research questions in gender studies

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100 Gender Research Topics For Academic Papers

Gender research topics are very popular across the world. Students in different academic disciplines are often asked to write papers and essays about these topics. Some of the disciplines that require learners to write about gender topics include:

Sociology Psychology Gender studies Business studies

When pursuing higher education in these disciplines, learners can choose what to write about from a wide range of gender issues topics. However, the wide range of issues that learners can research and write about when it comes to gender makes choosing what to write about difficult. Here is a list of the top 100 gender and sexuality topics that students can consider.

Controversial Gender Research Topics

Do you like the idea of writing about something controversial? If yes, this category has some of the best gender topics to write about. They touch on issues like gender stereotypes and issues that are generally associated with members of a specific gender. Here are some of the best controversial gender topics that you can write about.

How human behavior is affected by gender misconceptions
How are straight marriages influenced by gay marriages
Explain the most common sex-role stereotypes
What are the effects of workplace stereotypes?
What issues affect modern feminism?
How sexuality affects sex-role stereotyping
How does the media break sex-role stereotypes
Explain the dual approach to equality between women and men
What are the most outdated sex-role stereotypes
Are men better than women?
How equal are men and women?
How do politics and sexuality relate?
How can films defy gender-based stereotypes
What are the advantages of being a woman?
What are the disadvantages of being a woman?
What are the advantages of being a man?
Discuss the disadvantages of being a woman
Should governments legalize prostitution?
Explain how sexual orientation came about?
Women communicate better than men
Women are the stronger sex
Explain how the world can be made better for women
Discuss the future gender norms
How important are sex roles in society
Discuss the transgender and feminism theory
How does feminism help in the creation of alternative women’s culture?
Gender stereotypes in education and science
Discuss racial variations when it comes to gender-related attitudes
Women are better leaders
Men can’t survive without women

This category also has some of the best gender debate topics. However, learners should be keen to pick topics they are interested in. This will enable them to ensure that they enjoy the research and writing process.

Interesting Gender Inequality Topics

Gender-based inequality is witnessed almost every day. As such, most learners are conversant with gender inequality research paper topics. However, it’s crucial to pick topics that are devoid of discrimination of members of a specific gender. Here are examples of gender inequality essay topics.

Sex discrimination aspects in schools
How to identify inequality between sexes
Sex discrimination causes
The inferior role played by women in relationships
Discuss sex differences in the education system
How can gender discrimination be identified in sports?
Can inequality issues between men and women be solved through education?
Why are professional opportunities for women in sports limited?
Why are there fewer women in leadership positions?
Discuss gender inequality when it comes to work-family balance
How does gender-based discrimination affect early childhood development?
Can sex discrimination be reduced by technology?
How can sex discrimination be identified in a marriage?
Explain where sex discrimination originates from
Discuss segregation and motherhood in labor markets
Explain classroom sex discrimination
How can inequality in American history be justified?
Discuss different types of sex discrimination in modern society
Discuss various factors that cause gender-based inequality
Discuss inequality in human resource practices and processes
Why is inequality between women and men so rampant in developing countries?
How can governments bridge gender gaps between women and men?
Work-home conflict is a sign of inequality between women and men
Explain why women are less wealthy than men
How can workplace gender-based inequality be addressed?

After choosing the gender inequality essay topics they like, students should research, brainstorm ideas, and come up with an outline before they start writing. This will ensure that their essays have engaging introductions and convincing bodies, as well as, strong conclusions.

Amazing Gender Roles Topics for Academic Papers and Essays

This category has ideas that slightly differ from gender equality topics. That’s because equality or lack of it can be measured by considering the representation of both genders in different roles. As such, some gender roles essay topics might not require tiresome and extensive research to write about. Nevertheless, learners should take time to gather the necessary information required to write about these topics. Here are some of the best gender topics for discussion when it comes to the roles played by men and women in society.

Describe gender identity
Describe how a women-dominated society would be
Compare gender development theories
How equally important are maternity and paternity levees for babies?
How can gender-parity be achieved when it comes to parenting?
Discuss the issues faced by modern feminism
How do men differ from women emotionally?
Discuss gender identity and sexual orientation
Is investing in the education of girls beneficial?
Explain the adoption of gender-role stereotyped behaviors
Discuss games and toys for boys and girls
Describe patriarchal attitudes in families
Explain patriarchal stereotypes in family relationships
What roles do women and men play in politics?
Discuss sex equity and academic careers
Compare military career opportunities for both genders
Discuss the perception of women in the military
Describe feminine traits
Discus gender-related issues faced by women in gaming
Men should play major roles in the welfare of their children
Explain how the aging population affects the economic welfare of women?
What has historically determined modern differences in gender roles?
Does society need stereotyped gender roles?
Does nature have a role to play in stereotyped gender roles?
The development and adoption of gender roles

The list of gender essay topics that are based on the roles of each sex can be quite extensive. Nevertheless, students should be keen to pick interesting gender topics in this category.

Important Gender Issues Topics for Research Paper

If you want to write a paper or essay on an important gender issue, this category has the best ideas for you. Students can write about different issues that affect individuals of different genders. For instance, this category can include gender wage gap essay topics. Wage variation is a common issue that affects women in different countries. Some of the best gender research paper topics in this category include:

Discuss gender mainstreaming purpose
Discuss the issue of gender-based violence
Why is the wage gap so common in most countries?
How can society promote equality in opportunities for women and men in sports?
Explain what it means to be transgender
Discuss the best practices of gender-neutral management
What is women’s empowerment?
Discuss how human trafficking affects women
How problematic is gender-blindness for women?
What does the glass ceiling mean in management?
Why are women at a higher risk of sexual exploitation and violence?
Why is STEM uptake low among women?
How does ideology affect the determination of relations between genders
How are sporting women fighting for equality?
Discuss sports, women, and media institutions
How can cities be made safer for girls and women?
Discuss international trends in the empowerment of women
How do women contribute to the world economy?
Explain how feminism on different social relations unites men and women as groups
Explain how gender diversity influence scientific discovery and innovation

This category has some of the most interesting women’s and gender studies paper topics. However, most of them require extensive research to come up with hard facts and figures that will make academic papers or essays more interesting.

Students in high schools and colleges can pick what to write about from a wide range of gender studies research topics. However, some gender studies topics might not be ideal for some learners based on the given essay prompt. Therefore, make sure that you have understood what the educator wants you to write about before you pick a topic. Our experts can help you choose a good thesis topic . Choosing the right gender studies topics enables learners to answer the asked questions properly. This impresses educators to award them top grades.

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65 Amazing Gender Dissertation Topics – A List of Well Researched Topics

Published by Owen Ingram at January 2nd, 2023 , Revised On August 15, 2023

The concept of gender describes the differences in characteristics, behaviours, and responsibilities between males and females. Gender studies explore the complicated concerns that arise from the interaction of men and women.

It is essential that you thoroughly understand the subject before you begin writing your dissertation . It is imperative that you choose an interesting topic for your thesis in order to get a decent grade. As you progress through your dissertation, an excellent topic will provide you with direction and help you jump-start the process.

Below is a list of excellent gender studies dissertation topics you can learn and research. We provide a wide range of topics for you to use as is or modify as you wish. Getting a great grade on your dissertation has never been simpler.

Gender Dissertation Topics Ideas & Examples

Are multicultural companies fostering racial unity and, as a result, gender disparities?
Will women’s empowerment result in oppositional gender discrimination?
A balanced examination of women’s freedom and participation in large corporations and competitive sports
How correct were our forefathers in changing the power imbalance toward patriarchy?
Examine the disadvantaged status of rural women and the tainted treatment of infertile women
Is racism or superstition more prevalent in Africa: the effect of gender discrimination?
The impact of children in homes with a purely patriarchal society
Explore the disparities in women’s perspectives in industrialized and developing nations
Examine the dynamics of female objectification in films throughout the world
The criminal syndicate’s inhumane treatment of women
Gender diversity’s role in creativity and scientific discovery
How can cities be made safer for women and girls?
The role of schools in teaching children gender-appropriate behaviours
Feminism in social interactions brings women and men together as groupings
Why are females more vulnerable to sexual abuse and exploitation?
Examine the glass ceiling in management and the role of ideology in shaping sex relations
Obstacles to females’ access to decent education in UK nations
The effects of gender differences on the human brain
How can we teach boys and girls that they have the same rights as females?
Discuss gender-neutral management methods
Promotion of equal sporting opportunities for men and women
The real-life materialization of the YouTube beauty community
Stress and eating pathology in transgender adolescents: a feminist scientific investigation
Gender discrimination’s implications and effects on the human brain
Identifying and examining patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes in family relationships
What factors make it difficult for girls in African and Asian nations to obtain a quality education?
Toy segregation and sex education: should boys and girls be treated differently?
What is feminism’s role in strengthening social relationships between men and women?
Plaintiffs’ role in restoring legal arguments for same-sex marriage
Understanding gender subjectivity in the lesbian culture somewhere over the rainbow nation
The lesbian and gay movement’s agitation and the countermovement’s response in the United Kingdom
Addressing the global decline in women’s political participation, both formally and informally
Stereotypical images of women’s effects on implied cognition
The social construction of multiple births in the 20th century
How the working woman deals with social binaries
Why should parents support the education of girls?
What aspects of sex discrimination exist?
What factors lead to workplace inequality?
What motivates discrimination against women in developing nations?
How do misconceptions about gender impact behaviour?
What functions do films play in challenging gender stereotypes?
Is there a way to end gender inequality through education?
Women’s childhood trauma as a result of nationalist subjectivity
Youth, gender, and citizenship in women’s colleges during World War i: “what can a woman do?”
What parental actions should be taken to achieve gender parity?
Absence of women in leadership positions
Telling the truth of refugee and immigrant women: witnessing memory
The experiences of males in traditionally feminine jobs
Work-life balance of men and women has changed after the feminist movement
A feminist viewpoint on women’s divorce counselling
A behaviour guide for feminist family therapists
The debate over black feminist theory
An analysis of the anti-violence campaign by black feminists
Sex segregation and emotional labour in women’s and men’s workplaces
Women and men are on par: Workplace discrimination, gender roles, and public policy
The ramifications for oneself of equating a slender feminine ideal with success in life
Influences of the media, as well as social and individual differences, on women’s body esteem
In the direction of a theory of women’s body image resilience
In college women, body image and appearance management practices
Review of body image and eating disorders in older persons
Premenstrual syndrome and our female criminal companions: a feminist problem
Why do women commit suicide at lower rates than men?
Men being harmed by women is a significant societal issue
Differences between men’s and women’s hourly wages
A comparison of the career growth of male and female managers

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How to Pick a Great Gender Dissertation Topi c:

Thinking about what you want in a topic before looking at the list is crucial. Selecting a topic that interests you or piques your curiosity will make the research process easier. Check out the guidelines below on how to select and narrow a dissertation topic .

As you begin your brainstorming process, note all the options you can think of for your gender essay themes. To learn what will fascinate the audience the most, keep up with the most recent news and trends.

Even if certain subjects could be debatable, you can nonetheless list them and study them afterwards. Most importantly, pick a subject you are passionate about to make the process enjoyable. Out of the cases on the list, pick the one you believe is the most appropriate.

Focus on a certain subject area so you may proceed the right way. To make your dissertation engaging to the audience, it is important to be detailed and original with your topic. Do extensive study on the subject you plan to write about. To gather the most recent information about your subject, browse the internet, the newspaper, and books.
Once you have decided on a topic, frame it as a query. It will be simpler to conduct the necessary research if you define the issue as a question. Additionally, the topic will assist you in realizing the solutions you want.

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Examine gaps in research.
Explore cultural, social aspects.
Analyze historical context.
Consider intersectionality.
Opt for a topic resonating with your passion and academic field.

Gender Studies: Foundations and Key Concepts

Gender studies developed alongside and emerged out of Women’s Studies. This non-exhaustive list introduces readers to scholarship in the field.

Jack Halberstam, Afsaneh Najmabadi-Evaz and bell hooks

Gender studies asks what it means to make gender salient, bringing a critical eye to everything from labor conditions to healthcare access to popular culture. Gender is never isolated from other factors that determine someone’s position in the world, such as sexuality, race, class, ability, religion, region of origin, citizenship status, life experiences, and access to resources. Beyond studying gender as an identity category, the field is invested in illuminating the structures that naturalize, normalize, and discipline gender across historical and cultural contexts.

At a college or university, you’d be hard pressed to find a department that brands itself as simply Gender Studies. You’d be more likely to find different arrangements of the letters G, W, S, and perhaps Q and F, signifying gender, women, sexuality, queer, and feminist studies. These various letter configurations aren’t just semantic idiosyncrasies. They illustrate the ways the field has grown and expanded since its institutionalization in the 1970s.

This non-exhaustive list aims to introduce readers to gender studies in a broad sense. It shows how the field has developed over the last several decades, as well as how its interdisciplinary nature offers a range of tools for understanding and critiquing our world.

Catharine R. Stimpson, Joan N. Burstyn, Domna C. Stanton, and Sandra M. Whisler, “Editorial.” Signs , 1975; “Editorial,” off our backs , 1970

The editorial from the inaugural issue of Signs , founded in 1975 by Catharine Stimpson, explains that the founders hoped that the journal’s title captured what women’s studies is capable of doing: to “represent or point to something.” Women’s studies was conceptualized as an interdisciplinary field that could represent issues of gender and sexuality in new ways, with the possibility of shaping “scholarship, thought, and policy.”

The editorial in the first issue of off our backs , a feminist periodical founded in 1970, explains how their collective wanted to explore the “dual nature of the women’s movement:” that “women need to be free of men’s domination” and “must strive to get off our backs.” The content that follows includes reports on the Equal Rights Amendment, protests, birth control, and International Women’s Day.

Robyn Wiegman, “Academic Feminism against Itself.” NWSA Journal , 2002

Gender studies developed alongside and emerged out of Women’s Studies, which consolidated as an academic field of inquiry in the 1970s. Wiegman tracks some of the anxieties that emerged with the shift from women’s to gender studies, such as concerns it would decenter women and erase the feminist activism that gave rise to the field. She considers these anxieties as part of a larger concern over the future of the field, as well as fear that academic work on gender and sexuality has become too divorced from its activist roots.

