constitution. He claimed that Jenejo was conspiring against him in order to undermine his position; he blamed the National Assembly of corruption and failure to enforce Islamic way of life.

The opposition parties were in support of Zia's decision because it worked in their benefit, providing an early election. They demanded elections to be schedule in ninety days in accordance with the constitution. President Zia interpreted this article of the constitution differently. He felt he was required to announce the election schedule in ninety days while the elections could be held later. Simultaneously he wanted to hold the elections on a non-party basis as he had in 1985, but the Supreme Court upheld that this went against the spirit of the constitution. Political confusion ensued as a result of Zia's proposal to postpone the elections to re-structure the political system in the name of Islam. There was fear that Zia may impose martial law and the Muslim League became split between supporters of Zia and Junejo. All of this was stalled when Zia died in a plane crash on august 17th.

Ghulam Ishaq Khan was sworn in as president being the chairman of the Senate and elections were initiated. Which surprised to outside observers who feared that the military could easily take over power. The November elections of 1988 were based on political party platforms for the first time in fifteen years. None of the parties won the majority of the National Assembly but the Pakistan People's Party emerged as the single largest holder of seats. Benazir Bhutto, the PPP's chairperson, was named prime minister after the PPP formed a coalition of smaller parties to form a working majority. At first people were hopeful that Bhutto would work together with the opposition party's leader Nawaz Sharif of the IJI party, who headed the Punjabi party, the majority province. But soon they escalated bitterness to new heights and drained the economy with bribes to other politicians to sway affiliations. These accounts plus no improvement on the economic front scarred the central government's image. In 1990 the President dismissed Bhutto under the eighth amendment of the constitution, a decision upheld by the Supreme Court. So once again elections were held a short two years later.

The Pakistani people were losing faith in the democratic system. They felt it was corrupt, haphazard and based on the squabbles of the military and bureaucratic elite. This attitude was reinforced by the fact that Nawaz Sharif was assigned prime minister in 1990, and dismissed in 1993 even though he had liberalized investment, restored confidence of domestic and international investors, so that investment increased by 17.6%. And as a result the GDP had a growth rate of 6.9% while the inflation stayed under 10%. President Ghulam Ishaq Khan was accused of conspiring with Benazir Bhutto in the dismissal of Sharif. For the first time in Pakistan's history the Supreme Court declared that the dismissal of the National Assembly and Sharif unconstitutional, reinstating Sharif and the National Assembly. This act showed that the president was not the overriding power but the events that followed proved how unstable the government was. Through bribes and palace intrigues Ghulam was able to influence a rebellion in Punjab in 1993, which represented Sharif and his party as incompetent. This situation caused an upheaval in the system that resulted in intervention of the chief of Army Staff General, Abdul Waheed Kaker. It was agreed that both the president and prime minister would resign and new elections would be arranged.

An even lower turn out affected the legitimacy of the all too frequent electoral process. In this election the mandate was divided by the same players, the PPP with Bhutto and the Muslim League with Sharif. Sharif had lost the popular support in Punjab, which caused the PPP to claim the majority of the seats. So once again the PPP claimed the majority of the seats and Bhutto was placed as prime minister. She was able to get Farooq Ahmad Khan Leghari elected as president, which secured her government against the eighth amendment. Regardless Bhutto was unable to run a just government; she fell back into corruption, misuses of state resources, which was detrimental to the Pakistani people. Both the Chief Justice and President wanted to maintain the autonomy of their position in the government, while Bhutto was attempting to override the political system. President Leghari soon dismissed her with the support of the Supreme Court. The public hailed this decision and in February 1997 prepared for new elections, the fifth in twelve years. The voter support for the elections waned proportionately throughout these twelve years.

It was obvious that the two leading parties were alternating public support when Sharif and the Muslim League were reinstated as the Prime Minister and majority party respectively. The Muslim League used its parliamentary majority to enact a fundamental change in the political system with the introduction of amendments thirteen in the constitution. The thirteenth amendment limited the power of the president to that of a nominal head of state, while restoring the parliament as the central governmental power. This amendment basically created a check and balance procedure to article eight, in an attempt to maintain political stability. By 1999 the eighth amendment was stripped of the constraints that empowered the president to dissolve the National Assembly or dismiss the prime minister. These legislative feats were impressive, but overall the Muslim League's performance was mixed. They inherited a lot of obstacles, an economy that was on the verge of collapse and a political culture of corruption. The May 1998 decision to conduct nuclear tests in response to India's nuclear tests resulted in the imposition of sanctions that stifled the economy even more so. Bhutto's corrupt usage of foreign funds and the freezing of foreign investments further complicated investment relations.

Prime Minister Sharif was gaining disapproval on many fronts, for he was perceived to be power hungry and possibly corrupt. He had forced out the chief justice of the supreme court and the army chief soon after the eighth amendment was revised, he was cracking down on the press that did not support him and his family's firm, Ittefaq Industries, was doing abnormally well in times of economic slowdown, which led to suspicions of corruption. The army chief, Jehangir Karamat was among the many who were worried about Sharif's mounting power, he demanded that the army be included in the country's decision-making process in attempt to balance the civil government. Two days later he resigned putting General Pervez Musharraf in his position. Musharraf had been one of the principal strategists in the Kashmiri crisis with India. He soon suspected that he did not have the political backing of the civil government in his aggressive quest in Kashmir. The combination of Shariff's reluctance in the Kashmiri opposition, mounting factional disputes, terrorism all provided Musharraf with the justification to lead a coup to overthrow the civil government. On October 12th, 1999 he successfully ousted Sharif and the Muslim League on the grounds that he was maintaining law and order while strengthening the institution of governance.

The Pakistani people thought that this may be on a temporary basis and once things had stabilized, Musharraf would call for new elections of the National Assembly. But Musharraf has refused to reinstate the National Assembly via elections until October 2002, a deadline set by the Supreme Court. In July of 2001 Musharraf declared himself president before meeting with the Indian prime minister to legitimize his authority within the Pakistani government. He has since recalled all regional militant Islamic factions through out Pakistan and encouraged them to return their weapons to the central government. He has been unwavering on Pakistan's position on Kashmir, which resulted in shortening talks with India. He is now cooperating with the American government and western world in the coalition against terrorism, which puts him in an awkward position with his Afghanistan neighbors and the fractious groups within Pakistan who sympathize with the Taliban and Osama Bin Laden on an ethnic, ideological and political level.

Mohammad Ali Jinnah had always envisioned a democratic Pakistan and many of his successors have struggle towards this goal, but not more than maintaining their own platforms of power. It is ironic that such political instability plagues a country whose number one objective of its leaders is to secure their own power. Maybe it is time for a new equation. The actions of both civil and military leaders have exhaustively tried the Pakistani people and their struggle as a nation. Pakistan faces the unenviable task of setting government priorities in accordance with the needs of its diverse and unevenly developed constituent units. Regardless of the form of government--civilian or military, Islamic or secular--solutions of the problem of mass illiteracy and economic inequities on the one hand, and the imperatives of national integration and national security will also determine the degree of political stability, or instability, that Pakistan faces in the decades ahead. But the people and the nation persevere offering the world great cultural, religious, and intellectual traditions

Based on Ayesha Jalal for for the Encyclopedia of Asian History , adapted by Amanda Snellinger. © Asia Society. From The Encyclopedia of Asian History . Asia Society and Charles Scribner's Sons.

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History Of Pakistan PowerPoint PPT Presentations

HISTORY OF PAKISTAN PowerPoint PPT Presentation

secondary school certificate examination syllabus

History of Pakistan

Mar 03, 2022

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As the United Kingdom agreed to the partitioning of India in 1947, the modern state of Pakistan was established on 14 August 1947 (27th of Ramadan in 1366 of the Islamic Calendar), amalgamating the Muslim-majority eastern and northwestern regions of British India.

