research papers on geophysical methods

Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript.

• View all journals

Geophysics articles from across Nature Portfolio

Geophysics is broadly the study of the physics of planetary bodies and atmospheres, including the flow of energy through these systems. The term may also be used more narrowly to describe the investigation and characterization of the Earth’s subsurface using non-invasive techniques such as seismic imaging.

Melting ice solves leap-second problem — for now

Humans’ effect on the polar ice sheets is slowing Earth’s rotation, posing challenges for its alignment with the official time standard. Two researchers discuss the science behind the slowdown and the impact it has on timekeeping.

• Patrizia Tavella
• Jerry X. Mitrovica

Latest Research and Reviews

Bayesian geochemical correlation and tomography

• Andrew Curtis

Study on time–frequency features of induced charge signals during the damage and failure process of coal medium

• Yanfang Qiao

Reservoir characterization of the Abu Roash D Member through petrography and seismic interpretations in Southern Abu Gharadig Basin, Northern Western Desert, Egypt

• Ibrahim Lasheen
• Ahmed M. Noureldin
• Ahmed Metwally

The North Sea rift basement records extensional collapse of the Caledonian orogen

An extensive collapse of the south Scandinavian Caledonides is evident from large-scale folding and shear zones observed in the offshore basement of the North Sea Rift, using modern 3D broadband seismic data.

• Haakon Fossen
• Israel Polonio
• Carolina Cavalcante

Imaging the top of the Earth’s inner core: a present-day flow model

• Hrvoje Tkalčić
• Anatoly B. Belonoshko
• Lauren Waszek

Seismological evidence for a multifault network at the subduction interface

Using observations of double-difference relocated earthquakes in a local three-dimensional velocity model for Ecuador, a detailed image of seismicity is created, forming the base for more realistic models of earthquake rupture, slip and hazard in subduction zones.

• Caroline Chalumeau
• Hans Agurto-Detzel
• Audrey Galve

News and Comment

Taiwan hit by biggest earthquake in 25 years: why scientists weren’t surprised

A complex network of faults lies in the area that experienced the earthquake, and more shocks are expected.

• Gemma Conroy

Climate change has slowed Earth’s rotation — and could affect how we keep time

The effect of melting polar ice could delay the need for a ‘leap second’ by three years.

• Elizabeth Gibney

Korean lunar mission provides a view into the Moon’s dark spaces

South Korea’s first trip to the Moon has been labelled a success.

• Alexandra Witze

Strange blobs in Earth’s mantle are relics of a massive collision

Impact with a body called Theia 4.5 billion years ago left remnants deep inside Earth — and also created the Moon.

Deep Mars is surprisingly soft

Two analyses of seismic waves that traversed Mars paint the clearest picture yet of the red planet’s core and deep mantle — and rationalize the puzzling implications of a previous interpretation of the seismological data.

• Suzan van der Lee

Quick links

• Explore articles by subject
• Guide to authors
• Editorial policies

• Search Menu
• Advance Articles
• Author Guidelines
• Open Access
• Submission Site
• Self-Archiving Policy
• About Journal of Geophysics and Engineering
• About Sinopec Geophysical Research Institute Co., Ltd
• Editorial Board
• Advertising and Corporate Services
• Journals on Oxford Academic
• Books on Oxford Academic

Article Contents

Gpr for geotechnical engineering.

• Article contents
• Figures & tables
• Supplementary Data

Lanbo Liu, Xiongyao Xie, GPR for geotechnical engineering, Journal of Geophysics and Engineering , Volume 10, Issue 3, June 2013, 030201, https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-2132/10/3/030201

• Permissions Icon Permissions

The special issue published here is a response to the call for the development of novel geophysical techniques particularly applicable in geotechnical engineering contexts. It consists of seven papers selected from a collection presented to the 14th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar , which indicate that new and innovative geophysical applications in geotechnical engineering have emerged, and that these innovations may be potentially useful for the planning, implementation and maintenance of infrastructure systems. These research papers can be divided into two groups: (1) improvement of ground penetrating radar (GPR) techniques and (2) GPR investigations associated with infrastructure and geotechnical engineering.