Jack Halberstam, “Gender.” Keywords for American Cultural Studies, Second Edition (2014)

Halberstam’s entry in this volume provides a useful overview for debates and concepts that have dominated the field of gender studies: Is gender purely a social construct? What is the relationship between sex and gender? How does the gendering of bodies shift across disciplinary and cultural contexts? How did the theorizing of gender performativity in the 1990s by Judith Butler open up intellectual trajectories for queer and transgender studies? What is the future of gender as an organizing rubric for social life and as a mode of intellectual inquiry? Halberstam’s synthesis of the field makes a compelling case for why the study of gender persists and remains relevant for humanists, social scientists, and scientists alike.

Miqqi Alicia Gilbert, “Defeating Bigenderism: Changing Gender Assumptions in the Twenty-First Century.” Hypatia , 2009

Scholar and transgender activist Miqqi Alicia Gilbert considers the production and maintenance of the gender binary—that is, the idea that there are only two genders and that gender is a natural fact that remains stable across the course of one’s life. Gilbert’s view extends across institutional, legal, and cultural contexts, imagining what a frameworks that gets one out of the gender binary and gender valuation would have to look like to eliminate sexism, transphobia, and discrimination.

Judith Lorber, “Shifting Paradigms and Challenging Categories.” Social Problems , 2006

Judith Lorber identifies the key paradigm shifts in sociology around the question of gender: 1) acknowledging gender as an “organizing principle of the overall social order in modern societies;” 2) stipulating that gender is socially constructed, meaning that while gender is assigned at birth based on visible genitalia, it isn’t a natural, immutable category but one that is socially determined; 3) analyzing power in modern western societies reveals the dominance of men and promotion of a limited version of heterosexual masculinity; 4) emerging methods in sociology are helping disrupt the production of ostensibly universal knowledge from a narrow perspective of privileged subjects. Lorber concludes that feminist sociologists’ work on gender has provided the tools for sociology to reconsider how it analyzes structures of power and produces knowledge.

bell hooks, “Sisterhood: Political Solidarity between Women.” Feminist Review , 1986

bell hooks argues that the feminist movement has privileged the voices, experiences, and concerns of white women at the expense of women of color. Instead of acknowledging who the movement has centered, white women have continually invoked the “common oppression” of all women, a move they think demonstrates solidarity but actually erases and marginalizes women who fall outside of the categories of white, straight, educated, and middle-class. Instead of appealing to “common oppression,” meaningful solidarity requires that women acknowledge their differences, committing to a feminism that “aims to end sexist oppression.” For hooks, this necessitates a feminism that is anti-racist. Solidarity doesn’t have to mean sameness; collective action can emerge from difference.

Jennifer C. Nash, “re-thinking intersectionality.” Feminist Review , 2008

Chances are you’ve come across the phrase “intersectional feminism.” For many, this term is redundant: If feminism isn’t attentive to issues impacting a range of women, then it’s not actually feminism. While the term “intersectional” now circulates colloquially to signify a feminism that is inclusive, its usage has become divorced from its academic origins. The legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw created the term “intersectionality” in the 1980s based on Black women’s experiences with the law in cases of discrimination and violence. Intersectionality is not an adjective or a way to describe identity, but a tool for analyzing structures of power. It aims to disrupt universal categories of and claims about identity. Jennifer Nash provides an overview of intersectionality’s power, including guidance on how to deploy it in the service of coalition-building and collective action.

Treva B. Lindsey, “Post-Ferguson: A ‘Herstorical’ Approach to Black Violability.” Feminist Studies , 2015

Treva Lindsey considers the erasure of Black women’s labor in anti-racist activism , as well as the erasure of their experiences with violence and harm. From the Civil Rights Movement to #BlackLivesMatter, Black women’s contributions and leadership have not been acknowledged to the same extent as their male counterparts. Furthermore, their experiences with state-sanctioned racial violence don’t garner as much attention. Lindsey argues that we must make visible the experiences and labor of Black women and queer persons of color in activist settings in order to strengthen activist struggles for racial justice.

Renya Ramirez, “Race, Tribal Nation, and Gender: A Native Feminist Approach to Belonging.” Meridians , 2007

Renya Ramirez (Winnebago) argues that indigenous activist struggles for sovereignty, liberation, and survival must account for gender. A range of issues impact Native American women, such as domestic abuse, forced sterilization , and sexual violence. Furthermore, the settler state has been invested in disciplining indigenous concepts and practices of gender, sexuality, and kinship, reorienting them to fit into white settler understandings of property and inheritance. A Native American feminist consciousness centers gender and envisions decolonization without sexism.

Hester Eisenstein, “A Dangerous Liaison? Feminism and Corporate Globalization.” Science & Society , 2005

Hester Eisenstein argues that some of contemporary U.S. feminism’s work in a global context has been informed by and strengthened capitalism in a way that ultimately increases harms against marginalized women. For example, some have suggested offering poor rural women in non-U.S. contexts microcredit as a path to economic liberation. In reality, these debt transactions hinder economic development and “continue the policies that have created the poverty in the first place.” Eisenstein acknowledges that feminism has the power to challenge capitalist interests in a global context, but she cautions us to consider how aspects of the feminist movement have been coopted by corporations.

Afsaneh Najmabadi, “Transing and Transpassing Across Sex-Gender Walls in Iran.” Women’s Studies Quarterly , 2008

Afsaneh Najmabadi remarks on the existence of sex-reassignment surgeries in Iran since the 1970s and the increase in these surgeries in the twenty-first century. She explains that these surgeries are a response to perceived sexual deviance; they’re offered to cure persons who express same-sex desire. Sex-reassignment surgeries ostensibly “heteronormaliz[e]” people who are pressured to pursue this medical intervention for legal and religious reasons. While a repressive practice, Najmabadi also argues that this practice has paradoxically provided “ relatively safer semipublic gay and lesbian social space” in Iran. Najmabadi’s scholarship illustrates how gender and sexual categories, practices, and understandings are influenced by geographical and cultural contexts.

Susan Stryker, Paisley Currah, and Lisa Jean Moore’s “Introduction: Trans-, Trans, or Transgender?” Women’s Studies Quarterly , 2008

Susan Stryker, Paisley Currah, and Lisa Jean Moore map the ways that transgender studies can expand feminist and gender studies. “Transgender” does not need to exclusively signify individuals and communities, but can provide a lens for interrogating all bodies’ relationships to gendered spaces, disrupting the bounds of seemingly strict identity categories, and redefining gender. The “trans-” in transgender is a conceptual tool for interrogating the relationship between bodies and the institutions that discipline them.

David A. Rubin, “‘An Unnamed Blank That Craved a Name’: A Genealogy of Intersex as Gender.” Signs , 2012

David Rubin considers the fact that intersex persons have been subject to medicalization, pathologization, and “regulation of embodied difference through biopolitical discourses, practices, and technologies” that rely on normative cultural understandings of gender and sexuality. Rubin considers the impact intersexuality had on conceptualizations of gender in mid-twentieth century sexology studies, and how the very concept of gender that emerged in that moment has been used to regulate the lives of intersex individuals.

Rosemarie Garland-Thomson, “Feminist Disability Studies.” Signs , 2005

Rosemarie Garland-Thomson provides a thorough overview of the field of feminist disability studies. Both feminist and disability studies contend that those things which seem most natural to bodies are actually produced by a range of political, legal, medical, and social institutions. Gendered and disabled bodies are marked by these institutions. Feminist disability studies asks: How are meaning and value assigned to disabled bodies? How is this meaning and value determined by other social markers, such as gender, sexuality, race, class, religion, national origin, and citizenship status?

The field asks under what conditions disabled bodies are denied or granted sexual, reproductive, and bodily autonomy and how disability impacts the exploration of gender and sexual expression in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood historical and contemporary pathologization of genders and sexualities. It explores how disabled activists, artists, and writers respond to social, cultural, medical, and political forces that deny them access, equity, and representation

Karin A. Martin, “William Wants a Doll. Can He Have One? Feminists, Child Care Advisors, and Gender-Neutral Child Rearing.” Gender and Society , 2005

Karin Martin examines the gender socialization of children through an analysis of a range of parenting materials. Materials that claim to be (or have been claimed as) gender-neutral actually have a deep investment in training children in gender and sexual norms. Martin invites us to think about how adult reactions to children’s gender nonconformity pivots on a fear that gender expression in childhood is indicative of present or future non-normative sexuality. In other words, U.S. culture is unable to separate gender from sexuality. We imagine gender identity and expression maps predictably onto sexual desire. When children’s gender identity and expression exceeds culturally-determined permissible bounds in a family or community, adults project onto the child and discipline accordingly.

Sarah Pemberton, “Enforcing Gender: The Constitution of Sex and Gender in Prison Regimes.” Signs , 2013

Sarah Pemberton’s considers how sex-segregated prisons in the U.S. and England discipline their populations differently according to gender and sexual norms. This contributes to the policing, punishment, and vulnerability of incarcerated gender-nonconforming, transgender, and intersex persons. Issues ranging from healthcare access to increased rates of violence and harassment suggest that policies impacting incarcerated persons should center gender.

Dean Spade, “Some Very Basic Tips for Making High Education More Accessible to Trans Students and Rethinking How We Talk about Gendered Bodies.” The Radical Teacher , 2011

Lawyer and trans activist Dean Spade offers a pedagogical perspective on how to make classrooms accessible and inclusive for students. Spade also offers guidance on how to have classroom conversations about gender and bodies that don’t reassert a biological understanding of gender or equate certain body parts and functions with particular genders. While the discourse around these issues is constantly shifting, Spade provides useful ways to think about small changes in language that can have a powerful impact on students.

Sarah S. Richardson, “Feminist Philosophy of Science: History, Contributions, and Challenges.” Synthese , 2010

Feminist philosophy of science is a field comprised of scholars studying gender and science that has its origins in the work of feminist scientists in the 1960s. Richardson considers the contributions made by these scholars, such as increased opportunities for and representation of women in STEM fields , pointing out biases in seemingly neutral fields of scientific inquiry. Richardson also considers the role of gender in knowledge production, looking at the difficulties women have faced in institutional and professional contexts. The field of feminist philosophy of science and its practitioners are marginalized and delegitimized because of the ways they challenge dominant modes of knowledge production and disciplinary inquiry.

Bryce Traister’s “Academic Viagra: The Rise of American Masculinity Studies.” American Quarterly , 2000

Bryce Traister considers the emergence of masculinity studies out of gender studies and its development in American cultural studies. He argues that the field has remained largely invested in centering heterosexuality, asserting the centrality and dominance of men in critical thought. He offers ways for thinking about how to study masculinity without reinstituting gendered hierarchies or erasing the contributions of feminist and queer scholarship.

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Gendered Innovations in Science, Medicine & Engineering

Contributors
Links
Translations
What is Gendered Innovations ?

Sex & Gender Analysis

Research Priorities
Rethinking Concepts
Research Questions
Analyzing Sex
Analyzing Gender
Sex and Gender Interact
Intersectional Approaches
Engineering Innovation
Participatory Research
Reference Models
Language & Visualizations
Tissues & Cells
Lab Animal Research
Sex in Biomedicine
Gender in Health & Biomedicine
Evolutionary Biology
Machine Learning
Social Robotics
Hermaphroditic Species
Impact Assessment
Norm-Critical Innovation
Intersectionality
Race and Ethnicity
Age and Sex in Drug Development
Engineering
Health & Medicine
SABV in Biomedicine
Tissues & Cells
Urban Planning & Design

Case Studies

Animal Research
Animal Research 2
Computer Science Curriculum
Genetics of Sex Determination
Chronic Pain
Colorectal Cancer
De-Gendering the Knee
Dietary Assessment Method
Heart Disease in Diverse Populations
Medical Technology
Nanomedicine
Nanotechnology-Based Screening for HPV
Nutrigenomics
Osteoporosis Research in Men
Prescription Drugs
Systems Biology
Assistive Technologies for the Elderly
Domestic Robots
Extended Virtual Reality
Facial Recognition
Gendering Social Robots
Haptic Technology
HIV Microbicides
Inclusive Crash Test Dummies
Human Thorax Model
Machine Translation
Making Machines Talk
Video Games
Virtual Assistants and Chatbots
Agriculture
Climate Change
Environmental Chemicals
Housing and Neighborhood Design
Marine Science
Menstrual Cups
Population and Climate Change
Quality Urban Spaces
Smart Energy Solutions
Smart Mobility
Sustainable Fashion
Waste Management
Water Infrastructure
Intersectional Design
Major Granting Agencies
Peer-Reviewed Journals
Universities

Formulating Research Questions

Research questions typically flow from research priorities (see Rethinking Research Priorities and Outcomes ) and from the theories and concepts that frame research (see Rethinking Concepts and Theories ). Research priorities—along with concepts and theories—directly influence how research is designed. They function to

1. delimit questions asked—and, by implication, questions not asked (see, for example, Case Study: Genetics of Sex Determination ).
2. frame the research design and choice of methods.

As with other stages of the research and development processes, the choice of a research question is often underpinned by assumptions—both implicit and explicit—about sex and gender (see Method: Analyzing Gender ). As in other stages of research and development, potential for creative innovation lies in critically examining existing practices in light of available evidence about sex and gender (Bührer et al., 2006; Schraudner et al., 2006; Schiebinger, 2008; Wylie, et al., Klinge, 2010; IOM, 2010; Wajcman, 2010).

Critical questions for analyzing the significance (if any) of sex and gender in formulating research questions:

1. What is the current state of knowledge of sex and gender ( norms , identities , or relations ) in a given area of research or development?

2. What do we not know as a result of not analyzing sex and gender?

3. How have sex and gender functioned to limit the research questions posed in this field? For example, coronary angiography is a powerful diagnostic tool for assessing coronary artery disease, but it can cause bleeding complications, especially in women. Researchers asked how angiography could be made safer and designed and patented new catheters and procedures to allow angiography from the radial artery rather than the groin. This shift reduces bleeding in everyone (see Case Study: Heart Disease in Diverse Populations ).

4. Have assumptions been made about sex and gender? Are these justified in light of available evidence? Are assumptions underpinning these research questions invalid when subjected to critical analysis? For example, cultural assumptions about gender difference can lead companies to market “gender-specific” products—in one case a sex-specific knee prosthesis—that may not be the best choice for consumers (see Case Study: De-Gendering the Knee ). Have researchers assumed a sex or gender binary? For example, recent research suggests that some transgender people may be at higher risk for heart disease, but transgender patients are not typically a focus for heart disease research (see Case Study: Heart Disease in Diverse Populations ).

5. Have any potentially relevant groups of research subjects been left out (e.g., female animals in drug research, women and gender-diverse people in systems biology, pregnant women and large people in automotive engineering)? (See Case Studies: Prescription Drugs , Systems Biology , and Inclusive Crash Test Dummies .)