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Secondary School Certificate Examination Syllabus HISTORY OF PAKISTAN CLASSES IX-X (based on National Curriculum 2002)

Published by Aga Khan University Examination Board Bungalow # 233 / E.I.Lines, Daudpota Road, Karachi, Pakistan. March 2005 Latest Revision June 2012 All rights reserved This syllabus is developed by Aga Khan University Examination Board for distribution to all its affiliated schools.

Secondary School Certificate Examination Syllabus HISTORY OF PAKISTAN CLASSES IX-X This subject is examined in the May Examination session only

S. No. Table of Contents Page No. Preface 5 1. Aims/Objectives of the National Curriculum (2002) 7 2. Rationale of the AKU-EB Examination Syllabus 8 3. Topics and Student Learning Outcomes of the Examination Syllabus 10 4. Scheme of Assessment 30 5. Teaching-Learning Approaches and Classroom Activities 33 6. Recommended Texts and Reference Materials 34 Definition of Cognitive Levels and Command Words in the Student Learning Outcomes in Examination Papers 7. 35 38 Annex: SSC Scheme of Studies For queries and feedback Address: The Aga Khan University Examination Board Bungalow No. 233/ E.I.Lines, Daudpota Road, Karachi-Pakistan. (92-21) 35224702-10 (92-21) 35224711 [email protected] http://examinationboard.aku.edu http://learningsupport.akueb.edu.pk www.facebook.com/akueb Phone: Fax: E-mail: Website: Facebook: Latest Revision June 2012 Page 4

PREFACE In pursuance of National Education Policy (1998-2010), the Curriculum Wing of the Federal Ministry of Education has begun a process of curriculum reform to improve the quality of education through curriculum revision and textbook development (Preface, National Curriculum documents 2000 and 2002). AKU-EB was founded in August 2003 with the same aim of improving the quality of education nationwide. As befits an examination board it seeks to reinforce the National Curriculum revision through the development of appropriate examinations for the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) and Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSSC) based on the latest National Curriculum and subject syllabus guidance. AKU-EB has a mandate by Ordinance CXIV of 2002 to offer such examination services to English and Urdu medium candidates for SSC and HSSC from private schools anywhere in Pakistan or abroad, and from government schools with the relevant permissions. It has been accorded this mandate to introduce a choice of examination and associated educational approach for schools, thus fulfilling a key objective of the National Curriculum of Pakistan: “Autonomy will be given to the Examination Boards and Research and Development cells will be established in each Board to improve the system” (ibid. para. 6.5.3 (ii)). AKU-EB is committed to creating continuity of educational experience and the best possible opportunities for its students. In consequence it offered HSSC for the first time in September, 2007 to coincide with the arrival of its first SSC students in college or higher secondary school. Needless to say this is not an exclusive offer. Private candidates and students joining AKU-EB affiliated schools and colleges for HSSC Part 1 are eligible to register as AKU-EB candidates even though they have not hitherto been associated with AKU-EB. This examination syllabus exemplifies AKU-EB’s commitment to national educational goals. •It is in large part a reproduction, with some elaboration, of the Class IX and X National Curriculum of the subject. •It makes the National Curriculum freely available to the general public. •The syllabus recommends a range of suitable textbooks already in print for student purchase and additional texts for the school library. •It identifies areas where teachers should work together to generate classroom activities and materials for their students as a step towards the introduction of multiple textbooks, another of the Ministry of Education’s policy provisions for the improvement of secondary education (ibid. para. 6.3.4). Latest Revision June 2012 Page 5

This examination syllabus brings together all those cognitive outcomes of the National Curriculum statement which can be reliably and validly assessed. While the focus is on the cognitive domain, particular emphasis is given to the application of knowledge and understanding, a fundamental activity in fostering “attitudes befitting useful and peaceful citizens and the skills for and commitment to lifelong learning which is the cornerstone of national economic development” (Preface to National Curriculum documents 2000 and 2002). To achieve this end AKU-EB has brought together university academics, teacher trainers, writers of learning materials and above all, experienced teachers, in regular workshops and subject panel meetings. AKU-EB provides copies of the examination syllabus to subject teachers in affiliated schools to help them in planning their teaching. It is the syllabus, not the prescribed text book which is the basis of AKU-EB examinations. In addition, the AKU-EB examination syllabus can be used to identify the training needs of subject teachers and to develop learning support materials for students. Involving classroom teachers in these activities is an important part of the AKU-EB strategy for improving the quality of learning in schools. The Curriculum Wing of the Federal Ministry of Education has recently released new subject specifications and schemes of study to take effect in September, 2008. These documents are a major step forward towards a standards-related curriculum and have been welcomed by AKU-EB. Our current SSC syllabuses have been revised to ensure conformity with the new National Curriculum 2006. We stand committed to all students entering the SSC course as well as those who have recently embarked upon the HSSC course in facilitating their learning outcome. Our examination syllabus document ensures all possible support. Dr. Thomas Christie Director, Aga Khan University Examination Board July 2009 Latest Revision June 2012 Page 6

Aims/Objectives of the National Curriculum (2002)1 Aims 1. 1. To analyse the factors responsible for the rise and fall of Muslims. 2. To understand the political status of Muslims during British rule in India. 3. To familiarize the students with the revolutionary movement of Muslims in the subcontinent. 4. To enable the students to draw inspiration from the ideology of Pakistan and Islam. General Objectives 1. To develop a sense of gratitude to Almighty Allah for blessing us with Pakistan. 2. To analyse the socio-political development in historical perspective during 1947- 2001. 3. To evaluate the Islamization effort by various governments in the perspective of an Islamic Ideology State. 4. To conclude the lessons learnt from history. 5. To inculcate the qualities of khudi, self-reliance, tolerance, research, sacrifice, jihad, martyrdom, modesty and the behaviour pattern of national character. 6. To acquaint with the international role of Pakistan with special emphasis on the Islamic World. 1Government of Pakistan (2002), National Curriculum; History of Pakistan, Classes IX-X, Islamabad, Ministry of Education (Curriculum Wing). Latest Revision June 2012 Page 7

2. 2.1 Rationale of the AKU-EB Examination Syllabus General Rationale 2.1.1 In 2007, the Curriculum Wing of the Federal Ministry of Education (MoE) issued a revised part-wise Scheme of Studies. All subjects are to be taught and examined in both classes IX and X. It is therefore important for teachers, students, parents and other stakeholders to know: (a) that the AKU-EB Scheme of Studies for its SSC examination (Annex A) derives directly from the 2007 Ministry of Education Scheme of Studies; which topics will be examined in Class IX and in Class X; at which cognitive level or levels (Knowledge, Understanding, Application and other higher order skills) the topics and sub-topics will be taught and examined; (b) (c) 2.1.2 This AKU-EB examination syllabus addresses these concerns. Without such guidance teachers and students have little option other than following a single textbook to prepare for an external examination. The result is a culture of rote memorization as the preferred method of examination preparation. The pedagogically desirable objectives of the National Curriculum which encourage “observation, creativity and other higher order thinking skills” are generally ignored. AKU-EB recommends that teachers and students use multiple teaching-learning resources for achieving the specific objectives of the National Curriculum reproduced in the AKU-EB examination syllabuses. 2.1.3 The AKU-EB examination syllabuses use a uniform layout for all subjects to make them easier for teachers to follow. Blank sheets are provided in each syllabus for writing notes on potential lesson plans. It is expected that this arrangement will also be found helpful by teachers in developing classroom assessments as well as by question setters preparing material for the AKU-EB external examinations. The AKU-EB aims to enhance the quality of education through improved classroom practices and improved examinations. 2.1.4 The Student Learning Outcomes (SLOs) in Section 3 start with command words such as list, describe, relate, explain, etc. The purpose of the command words is to direct the attention of teachers and students to specific tasks that candidates following the AKU-EB examination syllabuses are expected to undertake in the course of their subject studies. The examination questions will be framed using the same command words or the connotation of the command words to elicit evidence of these competencies in candidates’ responses. The definitions of command words used in this syllabus are given in Section 7. It is hoped that teachers will find these definitions useful in planning their lessons and classroom assessments. Latest Revision June 2012 Page 8