The world has seen a renewed wave of infrastructure development and improvement. The new developments have occurred mainly in developing countries, such as those known as the ‘BRIC’ (Brazil, Russia, India and China), while improvements are one of the main social investments in developed countries, where it is necessary to update it to meet modern standards.

An example of the rapid new developments is that 38 cities in China will have at least one metro line by the end of this decade, with more than 6200 km (3850 miles) of rail track (London has nearly 400 km, for reference). Another example is the high-speed rail network, costing China a total of roughly one trillion US dollars, even excluding operational costs 1 .

The urgent need for infrastructure improvement in developed countries is exemplified by the fact that the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) has continually rated the condition and performance of the US's infrastructure as D to D+ in its ‘report card’ (ASCE 2013 ). In his 2013 State of the Union address, President Obama encouraged more investment in US infrastructure. The national transportation system faces an immense backlog of state-of-good-repair projects, a reality underscored by the fact that there are currently nearly 70 000 ‘structurally deficient’ bridges in the country. The President's plan for $50 billion of frontloaded transportation infrastructure investment would direct $40 billion towards reducing the backlog of deferred maintenance on highways, bridges, transit systems and airports nationwide.

As a major non-destructive testing tool, the ground penetrating radar (GPR) technique plays an important role in the entire life span of infrastructure from planning, construction, maintenance and improvement, evidenced by countless routine applications in infrastructure and research and development (R&D) worldwide.

The 14th International Conference on Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR 2012) was held in Shanghai, China, June 4–8 2012, chaired by Tongji University Professor Xiongyao Xie. The conference had 235 attendees from 27 countries and regions, among whom were many young researchers and 45 graduate students. Two young researchers, Hai Liu of Tohoku University and A Klotzsche of the Jülich research center, Germany, were given the Excellence of Research award by an international review committee for the quality of the work they presented at the conference. For the technical program of GPR 2012, nearly 180 papers were presented at both oral and poster sessions. The review process was rigorous, thanks to the work of about 90 reviewers, coordinated by three technical co-chairs, Lanbo Liu, Motoyuki Sato and Fannian Kong. The proceedings are available through the IEEE digital repository (IEEE Xplore 2012 ).

Thanks to the hard work and collaboration of authors, editors and publishers, the most significant scientific findings and important technical developments presented at GPR 2012 have been improved and expanded to the quality of peer-reviewed journal papers for publication in four special issues: GPR for geotechnical engineering in Journal of Geophysics and Engineering (JGE, this issue), forward and inverse problems in GPR Research in Journal of Applied Geophysics (JAG), GPR for hydrogeology and groundwater problems in Journal of Environmental and Engineering Geophysics (JEEG) and innovative GPR systems in IEEE Journal of Selected Topics in Applied Earth Observations and Remote Sensing (IEEE/JSTARS).

The special issue published here is a response to the call for the development of novel geophysical techniques particularly applicable in urban contexts. It consists of seven papers selected from a collection presented to GPR 2012 (IEEE Xplore 2012 ), which indicate that new and innovative geophysical applications in urban settings have emerged, and that these innovations may be potentially useful for the planning, implementation and maintenance of urban infrastructure systems. These research papers can be divided into two groups: (1) improvement of GPR techniques and (2) GPR investigations associated with infrastructure and geotechnical engineering.

The first group of papers focuses on GPR signal processing and enhancement. Strange ( 2013 ) describes a method to accurately measure the true time range of a GPR to provide a quantitative assessment of the timing system performance and detect and quantify the effects of timing nonlinearity due to timing jitter. The effect of varying the number of samples per trace on the true time range has also been investigated and recommendations on how to minimize the effects of timing errors are described. The proposed approach is practical and readily applicable to characterize the timing performance of commercial GPR systems. The topic discussed in this paper is of concern not only to geotechnical engineering applications, but also to all other disciplines associated with GPR range detection and examination.