6. What research questions would lead to more robust research designs and methods? For example, in studies of sexual differentiation, geneticists have revealed the shortcomings of scientific models that portrayed the female developmental pathway as “passive.” By challenging assumptions of passivity, researchers formulated new questions about the ovarian developmental pathway. New findings now suggest that both female and male development are active, gene-mediated processes (see Case Study: Genetics of Sex Determination ).

Related Case Studies

Works cited.

Bührer, S., Gruber, E., Hüsing, B., Kimpeler, S., Rainfurth, C., Schlomann, B., Schraudner, M., & Wehking, S. (2006). Wie Können Gender-Aspekte in Forschungsvorhaben Erkannt und Bewertet Werden? München: Fraunhofer.

Klinge, I., & Wiesemann, C. (Eds.) (2010). Sex and Gender in Biomedicine: Theories, Methodologies, and Results . Göttingen: Universitätsverlag.

Institute of Medicine (IOM). (2010). Women’s Health Research: Progress, Pitfalls, and Promise . Washington, D.C.: United States National Academies Press.

Schiebinger, L. (Ed.) (2014). Women and Gender in Science and Technology, 4 vols. London: Routledge.

Schraudner, M., & Lukoschat, H. (Eds.) (2006). Gender als Innovationspotenzial in Forschung and Entwicklung . Karlsruhe: Fraunhofer Institut.

Wajcman, J. (2010). Feminist Theories of Technology. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 34 (1), 143-152 .

Wylie, A., & Conkey, M. (2007). Doing Archaeology as a Feminist. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 14 (3) , 209-216.

Gender Studies

Gender Studies @ the Library
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Keywords in gender studies, expand your keyword list.

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Try one of these topics

Possible keywords: intimate partner violence, identity abuse, queer communities, LGBT people, intersectionality
Possible keywords: gender identity, transgender people, gender nonconforming people
Possible keywords: sex education, bullying prevention, LGBT youth, health promotion
Possible keywords: transgender people, health disparities, health care inequality, patient protection

Gender Studies is an interdisciplinary field and may require keywords the aspect of the gender issue combined with keywords related to multiple disciplines (history, politics, medicine, literature, etc.). The ideas below will help get you started. If you need further help with keywords, talk to your professor or set up a research appointment with a librarian.

Note: Terminology in Gender Studies evolves much faster than terminology in databases. You will likely come across outdated and possibly offensive subject descriptions. However, it may be necessary to use such keywords in order to find the research you need.

Some suggested keyword combinations:

Gender AND [society, psychology, biology, income]
Women AND [art, history, sex roles, gender expression]
Men AND [communication, mental health, gender roles]

Look for additional keywords in:

Abstracts/Summaries even if the article is not relevant to your research, it may provide terms common to the field or other term related to your research.
Book Indexes are basically keywords lists that help you navigate information in a physical book.
E.g. "LGBTQ-inclusive sex education" may also be referred to as "comprehensive sex education"
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Selecting and Narrowing a Topic

Choose an area of interest to explore. .

For you to successfully finish a research project, it is important to choose a research topic that is relevant to your field of study and piques your curiosity. The flip side is that curiosity can take you down long and winding paths, so you also need to consider scope in how to effectively cover the topic in the space that you have available. If there's an idea or concept you've recently learned that's stuck with you, that might be a good place to start !

Gather background information.

You may not know right away what your research question is - that's okay! Start out with a broad topic, and see what information is out there through cursory background research. This will help you explore possibilities and narrow your topic to something manageable. Do a few quick searches in OneSearch@IU or in other relevant sources. See what other researchers have already written to help narrow your focus.

Narrow your topic.

Once you have a sense of how other researchers are talking about the topics you’re interested, narrow down your topic by asking the 5 Ws

Who – population or group (e.g., working class, college students, Native Americans)
What – discipline or focus (e.g., anthropological or art history)
Where – geographic location (e.g., United States; universities; small towns; Standing Rock)
When – time period or era (17 th century; contemporary; 2017)
Why – why is the topic important? (to the class, to the field, or to you)

Broad topic: Native American representations in museums

Narrowed topic: Museum efforts to adhere to NAGPRA

Adapted from: University of Michigan. (2023 Finding and Exploring your topic. Retrieved from https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283095&p=1886086

From Topic to Research Question

So, you have done some background research and narrowed down your topic. Now what? Start to turn that topic into a series of questions that you will attempt to answer the course of your research. Keep in mind that you will probably end up changing and adjusting the question(s) you have as you gather more information and synthesize it in your writing. However, having a clear line of inquiry can help you maintain a sense of your direction, which will then in turn help you evaluate sources and identify relevant information throughout your research process.

Exploratory questions.

These are the questions that comes from a genuine curiosity about your topic. When narrowing down your topic, you got a good sense of the Who, What, When, and Where of things. Now it’s time to consider

Asking open-ended “how” and “why” questions about your general topic, which can lead you to better explanations about a phenomenon or concept
Consider the “so what?” of your topic. Why does this topic matter to you? Why should it matter to others? What are the implications of the information you’re discovering through the search process to the Who and the What of your topic?

Evaluate your research question.

Use the following to determine if any of the questions you generated would be appropriate and workable for your assignment.

Is your question clear ? Do you have a specific aspect of your general topic that you are going to explore further? Will the reader of your research be able to keep it in mind?
Is your question focused? Will you be able to cover the topic adequately in the space available? Are you able to concisely ask the question?
Is your question and arguable ? If it can be answered with a simple Yes or No, then dig deeper. Once you get to “it depends on X, Y, and Z” then you might be getting on the right track.

Hypothesize.

Once you have developed your research question, consider how you will attempt to answer or address it.

What connections can you make between the research you’ve read and your research question? Why do those connections matter?
What other kinds of sources will you need in order to support your argument?
If someone refutes the answer to your research question, what is your argument to back up your conclusion?
How might others challenge your argument? Why do those challenges ultimately not hold water?

Adapted from: George Mason University Writing Center. (2018). How to write a research question. Retrieved from https://writingcenter.gmu.edu/writing-resources/research-based-writing/how-to-write-a-research-question

Sample research questions.

A good research question is clear, focused, and has an appropriate level of complexity. Developing a strong question is a process, so you will likely refine your question as you continue to research and to develop your ideas.

Unclear : Why are social networking sites harmful?

Clear: How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues on such social networking sites as Facebook and TikTok?

Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment from global warming?

Focused: How is glacial melting affecting penguins in Antarctica?

Simple vs Complex

Too simple: How are doctors addressing diabetes in the U.S.?

Appropriately Complex: What are common traits of those suffering from diabetes in America, and how can these commonalities be used to aid the medical community in prevention of the disease?

General Online Reference Sources

Reference sources like dictionaries and encylopedias provide general information about various subjects. They also include definitions that may help you break down your topic and understand it better. Sources includes in these entries can be springboards for more in-depth research.

A note on citation: Reference sources are generally not cited since they usually consist of common knowledge (e.g. who was the first United States President). But if you're unsure whether to cite something it's best to do so. Specific pieces of information and direct quotes should always be cited.

Why Use References Sources

Reference sources are a great place to begin your research. They can help you:

gain an overview of a topic
explore potential research areas
identify key issues, publications, or authors in your research area

From here, you can narrow your search topic and look at more specialized sources.

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Top picks by Nicoline de Haan, CGIAR GENDER Platform Director

#1 rural youth in southern nigeria.

There are three clear reasons why Rural Youth in Southern Nigeria: Fractured Lives and Ambitious Futures by Crossouard et al. sticks in my mind. First, because it is about youth. We often talk about youth and their importance for the future, but I have not seen much research about rural youth. As the CGIAR GENDER Platform evolves, we will work more on youth issues, so it is important we have more theoretical thinking and evidence in this space. My second reason is linked to the article’s approach: years ago, I was in the field in Kenya with a PhD student doing research on how rural education was preparing youth for the future, and she found that the education system was not at all linked to the realities. This article looks at that issue as well. Finally, I picked this because it is about Nigeria, and having spent seven years of my career there, Nigeria always interests me. It was also good to see a CGIAR scientist involved in this research.

#2 Gender equality in climate policy and practice

Gender Equality in Climate Policy and Practice Hindered by Assumptions by Lau et al. is one of those articles that should have been written a long time ago. It lays out the assumptions we are still dealing with in gender in agriculture research. For example, that women are caring and connected to the environment; that women are a homogenous and vulnerable group; that gender equality is a women’s issue; and that gender equality is a numbers game. The authors very nicely show how these assumptions hinder progress on climate change and how they can even be counterproductive. Now that this article is out there for the public, we can move on and really deal with the issues at hand!

Top picks by Marlene Elias, CGIAR GENDER Platform Alliances Module Lead

#3 gender expertise in environment and development.

This book, Negotiating Gender Expertise in Environment and Development by Resurrección and Elmhirst, is thoughtful and beautifully written. It brings together critical reflections from gender experts on their experiences working in environment and development organizations, including CGIAR. It takes an innovative format: a series of conversations between the co-editors and writers, Bernadette Resurrección and Rebecca Elmhirst, and gender experts who are working to place gender and social inclusion issues at the center of research and practice on sustainability and environmental management. These conversations surface the motivations, negotiations, achievements and daily struggles of these professionals as they navigate the complexities of all that is implied by working on gender in largely technical fields. Every chapter has a different flavor, but all will resonate with those of us working in this area; and make us nod our heads, sigh, laugh (or cry!) and better understand our profession and ourselves.

#4 Masculinities in forests

Colfer’s book, Masculinities in Forests: Representations of Diversity , focuses on how masculinities relate to forest management, drawing on her experience working in different forest contexts, from the USA to Indonesia. It takes a timely dive into diverse masculinities and how these shape practices in forest management, all the while recognizing men’s agency in expressing different masculine identities. Aside from the rich content that is discussed, couched in an accessible framework and language, I appreciated that the book examines masculinities among professionals working in the field of forestry as well as among various forest communities. I was also very impressed by how Colfer was able to re-examine decades of ethnographic research through a new lens to write this book. Wow!

Top picks by Els Lecoutere, CGIAR GENDER Platform Science Officer

#5 diffusion and dilution.

Doss’ Diffusion and Dilution: The Power and Perils of Integrating Feminist Perspectives into Household Economics is important to me is because it acknowledges the advances we have made in integrating feminist economic perspectives into mainstream economics, but also points out areas for improvement. It helps us to stay focused. Personally, I find the call for careful consideration of benefits versus potential harm, and proper training of enumerators when collection data about domestic and gender-based violence, extremely important. I sometimes feel we make the decision to collect data about domestic and gender-based violence too lightly. The article further opens the discussion about two other pet topics of mine: First, how can we better capture the complexity of households, including the web of power relations between different members, in which individuals make decisions? Second, how can we measure social norms and their importance for people’s capabilities and choices? How can these be changed and what are the effects?

#6 A review of evidence

I keep going back to this brief, A Review of Evidence on Gender Equality, Women’s Empowerment and Food Systems by Njuki et al., mainly for its gendered food systems framework. The framework brings the different ways in which gender affects capabilities, choices and outcomes in food systems together. It provides a theoretical basis for various key questions in gender in agricultural and food system research and shows how this is supported by evidence. To me, its key contribution is the way it disentangles the different ‘entry points’ of gender constraints. Gender inequalities cannot only creep into biophysical, technological or economic drivers of food systems, shocks and vulnerabilities affecting these drivers can also affect men and women differently. Finally, the conceptualization of gendered food systems as systems underscores the dynamic, interdependent nature of the different elements and the need for a holistic approach to achieve gender equality in agriculture and food systems.

Top pick by Hazel Malapit and Elizabeth Bryan, CGIAR GENDER Platform Methods Module Co-leads

#7 advancing gender equality.

If you don’t have time to read the whole book, read the introduction. Pyburn and van Eerdewijk’s introduction to Advancing Gender Equality through Agricultural and Environmental Research excellently presents the topics discussed in the book, which features contributions from 55 CGIAR gender researchers. The book flips an often-posed question: instead of asking what gender equality can do for agricultural development, it asks how agricultural and environmental research can advance gender equality. One of the best overviews of gender research in CGIAR, the introductory chapter contextualizes CGIAR gender research within our organization’s struggles to address gender and within the broader thinking around gender and development. The introduction provides summaries of each chapter as well as information on the methodological and geographic breakdown of studies reviewed.

#8 Gender and agricultural economics

As gender researchers in the GCIAR are well aware, women and men in developing countries have different preferences and interests, and good policies and programs take these differences into account. But what about what researchers themselves bring to the table? This article, How Women Saved Agricultural Economics , by Offutt and McCluskey, points out that women (and minorities) tend to be under-represented in economics positions in government and academia, and are not recognized for their achievements with awards and editorships due to both overt discrimination and implicit bias. Yet, the authors say, the diversity resulting from women’s increased presence in field has increased the relevance of the discipline over the last several decades. This research documents the importance of increasing representation in academic fields where women (and other minorities) are traditionally under-represented. While this study focuses on agricultural economics in the United States, it has prompted further analysis of how these patterns apply in other countries, such as India and Kenya, and within other institutions.

Top picks by Ranjitha Puskur, CGIAR GENDER Platform Evidence Module Lead

#9 food and agriculture systems.

Foresight studies on agriculture tend to not integrate social dimensions as these often do not render themselves to quantitative measurement. This article, Food and Agriculture Systems Foresight Study: Implications for Gender, Poverty and Nutrition by Lentz, is a rare review that argues for mainstreaming a gender, poverty and nutrition focus into foresight research. This would help ensure that we reduce the risk of entrenching gender inequalities and promoting technologies that exacerbate inequality, and that we are able to inform policy- and innovation-led pathways. Having dabbled in participatory foresight analysis using scenario planning, visioning and backcasting, this piqued my curiosity. The paper offers helpful insights into how and when to bundle or sequence interventions and the need to understand the effects of interventions on the whole agri-food system. It offers a very engaging and useful read, even for those who are unfamiliar with foresight methods.