2.1.5 The AKU-EB has classified SLOs under the three cognitive levels Knowledge (K), Understanding (U) and Application of knowledge and skills (A) in order to derive multiple choice questions and constructed response questions on a rational basis from the subject syllabuses ensuring that the intentions of the National Curriculum should be met in full. The weighting of marks to the Multiple Choice and Constructed Response Papers is also derived from the SLOs, command words and cognitive levels. In effect the SLOs derived from the National Curriculum determine the structure of the AKU-EB subject examination set out in Section 4 and 5. 2.1.6 Some topics from the National Curriculum have been elaborated and enriched for better understanding of the subject and/or to better meet the needs of students in the twenty-first century. These additional topics have been italicized in Section 3 of this syllabus. Specific Rationale of the AKU-EB History of Pakistan Examination Syllabus 2.2.1 History is part and parcel of life and the study of history has as its major thrust on improvement of the quality of life and welfare of human beings. This discipline enhances a rational approach towards behaviour and daily life. 2.2 2.2.2 In response to shifting global trends and priorities in social development, there is a continuous need to update the syllabus for teaching history at the secondary level. With the need to remain abreast of current developments in mind, AKU-EB, within the ambit of the National Curriculum, has further augmented the History syllabus. Some concepts and contents are restructured and enriched to better meet the needs of our students and to better serve national development. Latest Revision June 2012 Page 9

3. Topics and Student Learning Outcomes of the Examination Syllabus Part I (Class IX) Cognitive Level2 Topic Student Learning Outcomes K U A 1. Basis of History# Candidates should be able to: describe history as a social science with reference to cause and effect, reason and consequence; discuss the usefulness of history in understanding the development of society with reference to the evaluation of historical sources and the identification of possible bias; describe the historical evolution of the discipline of history; 1.1 Definition of History 1.1.1 * 1.1.2 * 1.2 Development of History as a Discipline 1.2.1 * 1.3 Difference between Primary and Secondary Sources of History 1.3.1 1.3.2 1.3.3 explain the difference between primary and secondary sources of history; analyze the importance of primary and secondary sources; enlist the types of primary and secondary sources and their use. * * * 2 K = Knowledge, U = Understanding, A= Application (for explanation see Section 8: Definition of command words used in Student Learning Outcomes and in Examination Questions). # Rephrased Latest Revision June 2012 Page 10

NOTES Latest Revision June 2012 Page 11

Candidates should be able to: K U A 2. Art of Writing History in Relation to Hadith 2.1 Renowned Muslim Historians 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5 2.1.6 discuss the salient features of writing about History in relation to Hadith; discuss the contribution made by Imam Malik; discuss the contribution made by Muhammad Jarival Tabri; discuss the contribution made by Allama Ibn-e-Khaldoon; compare the key features of Al-Beruni and Abu Toger Tabri’s contributions; draw lessons from renowned historians about the importance of knowledge, wisdom and learning towards human society; describe the contributions of Ziauddin Burney, Shibli Nomani and Syed Amir Ali. Candidates should be able to: 3.1.1 define the terms culture and civilization; 3.1.2 differentiate between culture and civilization; 3.1.3 explain the components of culture; 3.2.1 explain the development process of civilization; •Paleolithic age •Mesolithic age •Neolithic age * * * * * * 2.2 2.2.1 * Other Well-known Historians 3. Civilizations of the Past 3.1 Definition of Culture and Civilization * * * 3.2 Development Process of Civilizations * Latest Revision June 2012 Page 12

NOTES Latest Revision June 2012 Page 13

K U * A 3.3 Major Civilizations of the World 3.3.1 discuss the Egyptian Civilization in light of its contribution towards •script and writing •art and architecture •the formation of government ; explain how the Greek Civilization left its impact on •art and architecture •government •science and philosophy narrate famous stories of Greek Civilization such as •The War of Troy •Theseus and the Minotaur •The journey of Odysseus discuss the achievements of Alexander the Great in context of the Sub- Continent (battle with King Porus) discuss the spread of Roman Civilization in light of •the Punic Wars 264-146 BC •the rule of Julius Caesar describe the contribution of Romans in •sciences •art •war conduct identify the characteristics of Mehar Garh and Shahi Dum Civilization; describe the key features of Indus Valley Civilization; identify the common characteristics of Gandhara Civilizations; describe the growth of Harappa; explain the impact of Greek Civilization on our society; describe the city planning of Mohenjodaro and illustrate with a diagram; analyse the effect of the arrival of Aryans in Indo-Pak subcontinent. 3.3.2 * 3.3.3 * 3.3.4 * 3.3.5 * 3.3.6 * 3.4 Civilizations of the Sub-Continent 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 3.4.4 3.4.5 3.4.6 3.4.7 * * * * * * * Latest Revision June 2012 Page 14

NOTES Latest Revision June 2012 Page 15

K U * * * * A * * 3.5 Islamic Civilization after 712 A.D. 3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5 3.5.6 describe the advent of Islam in Sindh in 712 by Muhammad Bin Qasim; explain the impact of the arrival of Muslims on politics; analyse the impact of the arrival of Muslims on trade and commerce; explain the impact of the arrival of Muslims on language and literature; explain the reasons for the achievements of European powers; analyse the strategies of Europeans in relation to the sub continent. Candidates should be able to: 4. Muslim Rulers in Subcontinent 4.1 Muslim Rule in Balochistan 4.1.1 identify the key features of the Haroon Bin Zara in Balochistan; * 4.2 Muslim Rule in NWFP and Punjab 4.2.1 explain the impact of Mehmood Ghaznavi’s invasion on Indo-Pak subcontinent; describe the conquests of north Indus by Shahabuddin Ghauri (Battle of Tarain); draw a timeline showing the establishment of Delhi Sultanate including •The Slave Dynasty •The Khiljis •The Tughluqs •The Syeds •The Lodhis; discuss the impact of the above dynasties on the socio-cultural outlook of the subcontinent; * 4.2.2 * 4.2.3 * 4.2.4 * Latest Revision June 2012 Page 16

NOTES Latest Revision June 2012 Page 17

K U * * A 4.3 The Mughal Rule 4.3.1 4.3.2 discuss the reasons behind the invasion of Babur to the sub-continent; explain the contribution of Babur in setting up administrative system in Indo – Pak subcontinent; discuss the strengths and weaknesses of Humayun’s rule with reference to Sher Shah Suri; discuss the contribution of Akber in; •administration •military •religion analyse the reasons during the rule of Jehangir and Shah Jahan that led to the crumbling of the empire; evaluate how the contribution of Aurangzeb towards betterment led to the downfall of the empire. 4.3.3 * * 4.3.4 4.3.5 * 4.3.6 * Latest Revision June 2012 Page 18

NOTES Latest Revision June 2012 Page 19

Part-II (Class X) Topic Student Learning Outcomes Cognitive Level K U A 5. The Decline of Muslim Rule 5.1 Events and Causes of the Downfall of the Muslims in the Subcontinent Candidates should be able to: 5.1.1 5.1.2 explain the cause of civil wars after the death of Aurangzeb; give examples of the impact of incompetency of the Mughal rulers in the downfall of the Mughal empire; describe the role of regional powers i.e. Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs and Rohaildas in the downfall of the Mughal; analyse the impact of the invasion of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali in the downfall of the Mughal; draw lessons from the fall of Muslims rulers; discuss the reasons that led to the involvement of British in the subcontinenet; explain the reasons for the supremacy of the British power; evaluate the success of British in context of Battle of Plassey, Buxar, Marathas and Mysore Wars; compare the achievements of Sirajud Daula and Hyder Ali; explain what Tipu Sultan is famous for; state some major achievements of Hyder Ali against the British. * * 5.1.3 * 5.1.4 * 5.1.5 * 5.2 The Advent of the European Powers and their Struggle for Supremacy 5.2.1 * 5.2.2 5.2.3 * * 5.3 Struggle against the British (Sirajud Daula, Hyder Ali, Tipu Sultan) The Pakistan Movement 5.3.1 5.3.2 5.3.3 * * * 6. Candidates should be able to: 6.1 Ideology of Pakistan 6.2 Two-Nation Theory: a Definition 6.1.1 describe the ideology of Pakistan; * 6.2.1 6.2.2 explain the origin of Two-Nation Theory; describe the main features of Two-Nation Theory; * * Latest Revision June 2012 Page 20