In order to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of GPR detection and imaging Xie et al ( 2013a ) propose band-pass and Karhunen–Loève (K–L) filtering techniques to enhance GPR signals. Band-pass and K–L filters are proved to be effective in grouting layer recognition and irregular object processing when given appropriate parameters. They recommend using the three largest eigenvectors in K–L filtering. The evaluation of a highway tunnel is presented to illustrate the effectiveness of GPR in inspecting grouting layer thickness behind the pre-case tunnel linings.

In the second paper by Xie et al ( 2013b ), an approach of void identification from GPR images in a completely automatic way based on a support vector machine algorithm is presented. In general, this study shows that it is promising for GPR identification of voids inside reinforced concrete. Nevertheless, the recognition of the shape and distribution of voids may need further improvement.

The second group of papers deals with GPR applications in geotechnical engineering. Song et al ( 2013 ) describe the application of GPR in artificial freezing engineering; the electromagnetic parameters of frozen earth materials being measured by a vector network analyzer, which shows that the dielectric permittivity and electric conductivity change abruptly at the boundary between the frozen and non-frozen soil. GPR is used to detect the thickness of the frozen wall and to find the unfrozen soil defects. In field observations they found that the amplitude of the reflective signals was much weaker than in laboratory experiments. Their results caution GPR users regarding the practical differences between situations in the field and in the laboratory.

Liu et al ( 2013 ) studied voids in bridge girders using GPR. In order to investigate the radar image characteristics of different PPC duct defects, a number of model girders were manufactured. Three major ducts are included in this study: (1) well grouted and no void (normal condition); (2) the duct is half filled, and the void is filled by water or air; and (3) the duct is not filled at all, and the duct is water or air filled. The data corresponding to seven different situations are acquired and processed. It is found that radar can detect the first interface in the duct, and the detailed structure inside the duct cannot be ‘seen’ from the images directly. Characteristic curves assist interpretation greatly. The complete void duct is the easiest to differentiate. The signature for this situation is characterized by strong and clear reflection interface, which becomes weaker as the void is water-filled. Normal conditions show the weakest reflection interface. As for the half void situation, the front scan shows similar results to normal conditions, whether it is water or air filled, and the back scan shows similar features to the completely void situation.

Maurya et al ( 2013 ) studied the Gedi Fault, an active fault in Western India, using GPR. Five sites were carefully selected after field reconnaissance. The well compacted Mesozoic rocks showed high amplitude returns, while the softer and finer grained Tertiary sediments yielded low amplitude returns. The Quaternary sediment reflections were consistent with wavy reflections in the upper parts of the profiles. The GPR data indicated that the Gedi Fault is a steep north dipping reverse fault that becomes vertical at depth. Since the fault does not displace the Quaternary deposits, it is plausible to infer that the Gedi Fault can be characterized by low to moderate seismic activity under the compressive stress regime during the late Quaternary.

Domenico et al ( 2013 ) present some important results of GPR surveys performed to identify the foundation plinths in 12 buildings of a school. With GPR profiles acquired by 250 MHz antennae, in both reflection mode and in a wide angle reflection and refraction configuration, the actual geometry and depth of the building plinths were successfully identified. Effective characterization of the foundation plinths is an essential element within a study aimed at assessing the seismic vulnerability of the buildings, which are non-seismically designed structures, located in an area classified as a seismic zone after their construction.

We are pleased to present this special issue to the geotechnical and civil engineering community and hope that it can serve as a snapshot of the current state-of-the-art in GPR research and practice.

Google Scholar

www.economist.com/news/china/21576719-dozens-cities-are-building-metro-system-some-do-not-need-it-going-underground .

Email alerts

Citing articles via, affiliations.

• Online ISSN 1742-2140
• Print ISSN 1742-2132
• Copyright © 2024 Sinopec Geophysical Research Institute Co., Ltd
• About Oxford Academic
• Publish journals with us
• University press partners
• What we publish
• New features  
• Open access
• Institutional account management
• Rights and permissions
• Get help with access
• Accessibility
• Advertising
• Media enquiries
• Oxford University Press
• Oxford Languages
• University of Oxford

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide

• Copyright © 2024 Oxford University Press
• Cookie settings
• Cookie policy
• Privacy policy
• Legal notice

This Feature Is Available To Subscribers Only

Sign In or Create an Account

This PDF is available to Subscribers Only

For full access to this pdf, sign in to an existing account, or purchase an annual subscription.