#10 Gender and land ownership

The issue of women’s limited land ownership is sticky and has occupied central stage in debates and discourses for a while. Nowhere have we been able to make any significant progress in reducing the gender gaps in land ownership. Cheryl Doss (2018) questioned the myth of women owning less than one percent of land globally. This continues to be a complex issue, with the definition of “ownership” being only one of the tricky issues. Agarwal’s 2021 paper, How Many and Which Women Own Land in India? , uses longitudinal data from the Village Level Studies (VLS), collected by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) from a set of Indian villages between 2009 and 2014, to look at which women are more likely to own land, why and how these patterns changed over the years. We at the CGIAR GENDER Platform have also been highlighting the need to focus more on unpacking intersectionalities to have better insights that can inform targeted solutions. This paper provides a very good example of the importance of intersectional approaches and it highlights the gap and the critical need for a national and state-level datasets.

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The following are examples of encyclopedias, handbooks, and annotated bibliographies that provide background information on your topic which you can use to focus your research question. These resources will also cite books and articles that can jump start your search for more specific research literature.

Reference EBook Collections

Search within these collections to identify reference sources and entries within these sources relevant to your topic.

SAGE Knowledge This link opens in a new window An online collection of subject encyclopedias and handbooks covering a wide-variety of subjects in the social sciences. Particularly strong for handbook coverage.
Oxford Bibliographies This link opens in a new window Offers annotated bibliographies of the most important books and articles on specific topics in a growing range of subject areas. Particularly useful for anyone beginning research.
Oxford Reference Online This link opens in a new window Online version of many Oxford University Press reference works, ranging from specialized dictionaries and companions to major reference works such as the Encyclopedia of Human Rights, the Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink, the Oxford Encyclopedia of Latinos and Latinas in the United States, and the Oxford Encyclopedia of Economic History, among many others.

Examples of Reference Sources

Sage Research Methods Core Collection This link opens in a new window SAGE Research Methods supports research at all levels by providing material to guide users through every step of the research process. SAGE Research Methods is the ultimate methods library with more than 1000 books, reference works, journal articles, and instructional videos by world-leading academics from across the social sciences, including the largest collection of qualitative methods books available online from any scholarly publisher. – Publisher

Examples of titles included in the Sage Research Methods database:

Feminist Measures in Survey Research (2013)
Handbook of Feminist Research : Theory & Praxis (2012)
Handbook of Critical & Indigenous Methodologies (2008)
Gender & Qualitative Methods (2003)

Additional books on research methods, academic writing, and other aspects of graduate education can be found in NUSearch . One example of a book found using one of the subject headings from the following selective list is included:

Academic writing
Dissertations, academic
Dissertations, writing
Bisexuals -- Research -- Methodology
Ethnology -- Methodology (substitute any subject term for "Ethnology")
Feminism -- Research -- Methodology
Gays -- Research -- Methodology
Lesbians -- Research -- Methodology
LGBTQ+ people -- Research
LGBTQ+ people -- Statistics
Masculinity -- Research -- Methodology
Men -- Research -- Methodology
Queer Theory
Sexology -- Research
Sexual Minorities -- Research
Sexual Minorities -- Statistics
Social sciences -- Research
Social sciences -- Research -- Methodology
Transgender people -- Research -- Methodology
Women -- Research -- Methodology

Research Methods: Primary Sources This link opens in a new window Research Methods Primary Sources is an exciting new platform that introduces humanities and social science students to the key approaches and methodologies of working with source material. Designed to be used in the classroom or for independent study, this resource will empower students to engage with primary sources and assess historical evidence with confidence. more... less... At the heart of Research Methods, you will find nearly 200 hundred essays, videos, "How to" guides and case studies by subject specialists which answer all of your questions about working with primary sources. From guidance on where you can find historical documents, to the questions you might want to pose and how best to approach analysing the content they hold, this platform gathers together practical advice and instruction from experts working around the world. – Publisher
Archival Work as Qualitative Sociology special issue on Archival Work as Qualitative Sociology in case you would like to add this resource to your tools/guides. more... less... A special issue of the journal, Qualitative Sociology
Gender and Sexuality Studies Program
Institute for Sexual and Gender Minority Health and Wellbeing First research institute in U.S. that is focused exclusively on LGBT health.
Sexualities Project at Northwestern Project of the Gender & Sexuality Studies Program at Northwestern University.

The language used to describe library, archival, and other cultural collections has been under scrutiny to ensure inclusiveness for several decades. The implementation of inclusive and respectful language is uneven and progress is incremental. Below are a few resources that may help you identify a range of terms to use when searching, keeping in mind that using a variety of synonyms for your research topic will be most effective, especially when searching in multiple databases and disciplines.

Northwestern University Libraries provides this Statement of Bias in Metadata along with information about our efforts to redress this bias.

Homosaurus An international linked data vocabulary of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer (LGBTQ) terms. This vocabulary is intended to function as a companion to broad subject term vocabularies, such as the Library of Congress Subject Headings
Library of Congress Subject Headings includes all Library of Congress Subject Headings, free-floating subdivisions (topical and form), Genre/Form headings, Children's (AC) headings, and validation strings* for which authority records have been created.
A Women's Thesaurus: An Index of Language Used to Describe and Locate Information by and About Women. by Mary Ellen S. Capek Call Number: Special Collections Femina Ref 025.49305 W872 Publication Date: 1987 Over 5,000 terms, not derived from the Library of Congress Subject Headings. Also at Oak Grove Library Center Request Online 025.49305 W872
Women in LC's Terms by Ellen J. Waite; Ruth Dickstein; Victoria A. Mills Call Number: Special Collections Femina Ref 025.49305 D5545w Publication Date: 1988 "A guide to the Library of Congress (LC) subject headings used for women and topics of relevance to women's lives."
LGBTQ+ Legal Resources: LC Subject Headings Library of Congress (LC) Subject Headings to use in NUSearch when researching LGBTQ+ legal issues - included as one page of a research guide created by the Library of Congress. These headings can be searched with or without the subdivisions that describe legal issues, and in combination with other keywords.

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easy academic paper help

33 Best Women’s and Gender Studies Paper Topics

Gender equity is among the trending issues around the globe. This has been characterized by women empowerment movements in various countries and rules geared towards protecting women in multiple societies.

To do this, institutions have focused on studies on gender, thus empowering women to reduce their vulnerability. The regular changes bring about diverse gender paper topics, making it hard to settle for a specific idea for your thesis paper.

This article will suggest some gender issues topics for the research paper to boost your brainstorming efforts.

Women’s Gender Studies Paper Topics

Gender research paper topics.

Factors that discourage parents from providing their daughters with a decent education in third world countries
Discrimination against women in the workplace and how to overcome the bias
A case study on the psychological implications of single parenting on women
Differences in raising of a girl and boy child and the limitations of their societal expectations
Evolution of movements against gender discrimination
The role of marital partners in the well being
Reasons as to why women are underrepresented in the upper tier of business management
Do family roles in couples hold back the career progress of the wife?
Why elections are biased towards male candidates: Steps to overcoming the bias
Analyzing gender-based violence in various countries across the globe

Research topics in gender studies

How to instill the culture of gender equity in children at a tender age
The role of women in the development of the world economy
Measures that you can take to protect women from gender violence in cities
Women wage-gap across the globe and steps to bridge the gap
Gender role stereotype: their relevance in early days and why their relevance in the modern society
Development of gender studies and the impact of gender studies in women empowerment
Maternity and paternity leave: Are both necessary? Are parenting roles defined for each gender?
Is education a viable option for eliminating societal gender bias?
Factors that contribute to gender inequality within developing countries
Are women inferior to their male counterparts? Factors behind the stereotype and approaches to do away with this stereotype

Feminist research paper topics

The role of environment in the mental growth and role assumption among women
Masculinity vs. femininity: Does the societal view of each gender contribute to the overall gender bias?
Role of mainstream media in eradicating gender bias in society
Famous feminist literary works and their impact on the societal view of gender
How to eliminate sexual exploitation among women in developed and developing countries
Historical roots of male chauvinism and the effect on the feminist movement in Africa
Role of African Women in society and steps to ensuring gender equality
A case study on how social media is shaping the view of feminism
Why feminism is viewed as men hatred in some societies
The impact of little female representation on women political participation

Women’s studies research paper topics

Reasons why women were barred from serving in the US military until 2013. Factors that led to the change.
How women’s health and rights have been associated throughout history
What factors made it easy for Japan to adopt equality laws compared to its European counterparts

How to choose a gender paper topic

When studying gender, the selection of a good topic is essential to have an easy writing process. When brainstorming a subject for your gender papers, you may follow the following tips:

Formulate questions – after reading the thesis statement, formulate a question regarding the main idea encapsulated in the statement.
Compile a keyword list – when formulating your topic, you may consider writing the keywords on the trending issues within the subject. Next, interconnect these keywords and determine how a single case can tackle your ideas.
Check available information – before settling on a topic, check for the availability of materials to back your arguments. However, steer free of issues that have been over addressed as they may limit new ideas without plagiarizing existing work.

30+ environmental science topics for research papers, top 40 social science topics for research papers, leave a reply cancel reply.

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Studying Gender and Sexualities with Qualitative Methods

Editor's Note
Published: 09 August 2018
Volume 41 , pages 333–335, ( 2018 )

Cite this article

David Smilde 1 &
Rebecca Hanson 2

11k Accesses

Explore all metrics

Avoid common mistakes on your manuscript.

Sometimes things just happen. In reviewing the manuscripts we had in the queue for the September issue, we realized that beyond any conscious intention half of them had to do with gender and/or sexualities. That is actually not surprising since about a third of the submissions we receive focus on gender and/or sexualities. In fact, we have always had to make sure that at least one of our editorial assistants was a GSS scholar, able to identify and locate viable reviewers.

Qualitative Sociology does not focus on publishing in specific research areas or sociological subfields. So why do we receive so many GSS submissions? We believe it is because qualitative methods lend themselves to studying the building blocks of gender expression and sexual identities—the interactional, the discursive, and the performative—and how these buttress systems of inequalities. Quantitative methods do a great job of detecting and measuring the effects of gender bias and discrimination in employment, education, and other domains of social life. But qualitative methods are particularly suited to unpacking the “how” of gender and sexualities—the layers of practices, discourses, histories, and identities that constitute and are constituted by them.

Gender and sexuality encompass (often binary) sets of categories related to the meanings assigned to assumed reproductive capacities made explicit in the everyday and inscribed into the unconscious, as well as the malleable and fluctuating content of those categories. Focused but open-ended participant observation, qualitative interviewing, and ethnographic readings of documents and archives can show us how people resist, remake or reify these categories, challenging or reproducing the inequalities that structure them. Qualitative methods can reveal the complicated and reciprocal processes through which assumptions about gender and sexuality guide interactions, become embedded in institutions, and differentially affect life chances.

In this issue, Rania Salem shows how the Egyptian middle class reproduces inequality through active constructions and reconstructions of gendered expectations around marriage. Salem shows how “waithood”—the process whereby young people wait to marry because they do not have the education, employment or material well being to form a new household—results not simply from a scarcity of resources, but depends on gendered constructions of the division of labor and consumption practices that provide assurance to a bride’s family that a man will provide for his dependent wife after the wedding. Matrimonial transactions, then, adhere to norms and ritualized situations that signal actors’ dedication to dominant ideals of masculinity and femininity and the unequal roles they will come to occupy within marriage.

In a world in which there have been undeniable formal gains in gender equality, qualitative research can unpack and explain persistent inequalities. Examining the role of women in Italian mafias, Felia Alum and Irene Marchi push back against analyses that suggest that taking on high level positions in an organization—here, the mafia—signals that women have become empowered. They show this only happens at moments of crisis and that, while women gain status in the organization, they effectively do so by default. Wives, mothers and daughters serve as a sort of “reserve army” when men are killed, imprisoned, incapacitated or threatened. They suggest the term exploitation is closer to the mark than emancipation. By decoupling “rising in the ranks” from empowerment, the authors show that increased gender parity does not necessarily signal egalitarian gender relations. Chelsea Wahl and Stephen Ellingson provide a classic portrait of gender discrimination, looking at the contradictory way that the jazz world is simultaneously built upon a culture of meritocracy and gender essentialism. Women musicians may be initially accepted, but they are tested and evaluated in ways that men are not and may require the support of a well-established man in the scene; more often than not, assumptions about what women are physically capable of limits how far they can make it in the industry. When they seek more established roles in the jazz world they are often marginalized or pushed into feminized roles (as singers, for example). They push back by working with the discourse of meritocracy, fighting for established positions in the jazz world.

Alin Frantsman-Spector and Avihu Shoshana show that resistance is not the only response to discrimination and marginalization. They look at the obligatory therapy to which prisoners’ wives are subject in Israel in order to obtain benefits for their children and imprisoned husbands. At first they resist the discourse of “vulnerable femininity” social workers foist upon them. But eventually they adopt an attitude of “strategic passing” in order to get what they need from state representatives. Over time the women learn to navigate social workers’ discourse in order to obtain medical and financial benefits, suggesting that even in submission there is room for agency. However, as the authors show, in acquiescing to a discourse that is not their own to protect and provide for their families, prisoners’ wives are made to engage in the reproduction of symbolic violence and gender (as well as ethnic) inequalities.

Both the Kelly and Gouchanour article as well as the piece by Frantsman-Spector and Shoshana demonstrate other “interactions” well captured by qualitative methods: the interactions between distinct yet interconnected systems of discrimination (class, race, ethnicity, and so on) that produce inequalities within gender categories as well as between them. Kimberly Kelly and Amanda Gochanour reveal how largely white evangelical anti-abortion activists “blackwash” abortion decisions. In trying to convince Black women not to have abortions, they do not seek to address the structural discrimination that puts Black women in the position of having an unwanted pregnancy. Rather, they appeal to racial stereotypes portraying them as abandoned by their communities and duped by abortion providers. Gowri Vijayakumar’s article is instructive in considering how gender expression and sexual identities intersect to produce and impede activism in India. Vijayakumar shows that, while the formation of collective identity plays a crucial role in social movements, constructing a collective identity among sex workers is contingent on various factors, all of which revolve around the ways cis and trans women experience sex as work, including the different constraints they face in openly identifying as sex workers.

These articles vividly demonstrate how qualitative sociology can reveal the stubborn inequalities that still define our world in the 21st century. These inequalities cannot be fully understood without studying in context, the practices, discourses, histories, and identities they are made of.

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David Smilde

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Smilde, D., Hanson, R. Studying Gender and Sexualities with Qualitative Methods. Qual Sociol 41 , 333–335 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-018-9395-x

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131 Gender Research Topics To Attain Top Grades

Are you looking for a gender topic to use for your research project, research proposal, thesis, or dissertation? You are definitely at the right place. We have 131 diverse gender research topics that will lead you to a point of research to get to the bottom of a certain phenomenon.