NOTES Latest Revision June 2012 Page 21

K * U * * A * 6.3 Partition of Bengal and its Repercussions 6.3.1 6.3.2 6.3.3 6.3.4 describe the Partition of Bengal in 1905; discuss the benefits of partition to East Bengal; explain the reasons that led to the reversal of the partition of Bengal; analyse the impact of Bengal Partition and its reversal on the Muslims of subcontinent. discuss the reasons that led to the formation of All India Muslim League; discuss the importance of the following reforms and acts on the muslims of the subcontinent •Morley-Minto Reforms •Lucknow Pact •Montague- Chelmsford Reforms •Nehru Report •Jinnah’s 14 Points •Round Table Conference •Pakistan Resolution; explain the significance of the following towards the making of Pakistan •Cripps Mission •Quit India Movement •Cabinet Mission •3rd June Plan •Independence Act discuss the reasons that initiated Khilafat Movement; explain the reasons that contributed towards its failure; analyse whether Khilafat Movement was favourable or unfavourable for the Muslims of the subcontinent. 6.4 Steps towards the Making of Pakistan 6.4.1 6.4.2 * * 6.4.3 * 6.5 Khilafat Movement 6.5.1 6.5.2 6.5.3 * * * Latest Revision June 2012 Page 22

NOTES Latest Revision June 2012 Page 23

K U * * A 6.6 Prominent Personalities who Contributed to Pakistan Movement •M.A. Jinnah, •Allama M. Iqbal, •Ch. Rehmat Ali., •Sir Aga Khan, •Fatima Jinnah, •Nawab Waqar-ul- Mulk, •Nawab Abdul Latif, •Hassan Ali Effendi, •Sardar Lal Muhammad Khan, •Qazi Essa. 6.6.1 6.6.2 describe the contribution of personalities in education and politics; describe the contribution of Nawab Abdul Latif towards education and politics; evaluate the contribution of Hasan Ali Effendi to the Pakistan movement as a founder of Sind Madarsatul Islam; give examples of the contribution of Allama Muhammad Iqbal to the Pakistan Movement as a thinker; describe the contribution of Chaudhry Rehmat Ali to the Pakistan Movement; explain why Quaid-e-Azam Muhammad Ali Jinnah is regarded as the founder of Pakistan; evaluate the relative importance of Fatima Jinnah and Qazi Essa to the Pakistan Movement and the resolution of democracy in Pakistan; explain how Sir Aga Khan III played a major role in socio-political development of the Muslims of India. 6.6.3 * 6.6.4 * 6.6.5 * 6.6.6 * 6.6.7 * 6.6.8 * Emergence of Pakistan 7. Candidates should be able to: 7.1.1 state the Boundary Commission decision in 1947; 7.1.2 explain why Kashmir, Junagadh, Manavader and Hyderabad were issues; 7.1.3 explain how the division of assets between the newly created states of India and Pakistan was resolved; 7.1.4 analyse the issues Pakistan confronted due to migration of Muslims from India to Pakistan. 7.1 Early Difficulties/ Problems for Pakistan after Independence * * * * Latest Revision June 2012 Page 24

NOTES Latest Revision June 2012 Page 25

7.2.1 K U * A 7.2 Formative Phase of Pakistan 1947-58 discuss the immediate problems faced by Pakistan in the establishment of an independent nation. •Boundary division, •Division of financial and military assests, •Refugee problems, •Administrative problems, •Problem of the national language, •Kashmir issue, •Canal Water Dispute, •Princely states (Hyderabad, Junagarh), •Lack of trained personnels; analyse how Kashmir issue is hindrance between the cordial relation of Pakistan and India; explain how successful Pakistan was in overcoming the initial problems; explain the need and importance of constitution for a state; discuss the salient featurs of the Objective Resolution and its significance; identify the salient features of 1956 Constitution; discuss the reasons that led to the delay in the constitution; discuss the reasons that led to the promulgation of Martial Law in 1958; discuss the reasons for Ayub Khan coming to power; discuss the reforms of Ayub Khan in agriculture, industries, settling of refugees, curriculum development and family laws; analyse the impact of the reforms on the economy of the country; discuss the reasons behind the fall of Ayub Khan (Ayub Khan resignation); 7.2.2 * 7.2.3 * 7.3 Constitution Making 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.3.3 7.3.4 7.3.5 * * * * * 7.4 Ayub Khan Era 7.4.1 7.4.2 * * 7.4.3 7.4.4 * * Latest Revision June 2012 Page 26

NOTES Latest Revision June 2012 Page 27

7.5.1 K U * A 7.5 Fall of East Pakistan discuss the reasons behind the resentment of East Pakistan on West Pakistan. (unfairnesss in administration/ lack of political representation , armed forces, economic distribution); discuss the Six Points of Mujib-ur-Rehman; evaluate the major events that led to the fall of East Pakistan 1. Elections of 1970, 2. Dsinterest of government during the cyclones, 3. Rejection of six points, 4. War with India in 1971; discuss the reasons behind Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto coming to power; discuss the reforms of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto (agriculture, nationalization of industries, ban on the use of brand name for pharmaceuticals, nationalization of schools, compulsory primary education) and their impact on the country; analyse Simla Agreement and its impact on Pakistan; discuss the reasons behind General Zia-ul Haq taking over the country; discuss the reforms of Zia-ul-Haq (privatization of industries, Islamization) and its impact on Pakistan; analyse the impact of refugee problem as a result of Afghan jihad on Pakistani Society (drugs and arms supply, sectarianism, burden on resources, smuggling of goods) and on its economy; 7.5.2 7.5.3 * * 7.6 Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Era 7.6.1 7.6.2 * * 7.6.3 * 7.7 Zia-ul- Haq Era 7.7.1 7.7.2 * * 7.7.3 * Latest Revision June 2012 Page 28

NOTES Latest Revision June 2012 Page 29

4. Scheme of Assessment Class IX Table 1: Number of Student Learning Outcomes by Cognitive Level SLOs Topic No. 1. 2. No. of Sub-topics 3 2 Topics Total K 1 0 U 4 6 A 1 1 6 7 Basis of History Art of writing History in relation to Hadith Civilizations of the Past Muslims Rulers in Subcontinent Total Percentage 3. 4. 5 3 12 4 2 7 15 16 7 33 72 2 2 6 13 22 11 46 100 Table 2: Allocation of Marks for Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs), Constructed Response Questions (CRQs) and Extended Response Questions (ERQs) Marks Topic No. No. of Sub-Topics Extended Response Question Multiple Choice Questions Constructed Response Questions Topics Total 1. 2. 3 2 Basis of History Art of writing History in relation to Hadith 10 12 7 29 3. 4. 4 3 Civilizations of the Past Muslims Rulers in Subcontinent 20 18 8 46 Total 12 30 30 15 75 Latest Revision June 2012 Page 30

Table 3: Paper Specifications Topic No. Total Marks Topics Marks Distribution 1. Basis of History MCQs 10 @ 1 Mark CRQs 2 @ 6, 6 Marks *ERQ 1 @ 7 Marks Choose any ONE from TWO 29 Art of writing History in relation to Hadith 2. 3. Civilizations of the Past MCQs 20 @ 1 Mark CRQs 3 @ 5, 6,7 Marks *ERQ 1 @ 8 Marks Choose any ONE from TWO 46 Muslim Rulers in the Subcontinent 4. MCQs 30 CRQs 30 ERQs 15 Total Marks 75 •Extended response questions (ERQs) will require an answer in more descriptive form. The answer will be in a paragraph rather than a word or a single sentence. Class X Table 4: Number of Student Learning Outcomes by Cognitive Level Topic No. Topics 5. The Decline of Muslim rule 6. The Pakistan Movement 7. The Emergence of Pakistan Total Percentage SLOs U 6 16 17 39 68 No. of Sub-topics 3 6 7 16 Total K 2 1 2 5 9 A 3 4 6 13 23 11 21 25 57 100 Latest Revision June 2012 Page 31