A Review on Various Geotechnical and Geophysical Investigations for a Dam Rehabilitation Project

• Conference paper
• First Online: 24 November 2022
• Cite this conference paper

• Harshit Srivastava   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-5613-9795 11 ,
• R. P. Tiwari   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-0423-1573 11 ,
• Vijay Kumar   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-7894-3258 11 &
• Dharmendra Singh   ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0003-3830-1530 11  

Part of the book series: Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering ((LNCE,volume 280))

Included in the following conference series:

• Indian Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Conference

241 Accesses

1 Citations

A dam is a massive hydraulic structure, built across a river to create a reservoir at its upstream for various purposes such as hydropower generation, irrigation, flood control, domestic and municipal supplies, and so on. They are major engineering structures that are designed and constructed with long-life expectancy. In India, most of the large dams are older than 25 years and require proper maintenance. To ensure efficient and safe operation of the dam, rehabilitation of dam is done. Before conducting rehabilitation activities, a detailed investigation of the dam body including surrounding soil is carried out. For embankment dams, appropriate borrow areas are identified, and disturbed and undisturbed samples are extracted. Various laboratories, as well as field tests, are performed on the extracted specimen. For concrete/masonry dams, representative cores are extracted from an existing dam. Various destructive and nondestructive tests are performed on the extracted core for assessing the existing condition of the concrete/masonry dam. For in-depth exploration, various geophysical methods are used to detect hidden defects in the dam bodies and also in surrounding soil too. Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) method is the most suitable technique for detecting cracks in a dam body and also to identifying leakage zones. The main objective of this paper is to review various geotechnical and geophysical investigations carried out for a dam rehabilitation project. In this paper, numerous articles have been reviewed to discuss the various prerequisites for a dam rehabilitation project.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

• Available as PDF
• Read on any device
• Instant download
• Own it forever
• Available as EPUB and PDF
• Compact, lightweight edition
• Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
• Free shipping worldwide - see info
• Durable hardcover edition

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Tortajada C (2014) Dams: an essential component of development. J Hydrol Eng:1–9. ISSN: 1084-0699

Google Scholar  

Bharti MK, Sharma M, Islam N (2020) Study on the dam and reservoir and analysis of dam failure: a data base approach. Int Res J Eng Technol 7(5):1661–1669. ISSN: 2395-0072

Shi H, Chen J, Liu S, Sivakumar B (2019) The role of large dam in promoting economic development under the pressure of population growth. Sustainability, MDPI, pp 1–14

Manual for rehabilitation of large dams: Government of India, Central Water Commission, Central Dam Safety Organization, New Delhi (2018)

Adamo N, Ansari NA, Sissakian V, Laue J, Knutsson S (2020) Dam safety: technical problems of ageing concrete dams. J Earth Sci Geotech Eng 10(6):241–279. ISSN: 1792-9040

Kolala M, Lungu C, Kambole C (2015) The cause of dam failures-a study of earthen embankment dams on the copperbelt province of Zambia. Int J Eng Res Technol 4(2):301–309. ISSN: 2278-0181

Anbazhagan P, Rohit D, Prabhakaran A (2016) Investigations existing dam using integrated geotechnical and geophysical methods. In: Second national dam safety conference, 12–13 January, Bengaluru, pp 165–170

Nelson EJ (2008) Investigation and repair of a leaking earth fill dam. In: 6th International conference on case histories in geotechnical engineering, 11–16 August, Arlington, pp 1–7

Little AL (1969) Geotechnical investigations for embankment dams exploration geotechniques Pour Digues, In: 7th International conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering. International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, Mexico, pp 301–305

Park C (2017) Geophysical methods for reservoir safety investigation. Commissioned by the Environment Agency and British Dam Society, pp 1–37

Adamo N, Ansari N, Sissakian V, Laue J, Knutsson S (2020) Geophysical method and their applications in dam safety monitoring. J Earth Sci Geotech Eng 11:291–345. ISSN: 1792-9040