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Gender is portrayed by the socially constructed characteristics found in males and females. Gender defines the behaviors, norms, and gender roles of males and females. However, it differs in certain societies. However, gender can lead to specific social and economic inequalities in society.

The other popularly confusing phenomenon is sex which refers to the unique biological and psychological characteristics of males, females, and intersex persons. Hugely, gender influences people’s experiences and access to different social amenities.

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The last part This part should contain a list of references and appendices.

Gender Research Topics

Are you searching for ideal topics on gender? You can consider using any of these for your research paper, project, or assignment. You can’t miss an ideal one to use for your paper:

General impacts of globalization on experiences around gender.
Dynamics found in gender development.
Effects of discrimination based on gender at jobs and careers.
Promotion of gender equality in the world in the 21 st
The known social construction of gender roles.
Discuss whether gender is natural or acquired from the surrounding.
Is gender a role, biological sex, or culturally acquired?
How does gender impact social media interactions?
Evaluate the changing gender roles in families.
How are gender roles portrayed in cartoons?
Effects of gender biases in the workplace.

Topics About Gender

Do different topics about gender interest you? Then consider any of these for your research project, research paper, proposal, and much more:

The best modes to use to teach students about gender equality.
Evaluate women’s empowerment in society.
Common challenges faced by women in the workplace.
Classification of gender dysphoria.
Evaluate sex, gender, and inequalities
Evaluate gender stereotypes and misunderstandings.
Importance of mass media in solving gender issues.
How does society portray gender and sexuality?
Influence of gender stereotypes in individuals.

Gender Topics

Equality should be achieved in schools, workplaces, and social places. We are social beings and need to find a way to boost equality in society to prevent anyone from feeling left out:

Gender disparity in science.
Evolution of discrimination in society in the previous centuries.
Similarities between racism and gender inequality.
Social roles men and women.
Gender roles in the current society.
Why is discrimination dominant in certain places?
How has LGBT evolved?
The rights of single mothers in society?
Gender role definition.
The advantages of feminism in the growth of society.

Gender-Related Topics

Here are any gender-related topics which you can use for your thesis, dissertation, proposal, or project. If you have an interest in the field, what are you waiting for?

The relation between culture and body self-image.
Forms of gender violence in society.
Gender role in medicine and science.
Role of women in the progress of the world economy.
The possibility of reaching gender equality in modern society.
The kind of stereotypical depictions of women in the media.
Role of women on Earth.
How does religion diminish male roles in society?
Division of labor for different genders in the workplace.
Does gender influence income inequality?

Gender Studies Research Topics

Gender studies courses and the unit have gained popularity in different universities. The world is growing with each passing day, and it is important to understand how different genders interact in different institutions:

The reality of the gender pay gap in the current society.
Relation between culture and gender stereotypes.
The root of gender stereotypes.
Gender stereotypes are found on TV.
How does gender inequality affect kids’ upbringing?
Gender barriers faced by women in educational establishments.
Causes of gender-based violence in the world.
Family issues are caused by the gender disparity globally.
The attitudes towards gays and lesbians.
The Importance of maternal and paternal leaves for the newborn baby.

Gender Inequality Research Paper Topics

The world should provide a safe space for everyone. Therefore, you can use these gender inequality research paper topics to dig deeper into the kind of inequalities people go through:

Gender concepts integrated into Artificial Intelligence.
Gender diversity roles in scientific discovery.
Major causes of gender imbalance.
Relation between sports, women, and media institutions.
The advantages and disadvantages of being a feminist.
Importance of parents’ investment in girls’ education.
Factors that cause inequality in the workplace.
How gender misconceptions affect behavior.
Steps that can be taken by parents to achieve gender parity.

Sociology Research Topics On Gender

Sociology entails the study of social interactions. If that interests you then these sociology research topics on gender will do the trick:

The genderized occupations in society.
Gender stereotypes in different regions.
How are men and women treated differently in law?
The known gender roles in the family.
Women’s rights history in different countries.
Advantages and disadvantages of gender identification in society.
Mental perception of gender in society.
Legalization of LGBT in families.
How does gender studies impact self-esteem?
The origin and dangers of feminism.

Gender Topics For Research

Gender equality, and achievement will play a huge role in improving productivity in the workplace, school, and social places. Advocating for gender equality for both men and women is crucial:

Why are girls more likely to fall victim to sexual exploitation?
Key obstacles that prevent girls from accessing quality education.
Methods that can be used to promote equal opportunities for women and men in society.
Impact of gender diversity in scientific innovations.
Common gender-neutral management practices.
The contrast of the wage gap between both genders.
Evaluate gender roles in society.
Can men fight for their rights as feminists do?
Evaluate gender discrimination and promotion over time.
Can education help solve inequality issues?

Gender Issues Topics For Research Paper

What resources do you use for research? You can search on the internet, and use scholarly articles, documentaries, books, and PDFs to get the information that you need:

Evaluate work-home conflict as a result of gender inequality.
Factors influencing inequality in developing countries.
Best way to address gender-based issues at the workplace.
Relation between gender and leadership in education.
Bullying issues in education based on gender.
A social perspective on gender issues and sexuality.
Best modes of addressing gender equality.
Relation between globalization, liberalization, and gender equality.
Major gender issues in international relations.
How does gender influence the recruitment of individuals in the workplace?

Best Gender Research Paper Topics

Which gender issues have you encountered in society? These are some other topics that can bring you into the limelight. Attaining gender equality in society is important:

Scarcity of water and effect on gender inequality.
Unequal division of economic growth in society.
Factors that lead to gender inequality in the workplace.
Gender inequality in retirement and employment.
Relation between poverty and gender.
Gender inequalities that lead to women’s rights movements.
Gender stereotypes issue and contribute to gender inequality.
Effects of gender inequality in economic development.
Dire consequences of gender inequality.
The importance of women fighting for gender equality.

Gender Research Paper Topics

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Manifestation of gender inequality in society.
From your perspective is it possible to fully achieve gender equality?
Future outcomes of the present gender inequality.
How does gender blindness impact gender inequality?
Economic aftermaths of gender inequality.
Relation between gender equality and politics.
Evaluate gender inequality from a psychological perspective.
Best modes to tackle gender inequality at home.
How is gender inequality portrayed in sports?
Should women and men perform specific roles?

Women And Gender Studies Research Topics

When it comes to gender issues, women are the most affected. Therefore, there is a need to balance the issue so that both men and women can share the same rights:

Women’s views on long-existing gender stereotypes.
How are gender roles portrayed in movies, news, and TV shows?
Gender stereotypes in children
Evaluate gender as portrayed in literature
Gender mainstreaming in institutions.
Gender role effects on childhood development.
How are gender stereotypes developed in families?
Parents’ gender roles and children’s aspirations.
Emotional perception of gender inequality.
The disparity between gender stereotypes in the Eastern and Western culture

Research Topics On Gender Inequality

If you are planning to do a research paper on gender. These are the perfect topics to start with. You can find data for different topics easily on the internet:

Gender stereotypes in athletic management.
Effect of globalization on gender norms and experiences.
Feminization and gender issues in education
Relation between gender equality and women’s rights.
The global perception of female leadership and gender equity.
The effects of gender discrimination in social media and how it affects individuals.
Transgender and gender non-conforming in children.
Race and Gender public relations.
Gender socialization and ageism.
Gender differences in financial knowledge acquisition.

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40 Ideas for Women Issues and Gender Research Paper Topics

Read also: A Guide to Buying Term Papers Online

The history of gender
The difference between sex and gender
Women erased from history: who they were and what they did?
Gender imbalance in China and India: the causes of it
Stereotype gender roles: why did society need them and does it need them now?
Sexual revolution and the concept of gender
Can gender be changed during a person’s life?
Intergender relations
The development and goal of gender studies
How many genders exist in humanity?
The #MeeToo movement and its consequences
Gender discrimination laws all over the world
What is sexism and gender discrimination?
Does the backwards discrimination exist?
Expected gender traits: nature versus nurture
The physiological differences and gender
Gender transitioning
Gender and family issues
Gender and sexual harassment
Sex, gender and leadership
Gender and parenting
Gender roles in media and literature
Feminism movement
Do men need to fight for their rights as feminist women do?
Does sex still sell? Gender in advertising
Gender and pornography. Fem-porn: does it exist?
Gender and prostitution
Cognitive differences between genders
Typically male and typically female nonverbal communication
Women and “glass ceiling”
Maternity and paternity leaves. Are they equally important for the baby?
Abortions, pregnancy and gender
Internal misogyny and misandry: causes and ways to overcome
Childfree movement and gender
Sexual behaviour, marriage strategies and gender
The toys segregation and sexual education: shall it still be different for boys and girls?
Gender dysphoria
Beauty standards and gender
Gender and power: male and female bosses
Sexual orientation and gender

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What is gender equality?

Equality between the sexes is a huge part of basic human rights. It means that men and women have the same opportunities to fulfil their potential in all spheres of life.

Today, we still face inequality issues as there is a persistent gap in access to opportunities for men and women.

Women have less access to decision-making and higher education. They constantly face obstacles at the workplace and have greater safety risks. Maintaining equal rights for both sexes is critical for meeting a wide range of goals in global development.

Inequality between the sexes is an interesting area to study so high school, college, and university students are often assigned to write essays on gender topics.

In this article, we are going to discuss the key peculiarities of gender equality essay. Besides, we have created a list of the best essay topic ideas.

What is the specifics of gender equality essay?

Equality and inequality between the sexes are important historical and current social issues which impact the way students and their families live. They are common topics for college papers in psychology, sociology, gender studies.

When writing an essay on equality between the sexes, you need to argue for a strong point of view and support your argument with relevant evidence gathered from multiple sources.

But first, you’d need to choose a good topic which is neither too broad nor too narrow to research.

Research is crucial for the success of your essay because you should develop a strong argument based on an in-depth study of various scholarly sources.

Equality between sexes is a complex problem. You have to consider different aspects and controversial points of view on specific issues, show your ability to think critically, develop a strong thesis statement, and build a logical argument, which can make a great impression on your audience.

If you are looking for interesting gender equality essay topics, here you will find a great list of 100 topic ideas for writing essays and research papers on gender issues in contemporary society.

Should you find that some topics are too broad, feel free to narrow them down.

Powerful gender equality essay topics

Here are the top 25 hottest topics for your argumentative opinion paper on gender issues.

Whether you are searching for original creative ideas for gender equality in sports essay or need inspiration for gender equality in education essay, we’ve got you covered.

Use imagination and creativity to demonstrate your approach.

Analyze gender-based violence in different countries
Compare wage gap between the sexes in different countries
Explain the purpose of gender mainstreaming
Implications of sex differences in the human brain
How can we teach boys and girls that they have equal rights?
Discuss gender-neutral management practices
Promotion of equal opportunities for men and women in sports
What does it mean to be transgender?
Discuss the empowerment of women
Why is gender-blindness a problem for women?
Why are girls at greater risk of sexual violence and exploitation?
Women as victims of human trafficking
Analyze the glass ceiling in management
Impact of ideology in determining relations between sexes
Obstacles that prevent girls from getting quality education in African countries
Why are so few women in STEM?
Major challenges women face at the workplace
How do women in sport fight for equality?
Women, sports, and media institutions
Contribution of women in the development of the world economy
Role of gender diversity in innovation and scientific discovery
What can be done to make cities safer for women and girls?
International trends in women’s empowerment
Role of schools in teaching children behaviours considered appropriate for their sex
Feminism on social relations uniting women and men as groups

Gender roles essay topics

We can measure the equality of men and women by looking at how both sexes are represented in a range of different roles. You don’t have to do extensive and tiresome research to come up with gender roles essay topics, as we have already done it for you.

Have a look at this short list of top-notch topic ideas .

Are paternity and maternity leaves equally important for babies?
Imagine women-dominated society and describe it
Sex roles in contemporary western societies
Compare theories of gender development
Adoption of sex-role stereotyped behaviours
What steps should be taken to achieve gender-parity in parenting?
What is gender identity?
Emotional differences between men and women
Issues modern feminism faces
Sexual orientation and gender identity
Benefits of investing in girls’ education
Patriarchal attitudes and stereotypes in family relationships
Toys and games of girls and boys
Roles of men and women in politics
Compare career opportunities for both sexes in the military
Women in the US military
Academic careers and sex equity
Should men play larger roles in childcare?
Impact of an ageing population on women’s economic welfare
Historical determinants of contemporary differences in sex roles
Gender-related issues in gaming
Culture and sex-role stereotypes in advertisements
What are feminine traits?
Sex role theory in sociology
Causes of sex differences and similarities in behaviour

Gender inequality research paper topics

Examples of inequality can be found in the everyday life of different women in many countries across the globe. Our gender inequality research paper topics are devoted to different issues that display discrimination of women throughout the world.

Choose any topic you like, research it, brainstorm ideas, and create a detailed gender inequality essay outline before you start working on your first draft.

Start off with making a debatable thesis, then write an engaging introduction, convincing main body, and strong conclusion for gender inequality essay .

Aspects of sex discrimination
Main indications of inequality between the sexes
Causes of sex discrimination
Inferior role of women in the relationships
Sex differences in education
Can education solve issues of inequality between the sexes?
Impact of discrimination on early childhood development
Why do women have limited professional opportunities in sports?
Gender discrimination in sports
Lack of women having leadership roles
Inequality between the sexes in work-family balance
Top factors that impact inequality at a workplace
What can governments do to close the gender gap at work?
Sex discrimination in human resource processes and practices
Gender inequality in work organizations
Factors causing inequality between men and women in developing countries
Work-home conflict as a symptom of inequality between men and women
Why are mothers less wealthy than women without children?
Forms of sex discrimination in a contemporary society
Sex discrimination in the classroom
Justification of inequality in American history
Origins of sex discrimination
Motherhood and segregation in labour markets
Sex discrimination in marriage
Can technology reduce sex discrimination?

Most controversial gender topics

Need a good controversial topic for gender stereotypes essay? Here are some popular debatable topics concerning various gender problems people face nowadays.

They are discussed in scientific studies, newspaper articles, and social media posts. If you choose any of them, you will need to perform in-depth research to prepare an impressive piece of writing.