Table 5: Allocation of Marks for Multiple Choice Questions (MCQs), Constructed Response Questions (CRQs) and Extended Response Questions (ERQs) Marks No. of Sub- Topics Topic No. Extended Response Question Multiple Choice Questions Constructed Response Questions 12 Topics Total 5. The Decline of Muslim rule The Pakistan Movement 3 7 7 27 6. 12 12 12 8 48 7. 6 The Emergence of Pakistan 1 11 Total 16 30 30 15 75 Table 6: Paper Specifications Topic No. Topics Marks Distribution Total Marks MCQs 7@ 1 Mark CRQs 2 @ 6 Mark each *ERQ 1 @ 7 Marks Choose any ONE from TWO The Decline of Muslim Rule 5. 27 MCQs 12 @ 1 Mark CRQs 2 @ 5,7 Marks MCQs 11 @ 1 Mark CRQ 1 @ 6 Marks each MCQs 30 The Pakistan Movement 6. *ERQ 1 @ 7 Marks Choose any ONE from TWO 48 7. The Emergence CRQs 30 ERQs 15 Total Marks 75 * Extended response questions (ERQs) will require an answer in more descriptive form. The answer will be in a paragraph rather than a word or a single sentence. 4.1 Tables 1 and 4 summarize the number and nature of SLOs in each topic in classes IX and X. The emphasis is on Knowledge and Understanding as compared to Application in History of Pakistan, SLOs under the domain of Understanding i.e. (45% and 49%) and (20% and 20%) respectively. 4.2 There will be two examinations, one at the end of Class IX and one at the end of Class X. Latest Revision June 2012 Page 32

4.3 In each class, the theory paper will be in two parts: paper I and paper II. Both papers will be administrated within 3 hours. 4.4 Paper I theory will consist of 30 compulsory, multiple choice items. These questions will involve four response options. 4.5 Paper II theory will carry 45 marks and consist of a number of compulsory, structured questions and a number of extended response questions. Each extended response question will be presented in an either/or form. 4.6 All constructed response questions will be in a booklet which will also serve as an answer script. 5. Teaching-Learning Approaches and Classroom Activities The study of history should promote the skills/qualities of creativity, curiosity, engagement with other points of view and a sympathetic understanding of earlier world views. The effort is always to understand why people acted as they did. 5.1 5.2 To achieve these outcomes the following strategies are recommended: (a) active involvement of students should be encouraged by way of role play, small group discussion and debates (b) use of pictures and illustrations should be an important part of the teaching methodology; (c) students should be encouraged to research each topic for themselves, pooling ideas, information and opinion and trying to establish which sources are more trustworthy when conflicting information is discovered; (d) newspapers should be scrutinized for evidence of bias with attempts to give historical explanations of these biases; (e) (f) The following teaching methods may be equally distributed across the working days or periods. preparation of charts and reading of maps should be encouraged; writing reports on visits to historical monuments. 5.3 (a) field trips to historical sights (b) discussions/question-answer sessions (c) (d) role playing simulation (e) declamation/debates (f) preparation of models, charts Latest Revision June 2012 Page 33

6. Recommended Texts and Reference Materials Recommended Book 1.Bajwa, F. N. (2002). Pakistan: A Historical and Contemporary Look (Revised edition). Karachi: Oxford University Press. Reference Books 1. Tareekh-e-Pakistan, Lahore, Punjab Textbook Board 2. Hussain, J. (1998). An Illustrated History of Pakistan (Books 1 and 2). Karachi: Oxford University Press. 3. Azam, C. M (2002). Pakistan kay Pachas Saal. Karachi: Qamar Kitab Ghar. 4. Mohi-ud-din, Z. (2000). Tamseel-e-Aazadi. Karachi: Maktaba Aasri Aaghai. 5. Bukhari, M. H. (1999). Tareekh-e-Islam. Lahore: Standard Book House. 6. Malik, H and Gankovsky, Y. V. (2007). The Encyclopedia of Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford University Press. 7. Toosy, M S. (2000). Pakistan and Muslim India. Karachi: Urdu Academy. 8. Ali, K. (2000). A Study of Islamic History. Lahore: Publisher Emporium. 9. Qureshi, I. H. (1998). A Short History of Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi. 10. Zubari, H. A. (2001). Jadojhed-e-Pakistan. Karachi: University of Karachi. Websites Chapter 1 http://www.ed.gov/pubs/parents/History/Basics.html Chapter 2 http://www.dur.ac.uk/Classics/histos/1997/walb1.html http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=115323&tocid=58859&query=historio graphy Chapter 3 http://members.aol.com/Donnclass/indexlife.html Chapter 4 http://www.asiatour.com/pakistan/e-01land/ep-lan13_a.htm http://www.nmhschool.org/tthornton/mehistorydatabase/mideastindex.htm Chapter 5 http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A020&Pg=3 Latest Revision June 2012 Page 34

Chapter 6 http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A016 Chapter 7 http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A024 Chapter 8 http://www.lawresearch.com/v2/global/zpkg.htm 7. Definition of Cognitive Levels and Command Words in the Student Learning Outcomes and in Examination Papers 7.1 Definition of Cognitive Levels (Knowledge, Understanding and Application) Knowledge: This requires knowing and remembering facts and figures, vocabulary and contexts, and the ability to recall key ideas, concepts, trends, sequences, categories, etc. It can be taught and evaluated through questions based on: who, when, where, what, list, define, describe, identify, label, tabulate, quote, name, state, etc. Understanding: This requires understanding information, grasping meaning, interpreting facts, comparing, contrasting, grouping, inferring causes/reasons, seeing patterns, organizing parts, making links, summarizing, solving, identifying motives, finding evidence, etc. It can be taught and evaluated through questions based on: why, how, show, demonstrate, paraphrase, interpret, summarize, explain, prove, identify the main idea/theme, predict, compare, differentiate, discuss, chart the course/direction, report, solve, etc. Application: This requires using information or concepts in new situations, solving problems, organizing information and ideas, using old ideas to create new ones, generalizing from given facts, analyzing relationships, relating knowledge from several areas, drawing conclusions, evaluating worth, etc. It can be taught and evaluated through questions based on: differentiate, analyze, show relationship, propose an alternative, prioritize, give reasons for, categorize, illustrate, corroborate, compare and contrast, create, design, formulate, integrate, rearrange, reconstruct/recreate, reorganize, predict consequences etc. Latest Revision June 2012 Page 35

7.2 Definition of Command Words: Knowledge Define: Usually asks for a definition of terms. Only a formal statement of an equivalent phrase is required. No examples need to be given. The answer need not be in the form of a complete sentence. Spells out a chronology and shows in what ways the event or circumstance to be accounted for derives from or is dependent on earlier events or alternatively is a departure from expectation attributable to the emergence of a new individual or idea. Asks for a narrative or story and is judged on its chronological accuracy. Describe with specific examples of how a given term or concept is applied in daily life. Requires a number of points, generally each of one word, with no elaboration. Where a given number of points are specified this should not be exceeded. Invites a statement of fact. No justification or explanation is expected. Account for: Give an account of: Identify: List: State: Understanding Compare: List the main characteristics of two entities clearly identifying similarities (and differences). Is usually an invitation to show understanding of other times and to enter into an empathic appreciation of different behavioural norms and the reasons for them. Identify those characteristics which are the defining features of two concepts or phenomena. Requires candidates to give a critical account of the points involved in the topic. There should be an introductory paragraph setting the scene, like points should be drawn together in paragraphs in the body of the text and lead to a conclusion which follows reasonably from the central section. Should include reference to individual motives and social pressures and indicate how it came about that either the individual, a small group with a big idea or the wider society shaped events. Describe: Differentiate/ Distinguish: Discuss: Explain: Latest Revision June 2012 Page 36