Raji WO, Adedoyin AD (2019) Dam safety assessment using 2D electrical resistivity geophysical survey and geological mapping. J King Soud Univ Sci:1123–1129

Arora VV, Singh B, Narayan P (2019) Detailed investigation of large concrete dams in India for finite element analysis and repair strategy. In: International dam safety conference, Bhubaneswar, pp 457–465

Gangopadhyay S (1993) Geotechnical problems of dam sites and their solution with reference to the projects of Eastern India. In: 3rd International conference on case histories in geotechnical engineering, June 1–4, St. Louis, Missouri, pp 493–498

Ghafoori M, Lashkaripour GR, Azali ST (2011) Investigation of geological and geotechnical characteristics of Daroongar dam, Northeast Iran. Geotechn Geol Eng Int J. ISSN: 0960-3182

Ernesto A, Giovanni D, Paolo Z (2016) Geotechnical investigation and field performance of a zoned earth dam in Italy. In: International workshop on metrology for geotechnics, 17–18 March Benevento, Italy

Chiemeke CC (2014) Investigation of dam safety making use of multichannel analysis of surface waves (MASW). World Acad Sci Eng Technol Int J Environ Earth Sci Eng 8(1):16251628

Sissakian VK, Adamo N, Ansari NA (2019) The role of geological investigation for dam siting: Mosul dam-a case study. Geotech Geol Eng

Loperte A, Bavusi M, Cerverizzo G, Lapenna V, Soldovieri F (2011) Ground penetrating radar in monitoring: the test case of Acerenza (Southern Italy). Int J Geophys 2011:1–9. Article Id-654195

Mathur CS, Patra B, Verma VK, Singh V (2019) Major structural measures for dam safety under DRIP from hydrological consideration. In: International dam safety conference, Bhubaneswar, pp 883–892

Pillai BRK, Kumar M, Basistha A (2016) Dam safety and climate change: a case study of Hirakud dam. In: Second national safety conference, Bengaluru, pp 28–37

Adhikari B, Acharya U, Acharya KK, Ghimire S (2019) Engineering geological investigation of dam site of proposed Sunkoshi-2 hydropower project, Khurkot area, Eastern Nepal. J Nepal Geol Soc 58(Special Issue):181–188

Camarero PL, Moreira CA (2017) Geophysical investigation of earth dam using the electrical tomography resistivity technique. REM: Int Eng J Ouro Preto:4752

Adewoye AO, Ajayi PE, Adegbola AA (2015) Geophysical investigation of proposed dam site along river Adunin, Ogbomoso, South-Western Nigeria. Lautech J Eng Technol:6–22

Brown ET (2016) Reducing risk in the investigation, design and construction of large concrete dams. J Rock Mech Geotech Eng:197209

Patra B, Schneider W, Dhawan AK (2018) Instrumentation of existing dams. In: International dam safety conference, Kerala, pp 868–878

Akinlabi IA, Ayanrinde OS (2018) Geophysical investigation for anomalous seepage in and around an earth dam embankment in Ogbomoso, South-Western Nigeria. Int J Scien Eng Res 9(7):1455–1467. ISSN: 2229-5518

Download references

Author information

Authors and affiliations.

Department of Civil Engineering, Motilal Nehru National Institute of Technology Allahabad, Prayagraj, 211004, India

Harshit Srivastava, R. P. Tiwari, Vijay Kumar & Dharmendra Singh

You can also search for this author in PubMed   Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Harshit Srivastava .

Editor information

Editors and affiliations.

Department of Civil Engineering, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar, Punjab, India

Arvind Kumar Agnihotri

Department of Civil, Materials and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA

Krishna R. Reddy

H. S. Chore

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2023 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this paper

Cite this paper.