How do gender misconceptions impact behaviour?
Most common outdated sex-role stereotypes
How does gay marriage influence straight marriage?
Explain the role of sexuality in sex-role stereotyping
Role of media in breaking sex-role stereotypes
Discuss the dual approach to equality between men and women
Are women better than men or are they equal?
Sex-role stereotypes at a workplace
Racial variations in gender-related attitudes
Role of feminism in creating the alternative culture for women
Feminism and transgender theory
Gender stereotypes in science and education
Are sex roles important for society?
Future of gender norms
How can we make a better world for women?
Are men the weaker sex?
Beauty pageants and women’s empowerment
Are women better communicators?
What are the origins of sexual orientation?
Should prostitution be legal?
Pros and cons of being a feminist
Advantages and disadvantages of being a woman
Can movies defy gender stereotypes?
Sexuality and politics

Feel free to use these powerful topic ideas for writing a good college-level gender equality essay or as a starting point for your study.

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Sample Independent Research Topics

A centerpiece of the Women’s and Gender Studies in Europe program is the independent field research that students carry out on a topic chosen by each student in consultation with the Program Director prior to arrival in Europe. Drawing on skills developed in the feminist and queer theory and methodology seminars, students select appropriate research methods and conduct a sustained research project with a transnational, cross-cultural, and comparative focus, based on resources located and/or developed by the student in the countries visited.

Below is a sampling of research conducted by past WGSE participants:

Women’s, Gender, and Sexuality Studies

I Don’t Want to Be a Man. I Want to Be Just Me: Discursive Practices of Real Men. Attitudes Towards Masculinity Among Males in the Netherlands, Germany, and the Czech Republic.
Sex Education and Hetero-normativity in Poland, Germany, and the Netherlands.
The Status of Women in Science in the Netherlands, the Czech Republic and Poland.
Welfare Policies and Women’s Independence across Western and Central Europe.
Public Bathrooms as Gender-Policing Spaces in Germany, Netherlands, Poland and the UK.
Tracing Transmemories for Memorial Candle Grandchildren
Empowered or Exploited? Women and the Sex Industry in Eastern and Western Europe.
Gender Advertising in Dutch, German and Czech Women’s Magazines.
Lots of Mothers and a Father too? Parental Leave Policies and Gendered Representations of Care in Poland, Germany, and the Netherlands
There Is No Business like Show Business: Male Sex Work and the Performance of Power and Control.
Same-Sex Marriages: A Question of Legitimacy, A Problem of Privilege
Research Experiences Exploring Trans Social Policy in Europe: Gender-Sensitive Sexuality Education as a Tool for Gender Mainstreaming in Europe.
Parental Resources and Reproductive Rights within the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, and the Czech Republic
The Impacts of Fatphobia on Fat Women in the Netherlands and Germany
Catholic Politics: How Relations Between Church and State Affect the Lives of European Women.
Queer and Jewish in Europe: An Oral History Project
Immigration and Muslim Women’s Issues in the Netherlands and Germany.
Religion and Reproductive Rights in Germany, the CR and Poland.
Towards a Jewish Women’s Identity: The European Feminist Approach.
European Public Art focusing on Violence against Women.
LGBTQ Art, Queer Space, and Creativity: Poland, Germany and the Czech Republic
Gender Issues in the Graffiti and Street Art in Berlin, London, and Krakow

Political Science

Bodies and Borders: Gendered Figures in Public Spaces as Sites of National Identity Formation in Krakow, Prague, and Berlin.
The European Women’s Lobby’s Policies concerning Sex Trafficking
Women in Transition: The Post-Socialist Experience of Women in Poland, the Czech Republic, and Germany.
Sexual and Domestic Violence Against Women in Europe
Barriers Beyond Legislation: Abortion Access and Pro-Choice Activism in Poland, Germany, and the Netherlands.
Autonomy, Anarchism, and the Individual: Accounts of Creating and Living in Collective Space in the Netherlands and Germany
Legislating Lust: A Comparative Analysis of the Legal Frameworks on Prostitution.
The Effects of the Anti-Genderist Movement on the Pro-Abortion Rights NGO Women on Web

Cross-Cultural Studies

The Perception of Fatness in the Netherlands, Germany, the Czech Republic, the UK, and the US
Parental Gender Roles and “Male Role Models” in Lesbian-Parented Families: Across Three Generations in the Netherlands, Germany, and the Czech Republic
Transgender Identity in Europe from a Cross-cultural Perspective.
Policy-making and Accessibility: A Cross-Cultural Analysis of Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in the Netherlands, Germany and Poland.
Affective Engagements in Online Spaces: A case study of Dutch, German and US Feminist-of-Color Collectives.
Sitting at the Table of Power: A Cross-Cultural Exploration of the Context and Meaning of Disability Inclusion and Activism in the Netherlands, Germany, and the USA.
Going and Growing Home: The Postponed Homecomings of Mixed-Race American, Afro-German and Dutch Indonesian Women.
Towards a Geography of (Queer) Urban Sexualities: A Comparative Survey and Examination of LGBT Spaces and Queer Sites of Resistance in Berlin, Prague and Krakow.
I am Not a Feminist, But . . . Different Conceptualizations of Feminism in Germany, the Netherlands, the CR and Poland.
Latine Migrants in Europe
Vietnamese Migrant Communities in Germany, the Czech Republic, and Poland
White Innocence, and Responses to the Traveling Black Body in The Netherlands, Germany, and Czechia
Experiences of LGBTQ Individuals in Counseling and Therapy Services in Germany, the Czech Republic, and the US

Anthropology

Combatting Femme Invisibility through Femme-inist Ethnography.
Historical Insights into Dutch and German Cultures through Swear Words

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1951-present. Articles from scholarly journals and yearbooks. Topics include method and theory, political thinkers, ideas, administrative institutions, national and area studies.

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v.8(8); 2022 Aug

The gender gap in higher STEM studies: A systematic literature review

Sonia verdugo-castro.

a GRIAL Research Group, Department of Didactics, Organization and Research Methods, Research Institute for Educational Sciences, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

Alicia García-Holgado

b GRIAL Research Group, Computer Science Department, Research Institute for Educational Sciences, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

Mª Cruz Sánchez-Gómez

c GRIAL Research Group, Department of Didactics, Organization and Research Methods, Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain

Associated Data

Data associated with this study has been deposited at Verdugo-Castro, S., García-Holgado, A., & Sánchez-Gómez, M. C (2021). Code repository that supports the research presented in the paper ‘The gender gap in higher.

STEM studies: A Systematic Literature Review’ (v1.0) [Data set]. Zenodo. https://zenodo.org/record/5775211 .

The development of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) requires more qualified professionals in these fields. However, gender segregation in higher education in this sector is creating a gender gap that means that for some disciplines female representation does not even reach 30% of the total. In order to propose measures to address the phenomenon, it is necessary to understand the possible causes of this issue.

A systematic literature review and mapping were carried out for the study, following the PRISMA guidelines and flowchart. The research questions to be answered were (RQ1) What studies exist on the gender gap in relation to the choice of higher education in the STEM field; and (RQ2) How do gender roles and stereotypes influence decision-making related to higher education? The review of peer-reviewed scientific articles, conferences texts, books and book chapters on the European education area was applied. A total of 4571 initial results were obtained and, after the process marked by the PRISMA flowchart, the final results were reduced to 26. The results revealed that gender stereotypes are strong drivers of the gender gap in general, and the Leaky Pipeline and Stereotype Threat in particular. To narrow the gender gap, it is necessary to focus on influences from the family, the educational environment, and the peer group, as well as from the culture itself. Positive self-concept, self-efficacy, self-confidence, and self-perception need to be fostered, so that the individual chooses their studies according to their goals.

Gender gap; STEM; Gender; Stereotypes; Diversity; Higher education.

1. Introduction

The science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) field is experiencing a shortage of skilled workers ( Codiroli Mcmaster, 2017 ), yet it is experiencing a great deal of technological development ( Winterbotham, 2014 ). In addition, the STEM education sector suffers from under-representation of gender diversity, namely of women ( García-Holgado et al., 2019a , García-Holgado et al., 2019b , García-Holgado et al., 2019c ; Jacobs et al., 2017 ). This situation invites reflection on the cause of gender segregation in scientific and technical higher education.

With regard to motivation as a vector for deciding which higher education studies to pursue, studies have been published, such as that of Guo et al. (2018) , in which it is pointed out that women prefer to opt for professions related to people, their care and education, while men prefer to opt for the fields of things. However, beyond the simple explanation of what they prefer, it is necessary to detect what modifies and conditions the motivation, and therefore the final decision.

Gender stereotypes in the STEM education sector are related to Stereotype Threat ( Corbett and Hill, 2015 ) and the Leaky Pipeline, which lead to the loss of equal representation in the sector.

Stereotype Threat is a social phenomenon that occurs when the person concerned fears confirmation of the negative stereotyping of the group to which they belong ( Cheryan et al., 2017 ). Given that the STEM sector has been socially ascribed to men ( Blackburn, 2017 ; Nosek et al., 2009 ), women may fear rejection in the field of study and careers. One of the consequences of Stereotype Threat is when erratic stereotypical thoughts lead the affected persons to doubt their abilities, deteriorating their self-confidence, despite having optimal performance results ( Correll, 2001 ).

This situation of loss of a sense of belonging can erode women's self-efficacy ( Hall et al., 2015 ), and eventually lead to the phenomenon of the Leaky Pipeline ( Berryman, 1983 ).

Understanding the factors involved in the process of deciding which higher education studies to pursue will shed light on how to enable the retention of women ( Reiss et al., 2016 ). Such retention is essential to avoid further loss of human capital, given that female participation rates in STEM studies are worryingly low.

In addition, to combat the gender gap, the different social and cultural factors involved, as well as gender stereotypes, which, as pointed out by authors such as Bian et al. (2017) , can be observed from the age of six, must also be taken into account in the frame of reference. However, taking as a reference authors such as Ceci et al. (2014) , the need to pay attention to solid environmental influences is reaffirmed. The latter authors ( Ceci et al., 2014 ), in their study, concluded that early sex differences in spatial and mathematical reasoning do not necessarily stem from biological bases, that the gap between the average mathematical ability of females and males is narrowing, and that sex differences show variations over time and across nationalities and ethnicities. Thus, all this points to the need to pay attention to environmental and contextual factors that modulate the impact on the gender gap.

On a biological basis, there is controversy in the literature. While some authors argue that the gender gap is not biologically based ( Bian et al., 2017 ; Blackburn, 2017 ; Borsotti, 2018 ; Cantley et al., 2017 ; Codiroli Mcmaster, 2017 ), other authors do suggest that differences between men and women in career and lifestyle preferences are to some extent due to biological influences ( Stewart-Williams and Halsey, 2021 ).

Therefore, as Ceci et al. (2014) point out, gender discrimination has historically been a potential reason for the under-representation of women in scientific academic careers. Today, however, attention must also be paid to the barriers girls and women face to full participation in scientific and technical fields ( Ceci et al., 2014 ).

Although segregation does not occur in 100% of the countries in the world, there is a widespread trend of gender segregation in tertiary studies. As an example, about STEM higher education, during 2018, in France, 28,857 men (74.55%) studied tertiary Physics studies, compared to 9,850 women (25.45%). The same was true in Spain with 73.23% male representation, in Greece with 70.51% and in Austria 78.32%. In the disciplines of Mathematics and Statistics, for example, in the UK, 63.05% of the representation was male, as in France with 70.41%. And in Sweden, in Exact Mathematical Sciences 66.06% of the students were male. Also, in 2018, 81.67% of students in ICT studies in the European Union were male. For example, in Spain, 86.92% of students in Software disciplines were male. Moreover, during 2018, 73.53% of students in Engineering, Manufacturing and Construction disciplines in the European Union were male. For example, in Germany, 82.02% of Engineering students were male. And finally, 81.93% of Electronics and Automation students in Turkey were male, as was the case in Architecture with 69.07% of men ( European Institute of Gender Equality, 2018 ).

To explore the factors involved in horizontal gender segregation in the STEM education sector, a review of the existing literature is proposed through a Systematic Literature Review on the gender gap in STEM education in the European Union.

After searching and reading other reviews, it was decided to develop the Systematic Literature Review.

First, Canedo et al. (2019) address the barriers that women face in software development projects. The authors aim to find mechanisms to encourage women's interest in the field of software development projects. In turn, Gottfried et al. (2017) present a literature review on how friends and familiar social groups play a role in the likelihood that high school students do or do not pursue advanced studies in mathematics and science. Also, Wang & Degol (2013) address motivational pathways towards STEM career choices, in relation to gender; they do so using Expectancy Value Theory as a framework. Finally, Yazilitas et al. (2013) focus on micro-level and macro-level patterns linked to the unequal representation of students of both genders in STEM.

After reading the reviews, it was decided to continue with the review process of the present study, given that they did not respond to the research questions posed for the research. Canedo et al. (2019) focus their attention on software development projects; however, they do not address other STEM fields and do not propose to analyse the social, academic, and personal factors involved in segregation. On the other hand, Gottfried et al. (2017) base their study on the influence of friends and family on the decision to study mathematics and science, however, the spheres of technology and engineering are not included, and the perspective is not open to another classification of elements, such as personal and academic. Similarly, Wang & Degol (2013) propose to discover the motivations towards the choice of careers, although they do so from a psychological perspective, and the study is outdated as it was published in 2013. Finally, Yazilitas et al. (2013) also start from a psychological perspective. Nonetheless, in order to answer the research questions of the review presented here, it is necessary to take an educational perspective and not only a psychological one, because socio-educational elements are addressed.

In deciding to continue the process, the PRISMA model was used. The aim of the work was to identify what work has been or is being developed on the subject, and to understand the influence of gender stereotypes on the segregation process. The aim was to answer what are the objectives pursued in the existing studies, what are the methodologies and scientific methods used, whether specific instruments and/or data collection techniques have been used for the study of the gender gap in STEM studies, as well as what are the results obtained in the studies. Also, it aimed to know the relationship between the gender gap in STEM studies and the cultural and social patterns surrounding gender.

This paper is organised in six blocks. The first is the introduction, followed by the planning of the research in the second block (materials and methods), then the results of the mapping in the third block, and the results of the Systematic Literature Review and the discussion in the fourth block. The fifth section contains the conclusions. Finally, the sixth section describes the threats to the validity of the study.

2. Materials and methods

Systematic Literature Review (SLR) allows for the identification, evaluation and interpretation of all available research relevant to a particular research question, thematic area, or phenomenon of interest ( Kitchenham, 2004 ). The systematic literature review process is divided into three phases: planning the review, conducting the review and writing the report ( Kitchenham and Charters, 2007 ). Along with the Systematic Literature Review, a systematic mapping can be carried out, which entails the same phases as outlined above ( Petersen et al., 2015 ).