Has the form of a list but it is usually expected that each example listed will have a sentence or two of explanation of why it can be said to be an example of the category required. Describe how events depend upon, follow from or are part of a greater whole. Give examples of: Relate Application Analyse: Goes beyond the facts of the case to spell out the relationships between men, ideas and circumstances and in particular to differentiate cause from effects. A good answer will make it clear which relationships are matter of fact and which are conjecture or hypothesis, e.g. X was Y’s son but whether he was a loving son we cannot be sure; both X and Y fought for independence but their private motives for doing so appear to have been very different. A successful response has five attributes: the shape of the area is recognizable, the scale is given in sensible units, north is indicated, salient topographical features are symbolized and of course the relative positions of key locations are approximately correct. Is based on analysis but goes beyond analysis to reach a judgment of value or worth, e.g. “…as Mogul emperors go X was a good emperor because”. Draw a sketch map: Evaluate: Latest Revision June 2012 Page 37

Annex SSC Scheme of Studies3 AKU-EB as a national board offers SSC and HSSC qualifications for both English and Urdu medium schools. The revised SSC Scheme of Studies issued by the Curriculum Wing was implemented from September 2007. Accordingly, each SSC subject will be taught across both the classes IX and X. The Science and Humanities group subjects are offered at SSC level. The marks allocated to subjects in the revised National Scheme of Studies of September 2007 have been followed. SSC I and II (Class IX and X) subjects on offer for examination SSC Part-I (Class IX) Science Group Marks Practical - Subjects Medium Theory 75 Total 75 English Compulsory-I Urdu Compulsory-I OR Urdu Aasan a OR History and Geography of Pakistan-I b Islamiyat-I OR Ethics-I c Pakistan Studies-I Mathematics-I Physics-I Chemistry-I Biology-I OR Computer Science-I Total: SSC Part-II (Class X) Science Group English Urdu Urdu English 75 - 75 *30 *45 75 65 65 - - - *30 *45 75 75 75 English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English 10 10 65 10 75 *495 30 *525 Marks Practical - Subjects Medium Theory 75 Total 75 English Compulsory-II Urdu Compulsory-II OR Sindhi a OR History and Geography of Pakistan-IIb Islamiyat-II OR Ethics-II c Pakistan Studies-II Mathematics-II Physics-II Chemistry-II Biology-II OR Computer Science-II Total: a. Candidates from the province of Sindh may appear in “Urdu Aasan” in SSC Part I and in “Sindhi” in Part II examination. b. Foreign students may opt HISTORY and GEOGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN in lieu of Urdu Compulsory, subject to the Board’s approval. c. For non-Muslim candidates only. * The above will be implemented in SSC Part I 2013 Examinations and onwards SSC Part II 2014 Examinations and onwards English Urdu Sindhi English English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English 75 - 75 *45 *30 75 65 65 - - - *45 *30 75 75 75 10 10 65 10 75 *495 30 *525 3Government of Pakistan September 2007. Scheme of Studies for SSC and HSSC (Classes IX-XII). Islamabad: Ministry of Education, Curriculum Wing. Latest Revision June 2012 Page 38

SSC Part-I (Class IX) Humanities Group Subjects Marks 75 Medium English Urdu Urdu English English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English English English English Compulsory-I Urdu Compulsory-I OR Urdu Aasan a OR History and Geography of Pakistan-I b Islamiyat-I OR Ethics-I c Pakistan Studies-I General Mathematics-I Any three of the following Elective Subjects 1. **Geography-I 2. General Science-I 3. Computer Science-I (65+10 practical) 4. Economics-I 5. Civics-I 6. **History of Pakistan-I 7. **Elements of Home Economics-I 8. **Food and Nutrition-I (65+10 practical) 9. **Art & Model Drawing-I 10. **Business Studies-I 11. **Environmental Studies-I Total: SSC Part-II (Class X) Humanities Group 75 *30 *45 75 225 (75 each) *525 Subjects Marks 75 75 Medium English Urdu Sindhi English English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English / Urdu English English English English Compulsory-II Urdu Compulsory-II OR Sindhi a History and Geography of Pakistan-II b OR Islamiyat-II OR Ethics-II c Pakistan Studies-II General Mathematics-II Any three of the following Elective Subjects 1. **Geography-II 2. General Science-II 3. Computer Science-II (65+10 practical) 4. Economics-II 5. Civics-II 6. **History of Pakistan-II 7. **Elements of Home Economics-II 8. **Food and Nutrition-II (65+10 practical) 9. **Art & Model Drawing-II 10. **Business Studies-II 11. **Environmental Studies-II Total: SSC Part-I and Part-II (Class IX-X) (Additional Subjects) SSC Part I 1.**Literature in English-I d 2.**Commercial Geography-I d 3.**Additional Mathematics-I d 3.**Additional Mathematics-II d a. Candidates from the province of Sindh may appear in “Urdu Aasan” in SSC Part I and in “Sindhi” in Part II examination. b. Foreign students may opt HISTORY and GEOGRAPHY OF PAKISTAN in lieu of Urdu Compulsory, subject to the Board’s approval. c. For non-Muslim candidates only. d. * The above will be implemented in SSC Part I 2013 Examinations and onwards **These subjects are offered ONLY in the May examination. *45 *30 75 225 (75 each) *525 SSC Part II Marks Medium English English English 1.**Literature in English-II d 2.**Commercial Geography-II d 75 each Subject will be offered as Additional Subject. SSC Part II 2014 Examinations and onwards Latest Revision June 2012 Page 39

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ICJ hearings on Israel’s occupation of Palestine updates: Day two

Week-long arguments continue as representatives of 10 nations make their case before the UN court in The Hague.

Nawaf Salam (C), President of the Court presides over a hearing at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on the legal consequences of the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories

This live page is now closed.

  • Oral proceedings have continued for a second day at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) on the legal consequences of Israel’s occupation of Palestinian territories .
  • South Africa, Algeria, Saudi Arabia, the Netherlands, Bangladesh, Belgium, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil and Chile presented their arguments.
  • More than 50 states and at least three international organisations will address judges at the United Nations’ top court until February 26. A nonbinding legal opinion is expected after months of deliberation by the judges.
  • On Monday, Palestinian representatives presented their arguments on the legal consequences of Israel’s occupation of the West Bank, East Jerusalem and Gaza Strip. The occupation is illegal and must be brought to an immediate, unconditional and total end, they argued.
  • Israel is not attending the hearings but sent a five-page written statement saying an advisory opinion would be “harmful” to attempts to resolve the conflict because questions posed by the UN General Assembly are prejudiced.

Thanks for joining us

This live page is now closed, but you can follow our continuing coverage of Israel’s war on Gaza here .

To learn more about the ICJ case against Israel’s illegal occupation of Palestine, read this .

And if you want to know about South Africa’s separate case at the ICJ on the war and the possible crime of genocide, watch this .

Here’s what happened today

We will be closing this live page soon. Here’s a recap of the day’s events:

  • Ten countries presented their arguments on the legal consequences of Israel’s occupation of Palestinian territories.
  • South Africa, Algeria, Saudi Arabia, the Netherlands, Bangladesh and Belgium made their case during the morning session, with Belize, Bolivia, Brazil and Chile delivering their statements in the afternoon.

Canada was also initially scheduled to present its arguments but decided to pull out at the last minute.

  • Kicking off proceedings, the representative of South Africa compared the Israeli occupation to apartheid and said the ICJ’s hearings could help bring an end to a system of racial oppression that had no place in the modern world.
  • Overall, the speakers’ main points revolved around the right of Palestinian people to self-determination and the permanent nature of Israel’s occupation, which is resulting in a de facto annexation.
  • They also stressed Israel’s obligation to cease its violations, make full reparation and offer appropriate assurances of non-repetition. Other states have the obligation to cooperate to bring this situation to an end.

Meanwhile, US vetoes another Gaza ceasefire resolution at UNSC

US Ambassador to the UN Linda Thomas-Greenfield has said the Algeria-drafted resolution would harm the truce negotiations between Israel and Hamas.