Srivastava, H., Tiwari, R.P., Kumar, V., Singh, D. (2023). A Review on Various Geotechnical and Geophysical Investigations for a Dam Rehabilitation Project. In: Agnihotri, A.K., Reddy, K.R., Chore, H.S. (eds) Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Conference (IGGEC) 2021, Vol. 1. IGGEC 2021. Lecture Notes in Civil Engineering, vol 280. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4739-1_8

Download citation

DOI : https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-4739-1_8

Published : 24 November 2022

Publisher Name : Springer, Singapore

Print ISBN : 978-981-19-4738-4

Online ISBN : 978-981-19-4739-1

eBook Packages : Engineering Engineering (R0)

Share this paper

Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content:

Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article.

Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative

• Publish with us

Policies and ethics

• Find a journal
• Track your research

• India Today
• Business Today
• Reader’s Digest
• Harper's Bazaar
• Brides Today
• Cosmopolitan
• Aaj Tak Campus
• India Today Hindi

When scientists triggered mini-earthquake in a lab

The event could change our understanding of earthquakes and improve prediction methods, which have long been a significant challenge in geophysical research..

Listen to Story

• The critical moment came when they introduced a small seismic wave
• It caused the granules to shift dramatically, effectively triggering a lab-scale earthquake
• This phenomenon mirrors what happens during actual seismic events

Scientists at the University of Amsterdam's Institute of Physics have successfully simulated miniature earthquakes and landslides in a lab, shedding light on the complex mechanisms that trigger these natural disasters.

The experiments could change our understanding of earthquakes and improve prediction methods, which have long been a significant challenge in geophysical research.

The research team, led by physicists Kasra Farain and Daniel Bonn, constructed a unique experimental setup that replicates the granular nature of the Earth's crust. Using a thin layer of microspheres, each as wide as a strand of human hair, the scientists mimicked the geological conditions found at tectonic fault lines and steep mountain slopes.

By applying a controlled external force to this setup — a disc pressed against the granules and rotated at a constant speed — the team was able to observe the behaviour of the granules under stress. The critical moment came when they introduced a small seismic wave by bouncing a ball next to the setup, which caused the granules to shift dramatically, effectively triggering a lab-scale earthquake.

The team's mathematical model, derived from their experimental observations, has provided insights into historical seismic events, such as the 1992 Landers earthquake in California, which unexpectedly triggered a secondary earthquake hundreds of kilometers away.

This innovative approach to studying earthquakes in a controlled environment was inspired by everyday disturbances, such as the vibrations caused by people moving around the lab.

Farain's initial challenges with maintaining a stable experimental setup led to the realization that even minor vibrations could influence their results, prompting further exploration into the effects of controlled perturbations.

Help | Advanced Search

Computer Science > Information Retrieval

Title: a survey on retrieval-augmented text generation for large language models.

Abstract: Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG) merges retrieval methods with deep learning advancements to address the static limitations of large language models (LLMs) by enabling the dynamic integration of up-to-date external information. This methodology, focusing primarily on the text domain, provides a cost-effective solution to the generation of plausible but incorrect responses by LLMs, thereby enhancing the accuracy and reliability of their outputs through the use of real-world data. As RAG grows in complexity and incorporates multiple concepts that can influence its performance, this paper organizes the RAG paradigm into four categories: pre-retrieval, retrieval, post-retrieval, and generation, offering a detailed perspective from the retrieval viewpoint. It outlines RAG's evolution and discusses the field's progression through the analysis of significant studies. Additionally, the paper introduces evaluation methods for RAG, addressing the challenges faced and proposing future research directions. By offering an organized framework and categorization, the study aims to consolidate existing research on RAG, clarify its technological underpinnings, and highlight its potential to broaden the adaptability and applications of LLMs.

Submission history

Access paper:.

• HTML (experimental)
• Other Formats

References & Citations

• Google Scholar
• Semantic Scholar

BibTeX formatted citation

Bibliographic and Citation Tools

Code, data and media associated with this article, recommenders and search tools.

• Institution

arXivLabs: experimental projects with community collaborators

arXivLabs is a framework that allows collaborators to develop and share new arXiv features directly on our website.

Both individuals and organizations that work with arXivLabs have embraced and accepted our values of openness, community, excellence, and user data privacy. arXiv is committed to these values and only works with partners that adhere to them.

Have an idea for a project that will add value for arXiv's community? Learn more about arXivLabs .