In the work presented, an SLR and a systematic mapping of the gender gap in higher education in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) sector have been carried out. In this work, the systematic mapping is presented as a complementary element to the Systematic Literature Review. The procedure followed is the PRISMA flowchart and guidelines ( Moher et al., 2009 ).

The review and mapping process was divided into a set of phases or steps. These phases range from the systematic review of other SLRs related to the gender gap in STEM higher studies–to determine the need to carry out the present study–, to the results obtained after carrying out the review. The phases followed were: (1) systematic review of other SLRs, (2) definition of the research questions for the SLR and mapping, (3) definition of the inclusion and exclusion criteria, (4) definition of the search strategy, (5) definition of the quality criteria, (6) data extraction, (7) results, and (8) data analysis and report writing.

The complete detailed explanation of each step of the systematic literature review presented in this article is contained in supplementary material 1. Each element has been detailed in supplementary material 1, simplifying the information in this document to facilitate the wording of the explanatory steps of the review.

2.1. Identifying the need for a review

Before conducting a systematic review or mapping of the literature it is necessary to examine whether there is a real need for the review. It should be determined whether a systematic review already exists that answers the research questions posed and can support the research. There is no scientific reason to conduct a systematic review or mapping that has been done before, unless there is a clear bias in the review or it is outdated and new studies have been published since the existing review was completed ( Petticrew and Roberts, 2005 ). To find out whether there are previous reviews or mappings that answer the research questions posed in the study, a search for existing systematic reviews and mappings should be conducted. For this part of the analysis, the following research question is posed: Do SLRs or mappings exist that answer the research questions of this study?

Finally, 107 documents were identified in Scopus with this equation of terms, 36 of them related to reviews and mappings. After reviewing the 36 documents, only 2 met the indicated criteria. On the other hand, in Web of Science, 49 documents were identified with the search string stated. Of the 49 documents, 9 were associated with a literature review or mapping, and, after examining the documents, only 2 met the criteria. Of the four final articles, one of them followed the SLR methodology, one of them partially followed the SLR methodology and the other two did not follow the SLR methodology.

From the review of the four final papers, it was concluded that none of them answered the research questions that were posed for this study. This is because they focus on other elements related to the gender gap ( Canedo et al., 2019 ; Gottfried et al., 2017 ), in addition to the fact that two of them are outdated, as they are publications from 2013 ( Wang and Degol, 2013 ; Yazilitas et al., 2013 ). Nine years have passed since 2013, which means almost a decade left unaddressed in these reviews.

Detailed information on this section of the systematic literature review and on the inclusion and exclusion criteria, search strategy, search strings, and criteria for quality assessment can be found in supplementary material 1.

2.2. Research questions

Once the actual need to carry out the SLR of the present study was determined, the process began. The first phase was to review the research questions and the mapping questions. First, two research questions (RQ) were defined:

• RQ1: What studies exist on the gender gap in relation to the choice of higher education in the STEM field?
• RQ2: How do gender roles and stereotypes influence decision-making related to higher education?

Secondly, eight mapping questions (MQ) have been defined:

• MQ1: Which databases publish studies in relation to the gender gap in the STEM education sector?
• MQ2: Which keywords are applied in the studies?
• MQ3: How are the studies distributed per year?
• MQ4: What kind of methodologies and methods do the studies apply?
• MQ5: In which countries do the studies take place?
• MQ6: With which population are the studies conducted?
• MQ7: What instruments or data collection techniques have been validated?
• MQ8: What kind of data collection instruments or techniques are used?

Based on the research questions defined, the PICOC method proposed by Petticrew and Roberts (2005) was used to define the scope of the review:

• Population: Gender gap in the STEM sector.
• Intervention: Studies conducted, and proposals related to the gender gap in the STEM education sector
• Comparison: No comparison.
• Outcomes: Results of studies conducted in relation to the gender gap in the STEM education sector.
• Context: Students integrated in the European educational field, especially in the STEM sector, with a special focus on EQF levels 5, 6, 7, and 8 (European Qualifications Framework for Lifelong Learning).

Universal human factors condition the gender gap in STEM higher education. Since as known from the scientifically accepted SCCT model of Lent et al. (1994) , motivations and outcome expectations condition the decision on which higher education studies to pursue. However, the gender gap is not only influenced by intrinsic factors but also by extrinsic elements. Cultural patterns marked by stereotypes and gender roles present themselves differently, depending on the local culture ( Bourdieu, 1980a , 1980b , 1984 ). Since the gender gap is a sociological phenomenon that responds to socio-cultural rules, the gender gap index does not occur equally in all world geographical regions ( García-Holgado et al., 2019c ; World Economic Forum, 2021 ).

In this sense, it is of scientific interest to analyse the gender gap in developed geographical areas which implement measures to alleviate segregation where the gap is manifest. For this purpose, global gender gap reports have been consulted to determine the gender gap index situation in the different world regions.

According to the World Economic Forum (2021) , each country is in a particular situation concerning closing the gender gap. According to the World Economic Forum (2021) , the geographical areas of Eastern Europe and Western Europe are in a worse situation in terms of closing the gender gap than areas of North America such as Canada and the United States. In the global ranking of gender gap indices, updated to 2021, Canada ranks 24th out of 156, and the United States ranks 30th out of 156. In 2021 Canada closed 77% of the gender gap and the United States 76%. Meanwhile, other Eastern and Western European countries are in less favourable positions. In 2021 Hungary was ranked 99 out of 156, with 69% of the gender gap closed; Greece was ranked 98 out of 156, with 69% of the gender gap closed; Romania was ranked 88 out of 156, with 70% of the gender gap closed; Malta was ranked 84 (70%); the Czech Republic ranked 78th (71%); the Slovak Republic ranked 77th (71%); Poland ranked 75th (71%); Italy ranked 63rd (72%); Luxembourg ranked 55th (73%); Estonia ranked 46th (73%); Croatia ranked 45th (73%); Slovenia ranked 41st (74%), and Bulgaria ranked 38th (75%).

Also addressing gender segregation in the vertical sense, according to the World Economic Forum (2021) , the low presence of women in top positions demonstrates the persistence of a “Glass Ceiling” even in some of the most advanced economies. While in the United States women occupy the 42% of senior and management positions, in other countries such as Sweden they occupy the 40%, in the United Kingdom the 36.8%, in France the 34.6%, in Germany the 29%, in Italy and the Netherlands the 27%.

On the other hand, as far as the gender pay gap is concerned, developed countries still have a gap to close, e.g., France has 39% of the gap to close, Denmark has 38% of the gap to close, while the United States has 35% of the gap to close.

Therefore, given the results of the reports, it has been decided to analyse the scientific production on the gender gap in higher STEM studies in the European Union. Although it is a geographical area that is on the way to reducing the gender gap, there are still high rates to be closed.

2.3. Data mining

Regarding the data extraction, the metadata of the publications obtained from the search was downloaded from the databases in CSV format. The raw datasets are available in Zenodo ( Verdugo-Castro et al., 2021 ). The phases of defining the protocol, searching and extracting the initial data from the databases were carried out by all the authors of this publication. The search results are current as of 10 November 2021. Subsequent filtering of the successive phases was done by peer review among the authors. The data mining process is an iterative and incremental process. The process was done through different phases ( Figure 1 ). The process is described through the PRISMA flowchart ( Moher et al., 2009 ).

PRISMA flowchart of the Systematic Literature Review. Source: Created by the authors.

First, the results were identified, following the application of search strings in the two selected databases. The results of the databases were downloaded in CSV format. Then, all results were organised in a spreadsheet in Google Sheets. The spreadsheet was configured to automatically detect duplicate titles to facilitate their search and removal. After removing the duplicate items, the data extraction stages began with the application of different filters ( http://bit.ly/3a4gRM5 ).

• First stage: On a second sheet of Google Sheets, three items were analysed to see if the publication was related to the study objective and the research questions. This phase allowed us to define the candidates for reading. These three elements were the title, the abstract and the keywords ( http://bit.ly/39lO0DX ).
• Second stage: The documents resulting from the previous phase were then dumped onto a third sheet. On this third sheet of Google Sheets, the inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied. To proceed to the next stage, each publication had to meet all the inclusion criteria ( http://bit.ly/39lO0DX ).

During the first phase, 2794 items were removed, and during the second phase, 698 items were removed. A total of 3492 items were eliminated between the first and second phases. The reasons for discarding these publications were:

o The publication's subject matter did not have a clear relationship to the gender gap in the STEM education sector.
o The study addressed the gender gap in STEM fields at the employment or business level but, not in the educational field.
o The study addressed gender segregation in education, but from the perspective of female teachers, not female students.
o The study addressed educational elements not related to the gender gap. For example, academic performance and grades.
o The research was not carried out in European Union countries or regions.
o The publication was not open access or available through University of Salamanca databases subscriptions.
• Third stage: The third stage of the process focused on the eligibility of publications. The publications selected in the previous stage were read again. This time they were read with the aim of answering the quality questions ( http://bit.ly/36fnBpi ). In total, there were 10 questions, each of which was answered with one of the following options: yes (1), no (0), partial (0.5). Each answer corresponded to a score, so that the sum of the answers gave each paper a score between 0 and 10. Those papers with a score equal to or higher than 6 were selected for the final stage.

At the quality stage, 196 items were discarded if they did not reach the minimum cut-off score of 6. While all publications were related to the gender gap in the STEM education sector in an EU country or region, the reasons for exclusion were as follows:

o The objectives of the publication were not clearly aligned with the gender gap in STEM. In some cases, the approach to segregation was collateral and superficial.
o Some research did not propose methodological approaches of interest at qualitative, quantitative or mixed levels.
o Other research did not propose intervention proposals (four of the ten quality questions are linked to socio-educational proposals).
o Some studies do not take into account the limitations encountered throughout the research.
o The publication does not answer at least one of the two SLR research questions.

Finally, 26 items made it to the final phase. Each selected paper was analysed in detail to obtain the answers to the research and mapping questions.

3. Results of the systematic mapping

The results to the systematic mapping questions are presented below.

3.1. MQ1: which databases publish studies in relation to the gender gap in the STEM education sector?

About three quarters of the publications are indexed in Scopus, compared to 23% of those indexed in Web of Science.

3.2. MQ2: which keywords are applied in the studies?

As presented in Table 1 , the most frequently used keywords are gender, STEM, and stereotypes.

Table 1

Results to the MQ2.

3.3. MQ3: how are the studies distributed by year?

As shown in Figure 2 , the years with the highest number of publications are 2018 and 2017.

Results to the MQ3.

3.4. MQ4: what kind of methodologies and methods do the studies use?

It can be seen from Figure 3 that there is a preponderance of studies based on quantitative paradigms, although qualitative designs and mixed approaches are emerging. Complete information on this question can be found in Table 1 of Supplementary Material 2 linked to this article.

Results to the MQ4.

3.5. MQ5: in which countries are the studies carried out?

As presented in Figure 4 and 9 studies were carried out in Germany; 5 in Spain, 3 in the UK and Ireland, 2 in areas such as Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Belgium and Finland, and only one study in other regions, such as Slovenia, Norway, Scotland, Latvia, Estonia and the Czech Republic.

Results to the MQ5.

3.6. MQ6: with which population are the studies conducted?

As shown in Figure 5 , the samples with which the studies have been carried out are primarily university students and secondary school students. Studies have also been carried out with primary school students and secondary school and university students. Finally, in one study, there have been samples of primary, secondary, and university education; and in another study, the sample has been female graduates.

Results to the MQ6.

Complete information on this question can be found in Table 2 of Supplementary Material 2 linked to this article.

Table 2

Results for the MQ7 and MQ8.

3.7. MQ7: what data collection instruments or techniques have been validated? And MQ8: what kind of data collection instruments or techniques are proposed?

Table 2 provides information on what kind of techniques or instruments have been used to collect the data and which of them have been validated.

4. Results of the systematic literature review and discussion

The qualitative analysis of the resulting papers in the systematic literature review has been organised into two main blocks (4.1. and 4.2.). Since there are two research questions to be answered for SLR, the first research question is answered in the first block (4.1. IQ1: What studies exist on the gender gap in relation to the choice of higher education in the STEM field?), and the second block answers the second research question (4.2. IQ2: How do gender roles and stereotypes influence decision-making related to higher education?).

In turn, a grouping strategy has been followed to classify the results thematically and facilitate their understanding. After reading all of them, the main themes studied in the papers were identified as categories, and the results of the papers were organised based on these categories. Finally, eight main themes have been identified, four to answer the first research question and four to answer the second SLR research question.

In the first block, in which the first SLR research question is answered, the main themes are Socio-educational projects and proposals (4.1.1.), study of gender differences (4.1.2.), initiatives in secondary and university education (4.1.3.) and Active methodologies and intervention initiatives (4.1.4.). On the other hand, in the second block, in which the second research question of the SLR is answered, the main topics are Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) and early intervention (4.2.1.), educational institutions and the learning process (4.2.2.), perceptions of male-dominated domains (4.2.3.) and social structures and contextual influences (4.2.4.).

The first research question addresses what studies exist on the gender gap in relation to the choice of higher education in the STEM field. In this sense, it is possible to identify studies on gender differences, socio-educational proposals, and initiatives that can be organised by educational levels, in this case, secondary and university, and also by typology, active methodologies, and intervention initiatives.

On the other hand, the second question addresses how gender roles and stereotypes influence decision-making related to higher education. In this line, the SCCT model ( Lent et al., 1994 ) explains the relationship between social stereotypes and the decision taken. However, the question can also be answered regarding the influence of education as an institution, social and contextual influences, and the perception of socially androcentric spaces.

Figure 6 visually presents the main ideas of the results for the two research questions.

Main ideas of the results for the two research questions.

4.1. IQ1: what studies exist on the gender gap in relation to the choice of higher education in the STEM field?

4.1.1. socio-educational projects and proposals.

The IRIS project, Interests and Recruitment in Science, arises to study the factors that determine young people's choices ( Henriksen et al., 2015 ). The aim is to gain a better understanding of how young people evaluate STEM as an option for their educational choices, as achievement in science and technology is only one of many factors that influence their choices.

In terms of specific intervention groups, Heybach and Pickup (2017) allude to a socio-educational approach in the UK. A group called STEMettes ( STEMettes, 2021 ) is working to combat what they consider to be a culture in which girls do not imagine women doing "science stuff" while they are mothers.