Thirteen countries in the 15-member body backed the measure, with one – the United Kingdom – abstaining.

The vote marks the third time the US, which is scheduled to present its arguments tomorrow at the ICJ, has vetoed Gaza ceasefire proposals at the Security Council since the start of the war on Gaza.

Find all the details here .

Who will present arguments tomorrow?

Wednesday promises to be another busy day at the ICJ, with the following countries scheduled to present their oral arguments:

  • United Arab Emirates
  • United States

Proceedings will kick off at 09:00 GMT.

First 10 countries made clear Israel’s occupation unlawful, should end immediately

Step Vaessen

Reporting from The Hague

The question of whether the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories is unlawful was very clearly answered by all 10 countries: It is absolutely unlawful and it should end immediately.

South Africa argued that this is a colonial apartheid system and that settlements have to be dismantled and reparations paid. Even countries that have very strong ties with Israel, like the Netherlands and Belgium, had very strong words of condemnation.

One legal argument that was very much dominant throughout the hearing was the permanence of the occupation. Israel has long argued that the occupation is temporary, but these countries have argued that there is no evidence that this is so.

That violates international law. There was condemnation for the defiance shown by Israel for the hundreds of resolutions that have been passed over the years.

We are going to continue tomorrow as these were only 10 of the more than 50 countries we will hear from over six days here at the Peace Palace in The Hague.

Sitting adjourned

And that brings an end to today’s proceedings.

It was an eventful today at the court, with presentations from South Africa, Algeria, Saudi Arabia, the Netherlands, Bangladesh, Belgium, Belize, Bolivia, Brazil and Chile.

Stay with us as we continue to bring you analysis and reaction to the second day of hearings at the ICJ.

‘Systematic violation of international law part of Israel’s state policy’

Ximena Fuentes Torrijo continues by saying that the policy and practices of settlements pursued by Israel since 1967 “indicates its intention to claim that its own population has the right to stay permanently” in the occupied territories.

Similarly, Chile’s legal representative notes that the exploitation of Palestinian natural resources also demonstrates Israel’s attempt to exercise sovereign powers over these territories.

“By virtue of its actions, including the exploitation of natural resources, the policies of settlements, the erection of the wall, the legalisation of outposts, among others, Israel has demonstrated its intention to control indefinitely the occupied Palestinian territory,” she says.

“Hence Israel’s occupation has become an annexation.”

Concluding the presentation, Torrijo says that Chile contends that “these systematic breaches are also a basis to declare that the occupation is illegal”, adding that “the systematic violation of international law” is part of Israel’s state policy.

“The obligations of the occupying obviously persist despite the fact that this occupation must come to an end,” she says.

More from Chile’s representative

Ximena Fuentes Torrijo notes that the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights has documented a rapid deterioration of the situation in the occupied West Bank and East Jerusalem since October 7, including the disproportionate use of force resulting in unlawful killings, mass arbitrary arrests and ill treatment.

She also says the following:

  • High-ranking Israeli authorities clearly express that they have no intent to guarantee the right of Palestinian people to self-determination. Instead, occupation has become indistinguishable from annexation as Israel neither regards itself nor behaves as a temporary occupant.
  • Israel’s policies run counter to the possibility of reaching a two-state solution and a sustainable peace in the region.
  • The conclusion that Israel’s occupation of Palestinian territories is illegal lies on two grounds: The occupation has become an annexation. Israel’s systematic violations require an end to the occupation to effectively protect the right of Palestinians.
  • Israel is under the obligation to cease these violations, make full reparation and offer appropriate assurances of non-repetition. Other states have the obligation to cooperate to bring this situation to an end.

Chile comes to ICJ with hope of assisting process for two-state solution: Representative

Ximena Fuentes Torrijo, the representative of Chile, says that the two questions submitted by the General Assembly to the ICJ “are of the utmost importance to assist the organs of the United Nations in fulfilling its responsibility under Article 1, paragraph 1 and 2 of the United Nations”.

“Namely to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, to bring about adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of peace and to develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of people and to take appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace,” she adds.

She also says:

  • The situation that affects the occupied Palestinian territory may only find a satisfactory solution on the basis of compliance with the charter of the United Nations, international human rights law and international humanitarian law.
  • The right to self-determination to which the Palestinian people living in the OPT are entitled to play a central role in the resolution of this longstanding conflict.
  • Chile is home to a large Palestinian community, the largest outside the Middle East and two an important Jewish community, the third in South America … Chile would like to see the implementation of the two-state solution within the internationally recognised and secure boundaries, and it is convinced these advisory proceedings are going to assist in that process … putting an end to the 57-year occupation of Palestinian territory.
  • Chile strongly supports the view that by giving the requested advisory opinion to the General Assembly the Court will be acting within the scope of its advisory function, fulfilling its duty to provide the legal assistance that the General Assembly requires to exercise its power in the context of a longstanding conflict.

Chile last country to present arguments today

Ximena Fuentes Torrijo has taken the floor to present Chile’s oral arguments.

Chile’s legal representative is the last speaker we will hear from in today’s session.

More from Brazil’s representative

Maria Clara Paula de Tusco concludes her statement by saying that Brazil has been consistently advocating for a two-state solution that allows for the creation of an independent, sovereign and economically viable Palestinian state coexisting with Israel in peace and security within mutually agreed and internationally recognised borders, which include the Gaza Strip, the West Bank and East Jerusalem as its capital.

  • The prolonged occupation, settlement and annexation of Palestinian territories, including measures aimed at altering the demographic composition, character and status of these territories, including Jerusalem, violate relevant rules of international law.
  • By extending its jurisdiction over the occupied Palestinian territories and establishing two distinct legal systems, one applied to Israeli settlers and another imposed under military rule to Palestinians, Israel is practising discrimination against the Palestinian population while impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise on an equal footing of their human rights and fundamental freedoms.
  • Brazil expects that the court reaffirms that the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories is illegal and violates international obligations through a series of actions and omissions by Israel.
  • The confiscation of Palestinian lands, the destruction of Palestinian properties, the construction of Israeli settlements and of the wall, and the adoption of measures aimed at changing the demographic composition of areas within Palestinian territories must all be taken into account by the court.

Brazil presents its arguments

Maria Clara Paula de Tusco, the head of the United Nations division at the Brazilian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, says Brazil will highlight the main points of a written statement presented in July 2023 to the ICJ.

  • The jurisdiction of the court: There seems to be no doubt according to Article 65 of the ICJ Statute that this court is competent to issue the Advisory Opinion commissioned by the General Assembly.
  • People’s right to self-determination: The right to self-determination is enshrined in international law and recognised by the UN General Assembly. Brazil asks the court to highlight the principled position that the Israeli occupation violates the right of the Palestinian people to self-determination.
  • Occupation, settlements and annexation: In 1967, the UN Security Council resolution 242 emphasised the inadmissibility of acquiring territory by force and directed Israel to withdraw from the territory it occupied. However, the occupation persists to this day and has been aggravated by the construction of the wall, the building of illegal settlements and the annexation of East Jerusalem.

‘Israel obliged to stop atrocities, genocide in Gaza’

In conclusion, Bolivia’s representative says the policies and practices of the Israeli occupation in Palestinian territory are illegal and have legal consequences with obligations for Israel and other states, as well as the UN, since they violate the rights of Palestinians as people and of Palestine as a state.

  • Bolivia considers that Israel as the state responsible for this violation of international law must cease de jure and de facto acts and policies that prevent the exercise of the right to self-determination of the Palestinian people.
  • It must also fulfill its obligation to end the situation of illegal occupation and its discriminatory policies and practices designed to maintain and establish dominance in a peaceful, immediate and unconditional manner.
  • Israel is also obliged to stop the development of the atrocities of genocide committed more recently in Gaza and to comply with the provisional measures set forth in the order of this court on January 26, 2024.
  • As the occupying power, it must assume responsibility for 76 years of occupation, and for the siege imposed on the Gaza Strip and the ongoing atrocities of the crime of genocide.

‘Israeli occupation must be considered illegal in its entirety’

Continuing Bolivia’s oral argument, Roberto Sarmiento notes that the international community has repeatedly condemned Israel’s actions, including through the United Nations, insofar as they hinder the exercise of the Palestinian right to self-determination, including the construction of illegal settlements in occupied Palestinian territories, the construction of the separation wall in the West Bank and other measures that affect the daily lives of Palestinians.

Sarmiento also says:

  • Israel’s occupation both in its means and its purpose does not fall within the framework of legality established in international law.
  • The de facto annexation of territory imposes restrictions on where Palestinians can live and travel, as well as a racially discriminatory legal and administrative regime that favours Israeli settlers and deprives Palestinians of their most basic rights.
  • The conclusion is unavoidable that Israel has used its prolonged occupation as a pretext to pursue its illegal objective of annexing the occupied Palestinian territories in violation of the charter of the United Nations.
  • Therefore the Israeli occupation must be considered illegal in its entirety.

More from Bolivia’s representative

  • The occupying power lacks the right of sovereignty of the occupied territory as confirmed by the principle of permanent inviolability of the rights of the protected population in the event of annexation.
  • The occupying power cannot alienate the land or the properties of the occupied state.
  • Thus, Bolivia considers that the Israeli colonialist occupation is clearly illegal.
  • Bolivia observes with concerns that Israel’s actions of persecution, operation and domination of the Palestinian people have been accompanied by systematic violations of fundamental human rights.
  • These include a system of racial discrimination and a system of apartheid that has not abated despite repeated condemnations from the international community.

Israel’s discriminatory actions result in consequences and obligations for all states: Bolivia’s representative

Roberto Calzadilla Sarmiento, Bolivia’s ambassador in the Netherlands, has told the ICJ that his country considers “the ongoing illegal occupation [of the Palestinian Territories] to be in violation of international law”.

  • Bolivia considers the discriminatory measures of a colonial nature imposed by Israel prior to the legal status of the occupation are aimed at a dispossession of the Palestinian population, to the denial of their rights by altering the demographic composition, character and the status of the city of Jerusalem.
  • The ongoing situation results in consequences and obligations for all states and for the United Nations.
  • Bolivia considers that continuously depriving and denying the Palestinian peoples’ right to self-determination for 75 years, Israel is in a clear breach of its international obligations.
  • The transfer of 750,000 Israeli settlers and building of settlements in East Jerusalem and the rest of the West Bank have been deliberately carried out with the intention of acquiring the territory through annexation, including through colonisation, confinement and the fragmentation of the occupied Palestinian territories.

Belize argues Israel’s illegal occupation of Gaza has been ongoing

Taking Belize’s remarks forward, advocate Ben Juratowitch argues that the Gaza Strip remains occupied despite the withdrawal of Israeli forces and the removal of settlers in 2005. He notes:

  • Israel was occupying Gaza before October 7 and is doing so now. Gaza is under Israeli occupation and has been since 1967.
  • A state can be occupying a territory even if it has no more troops in it, if it can at any time assume its physical control and has the capacity to send troops within a reasonable amount of time to make its authority felt.
  • Israel’s recent conduct is the continuation and intensification of its long-term control over, violence against and incursions into Gaza.
  • Israel’s occupation is, at the present time, not necessary or proportional. Israel signed peace treaties with Jordan and Egypt and should not be required to maintain its presence in Gaza or the West Bank.

Belize arguments continue

Philippa Webb, a law professor at King’s College London, has now taken the floor, with her arguments focusing on apartheid and its consequences with respect to self-determination. She notes that:

  • Apartheid is the strongest concentration of racist concepts put into action. It goes hand in hand with Israel’s violation of the right to self-determination.
  • It is impossible to realise a people’s right to self-determination within an institutionalised regime of systematic racial oppression and discrimination.
  • The dehumanising nature of apartheid suppresses the equality, identity and dignity at the heart of self-determination.
  • It is indisputable that the Palestinians are a racial group.
  • Under Israeli law, the separate identity of the Jewish race is afforded a privileged status, and the right to exercise self-determination in the state of Israel is exclusive to the Jewish people.
  • Israel has long-standing discriminatory laws, policies and practices that affect only Palestinians and are designed to benefit exclusively and maintain the dominance of Israeli Jews on both sides of the Green Line.
  • Many measures are designed to fragment the Palestinian people and to separate Palestinians from Israeli Jews.
  • In the West Bank, there are the separation wall, restrictive permit requirements, checkpoints, and segregated roads. This creates what the Israeli army officially calls sterilisation – areas and roads closed to Palestinians – and Hebronisation, meaning the strategy of repression and segregation is spreading.
  • Gaza is under siege and blockade. Millions of Palestinians are confined to ever-smaller strips of land, the longest and most complete siege of the greatest number of people in modern history.
  • The whole of Gaza has become an impoverished, desperate ghetto.
  • Since 1967, Israel has detained one million Palestinians, including tens of thousands of children.

Israel’s violation of international law with impunity must be stopped: Belize representative Shoman

Assad Shoman, a representative of Belize, has told the ICJ that “Palestine must be free”.

He also said:

  • The Palestinian people have an inalienable right to self-determination and complete independence, which has always been systematically denied to them.
  • Israel has used systematic manipulation of negotiations to undermine the presumed objectives and ensured that the Palestinian people are prevented from ever exercising that right.
  • Israel cannot be permitted to continue flouting one of the most fundamental principles of the international law with impunity. Impunity breeds inhumanity.

South Africa, Algeria key at ICJ hearing

Marwan Bishara

Al Jazeera's senior political analyst

South Africa and Algeria are probably the most relevant countries to speak before the International Court of Justice (ICJ) because they are the predecessors of the colonial reality that we see unravelling in Israel and Palestine.

They’ve scored big against colonialism in the past, against what was the horrendous reality in the developing world. Therefore, they have a lot to teach us.

What is taking place in Palestine resembles so much what took place in their homelands.

Algeria suffered 132 years of occupation and ended up paying the price with the lives of more than a million people. South Africa endured almost five decades of apartheid, another crime against humanity.

Panel returns

The judges are back inside the courtroom taking their seats.

Proceedings should start any moment now.

A reminder that we will hear from Belize, Bolivia, Brazil and Chile this afternoon.

Photos: Day two of ICJ hearings

legal consequences of the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories

Life under occupation in East Jerusalem

Munir Nuseibah, an academic and human rights lawyer in occupied East Jerusalem, has described the difficulties of life under occupation.

“The Israeli occupation has been continuously, since 1967 until today, displacing Palestinians from their homes, building settlements and Jewish-only colonies in the occupied Palestinian territory, controlling their movement, where they can go and what they can do,” he told Al Jazeera.

The control of the population, Nuseibah said, extends to measures such as imprisonment and torture, among others.

“These policies amount to apartheid; this is what a number of human rights organisations – Palestinian and international, as well as Israeli – have found after they examined the way that the Israeli legal system works,” Nuseibah added.

“Here in East Jerusalem, after the annexation and the building the wall, which the ICJ in 2004 declared as illegal, Jerusalem is isolated from the rest of Palestine. The Palestinian population is unable to move into Jerusalem, to work in Jerusalem and move freely.”

LISTEN: Why South Africa sued Israel for genocide in Gaza

The International Court of Justice recently heard a case brought by South Africa, accusing Israel of genocide.

Rulings by the ICJ are legally binding, but the court has no way of enforcing them. So, will it make a difference as the Israeli war on Gaza goes on?

What is the Namibia ICJ case of 1971?

Several speakers who presented arguments referenced the ICJ’s advisory opinion of 1971, in which it found the continued presence of South Africa in Namibia was illegal and Pretoria was obligated to withdraw its administration immediately.

Namibia, formerly known as South West Africa, was a German colony. After WWI, it came under direct administration by South Africa, which applied the system of apartheid on its Indigenous people.

The UN Security Council in 1969 described the continued presence of South Africa as illegal and called on it to withdraw.

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