In the framework of project design for the improvement of diversity and gender inclusion, there are different technology companies that follow a gender perspective trend, such as LinkedIn, Salesforce, Intel, Google, Microsoft and IBM. In this line, Peixoto et al. (2018) propose an initiative based on robotics, as an inclusive tool, to combat the gender gap.

Also, the Girls4STEM project led by the School of Engineering of the University of Valencia (ETSE-UV) in Spain aims to increase and retain the number of female students, applying its intervention with students aged 6 to 18, their families and teachers ( López-Iñesta et al., 2020 ).

Another project worth mentioning is 'Increasing Gender Diversity in STEM' ( Ballatore et al., 2020 ). The aim is to investigate the gender difference in the self-perception of female students about their career choice. In order to find out the self-perception, a web application for students called ANNA tool was designed and used.

Finally, the project Science and Technology as Feminine, promoted by the Spanish Association of Science and Technology Parks (APTE), aims to raise awareness of the under-representation of women in STEM fields and promote girls' inclusion in scientific and technical careers ( Davila Dos Santos et al., 2021 ).

4.1.2. Study of gender differences

From the study by Kang et al. (2019) it was found that during the transition period from primary to secondary school there were gender differences in relation to interest in and preferences for science subjects, and in relation to future career prospects. Preferences were mostly in biology for girls and physics and chemistry for boys. Furthermore, it was concluded that teachers are agents of change involved in the educational process, so it is necessary for them to take care of the material they use and the way they communicate with students. Perhaps by conveying to girls the fact that science careers can respect people's personal time, they might retain their interest in science.

Also, an element to pay attention to is self-efficacy and, for this, Brauner et al. (2018) work from mental models. The study was carried out in Germany and a socio-educational approach was proposed, in which the subjects were participants in robotics courses to increase vocational interests and interest in computer science. From the results it can be concluded that the participants drew predominantly male STEM people in rather isolated situations. The people drawn are perceived to look nerdy , although they are also perceived as quite attractive and intelligent. Even so, the mood of the people in the pictures was perceived as slightly negative. It was concluded that girls reported significantly lower levels of technical self-efficacy and lower interest in computer science than boys. However, it is of deep concern that this effect emerges so early and can be measured empirically at the age of 11 or 12 years. The study by Brauner et al. (2018) shows that gender differences with respect to mental models, self-efficacy and interest have already developed by the age of 12.

Furthermore, in the line of socio-educational applications, the research by Wulff et al. (2018) is based on the performance of the Physics Olympiad in Germany in 2015. The aim was to generate motivation in young men and women in the field of physics. To this end, the aim was to develop physical identity for both men and women. After the Olympiad, the return rate for the following year for female participants was 60% (62% for males), while the return rate for non-participating females was 28% (39% for males).

Finally, the study by Reich-Stiebert and Eyssel (2017) tested the effect of gender-typicality of academic learning tasks on HRI (Human-Robot Interaction) and showed that the gender of the robot had no influence on the participants' objective learning performance. That is, participants' learning was neither positively nor negatively affected by learning with a "male" or "female" robot. This fact could be exploited to reduce gender-related performance disparities and contribute to equal opportunities for male and female students in higher education.

4.1.3. Initiatives in secondary and university education

One innovation introduced by the education system is presented in the study by Görlitz and Gravert (2018) . It analyses the potential of redesigning the secondary school curriculum in Germany to achieve increased enrolments in higher STEM degrees. The results suggest a positive and robust increase in the likelihood of choosing STEM as a university major for males, although there is no effect for females. One cause could be the acquired roles of men and women.

Another proposal in Germany is that of Finzel et al. (2018) , who aim to motivate secondary school female students to consider Computer Science as a possible option. The latest measure has been the introduction of the make IT mentoring programme in 2014. The programme was designed to provide female students with information about Computer Science and to include measures that consider self-concept and gender stereotypes correlated with a negative image of women in Computer Science. Within make IT , participants should be supported to achieve a more realistic self-assessment and positive feedback of their own abilities.

In addition, Ertl et al. (2017) work on self-concept. From their research they conclude that students who reported a higher number of favourite STEM subjects at school have a higher self-concept, while higher levels of school support and teacher stereotyping indicate a lower and less positive self-concept in STEM. Regarding the impact of stereotypes, STEM female students mentioned that they were pursuing an atypical career path and that their social environment was surprised by this type of career choice.

4.1.4. Active methodologies and intervention initiatives

Continuing with the proposals, mentoring is proposed as a measure to reduce the gender gap in STEM. Stoeger, Hopp, et al. (2017) conducted their study in Germany and aimed to compare the effectiveness of individual versus group online mentoring in STEM. This was done within the framework of CyberMentor , an online mentoring programme in STEM for gifted girls designed to increase participation rates of talented girls in STEM. In terms of results, the proportion of communication about STEM topics was higher in group mentoring than in individual mentoring. Girls in group mentoring showed a higher amount of STEM-related networking compared to girls in individual mentoring. Finally, group mentoring mentees reported an increase in elective intentions in STEM, while individual mentoring mentees reported no significant differences.

In addition, to work on interest and attitudes towards mathematics, Cantley et al. (2017) work from Collaborative Cognitive Activation Strategies, and from the Izak9 resource. Following the study there was a small increase in girls' enjoyment of mathematics in both the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. However, boys' enjoyment increased marginally in the Republic of Ireland and decreased marginally in Northern Ireland.

In terms of attitudes, Borsotti (2018) empirically investigates the main socio-cultural barriers to female participation in the software development degree programme at the IT University of Copenhagen in Denmark (ITU). The results reveal that almost all respondents attributed the gender gap to a greater extent to the existence of stereotypes.

On outreach interventions, Sullivan et al. (2015) aim to help secondary school girls develop an optimal view of the role of computers in society and to learn some of the key computer skills, including computer programming. It examines CodePlus, a programming club based on the Bridge 21 model, which was established in three all-girls schools. Students worked together on activities including computational thinking, computers in society and programming using Scratch. The results obtained in the Sullivan et al. (2015) study are: (1) there was no gender difference in expected and actual mathematics grades, (2) boys played computer games for much longer than girls, (3) girls spent more time using computers for homework, while boys spent more time using computers to look up general non-school related information, (4) boys demonstrated significantly higher levels of self-efficacy than girls, (5) boys were also more likely to study computer science at university than girls and were more confident about being accepted into a computer science degree. The comparisons demonstrate clear differences in how girls view themselves in terms of computer science ability.

On the other hand, Salmi et al. (2016) found that after visiting science, technology and engineering exhibitions with students, girls were in a better position to decide about their future because they experienced more autonomy than boys. This study also revealed that girls had higher attitudes towards science than boys. However, for the engineering factor, boys' attitudes were significantly more positive than girls'. Motivations are also explored in the study by Olmedo-Torre et al. (2018) . In this case, they study the differences between the motivations of female STEM students, forming two groups: (1) Computing, Communications, and Electrical and Electronic Engineering studies (CCEEE women), and (2) other STEM studies (non-CCEEE women). The female respondents considered social stereotypes (31.47%) and immediate environment (14.5%) as the main reasons for the low enrolment of women in STEM studies. Surprisingly, the third reason (11.03%) is that women do not like engineering. In addition, CCEEE women were less likely than non-CCEEE women to consider themselves more able than men in physics, chemistry, mathematics, computer science and graphic expression.

Also, Botella et al. (2019) aim to increase the number of female students by providing them with support, in order to prevent them from giving up in the early stages. The work programme of the School of Engineering of the University of Valencia (ETSE-UV) is organised around four main actions: (1) providing institutional encouragement and support, (2) increasing the professional support network, (3) promoting and supporting leadership and (4) increasing the visibility of female role models. Two other elements to study are identity as a scientist and scientific capital. The study by Padwick et al. (2016) is developed for this purpose within Think Physics (Northumbria University, Newcastle) ( Think Physics, 2016 ). Through collaboration with industry, agencies and schools, Think Physics ( Think Physics, 2016 ) addresses the gender imbalance and under-representation of lower socio-economic groups in the physics, engineering, and computing sectors.

Furthermore, continuing with the analysis of capital, Stoeger et al. (2017) study whether the level of educational capital and the learning capital of students are related to STEM Magnet schools. The findings show that more and more girls are choosing STEM magnet school options as part of their studies. Interestingly, however, this general trend is not followed when choosing higher STEM studies. Cincera et al. (2017) also address scientific understanding, applying a programme to enhance the acquisition of scientific skills. However, there was no significant change in either the girls' or the boys' group.

Meanwhile, the study conducted in Portugal by Martinho et al. (2015) seeks to identify gender differences with respect to cooperation and competitiveness. The results reveal that women are more cooperative than men and men are more competitive than women. Thus, one of the socially assigned gender roles is manifested.

However, the gender gap also concerns communities and industries. González-González et al. (2018) present good practices from communities and industries. Laboratorial, which has a "Talent Fest", stands out. There is also Microsoft, which offers mentoring to young women, for the development of their digital skills. Finally, there is also the Women at Google initiative, which aims to increase the presence of women in the company and encourage them to feel more empowered.

Also, Herman et al. (2019) aim to promote the re-entry into the STEM labour market of women who abandoned their careers, through a blended learning programme. The Badged Open Course (BOC) was developed in 2016 to support women returning to STEM careers after a long period of time.

Finally, as is known from the updated indices published in the latest report of the World Economic Forum (2021) , the different countries included in the rankings still have a percentage of the gender gap to close. However, given the results obtained in the systematic review of the literature, it is striking that in those countries where initiatives have been implemented to alleviate the gender gap, the gender gap continues to persist. This finding is consistent with the conclusions obtained in the study by Stoet and Geary (2018) . The authors concluded in their research that, paradoxically, countries with lower gender equality indexes had relatively more female graduates in STEM disciplines than those with higher gender equality indexes. As noted by the same authors ( Stoet and Geary, 2018 ), this finding is noteworthy since, following other authors such as Williams and Ceci (2015) , countries with higher gender equality indexes are those that offer girls and women more educational and empowerment opportunities and generally promote women's participation in STEM fields. In line with Stoet and Geary's (2018) argument, it is not only social and cultural factors that play a role, but also the individual choices and attitudes that students make, which may be influenced by other factors such as socioeconomic status. In this sense, and in agreement with other authors ( Stoet and Geary, 2018 ; M.-T. Wang and Degol, 2013 ), students should base their educational decisions on their potential, regardless of the educational field to which the decision is directed.

4.2. IQ2: how do gender roles and stereotypes influence decision-making related to higher education?

4.2.1. social cognitive career theory (scct) and early intervention.

According to Heybach and Pickup (2017) in order to suppress gender roles and stereotypes that foster the gender gap it is necessary to move away from androcentrism, and the stereotypical belief that the rational mind is male and the passive nature is female. This would move away from the binary logic, in which occupations have either a female or male profile. The STEM workforce should be empowered, preventing gender roles and stereotypes from increasing the Leaky Pipeline ( Heybach and Pickup, 2017 ). To retain girls and women, the Stereotype Threat must be lessened. Girls and women grow up thinking that they should be dedicated to caring for the family, and scientific thinking is also thought to be masculine in nature. To eradicate these erratic beliefs Heybach and Pickup (2017) propose female role models as a possible solution, in order to increase interest.

For their part, Peixoto et al. (2018) indicate that efforts to retain women and girls in STEM focus on secondary education and/or university. However, it is more relevant to work from an early age. From an early age, it is already evident that boys identify more with the concept of science than girls. Stereotypical perceptions of what STEM is lead boys to feel that scientists can be similar to them at higher rates than girls.

Kang et al. (2019) also point to boys' and girls' interests as a key element, as career aspirations may begin around the age of 11 or 12. Academic and extracurricular experiences and science education are conditioning elements. In addition, the Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) points out that attention should be paid to the expectations of results, since they are a major source of interest.

Other authors who also argue the importance of addressing the gender gap from an early age are ( Brauner et al., 2018 ). They point out that self-efficacy plays an important role in decision-making. This in turn relates to the locus of control of Causal Attribution Theory. Considering that gender, ethnicity, and other distinguishing characteristics may also interfere with decision-making, one must again turn to SCCT. This theory points out that different elements need to be addressed in order to reduce segregation: self-efficacy, outcome expectations, personal goals, career interests, career path choices, performance, and perceived achievements.

However, it is not only a question of interests, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations. According to Cantley et al. (2017) attention should also be paid to attitudes. When the transition from primary to secondary school takes place, students' attitudes towards mathematics become more negative. Attitudes are influenced by interest and enjoyment. For this reason, Cantley et al. (2017) propose to work from Cognitive Activation Teaching Strategies, since they are related to the intrinsic motivation of the person.

4.2.2. Educational institutions and the learning process

Padwick et al. (2016) point out that an important and involved element is science capital. Children with higher science capital are more likely to choose higher STEM studies than those with lower science capital.

Also, Stoeger, Greindl, et al. (2017) , who report on STEM magnet schools and non-STEM magnet schools, assume that gender stereotypes can be observed at the age of six. This fact implies that STEM magnet schools could play an important role in increasing participation in STEM studies.

In this line, Salmi et al. (2016) emphasise the difficulty of changing attitudes after primary education, since they are formed at an early age. Salmi et al. (2016) focus on cognitive, motivational, and learning aspects, because motivation and attitudes precede intention. Therefore, if positive attitudes towards the STEM sector can be generated at an early age and motivational elements are introduced, a behavioural approach to science and engineering can be generated.

In terms of motivation, according to Görlitz and Gravert (2018) those who choose to take mathematics and science classes in secondary education are more likely to specialise in these areas at university.

In addition, scientific identity and agency play a role in decision-making. In accordance with Wulff et al. (2018) agency and scientific identity, tinged with social roles, are a possible source of underrepresentation. Elements such as stereotypes, lack of interest, motivation or sense of belonging may explain the underrepresentation of young women in domains such as Physics.

4.2.3. Perceptions of male-dominated domains

In the sense of identity, as Borsotti (2018) points out computer science has been socially constructed as a masculinised domain, resulting in stereotypical perceptions and beliefs, low self-efficacy on the part of women and girls, and biased assessment in STEM subjects.

To address this, according to Sullivan et al. (2015) exposure to computer science, at home or at school, and encouragement from family and peers are the main factors influencing girls' decisions to pursue higher education in computer science. Other factors include self-perception, self-confidence, self-efficacy, scientific understanding, parenting strategy, stereotypes, and biases that girls and women must combat, and the barriers girls face when working in male-dominated environments.

In this regard, Ertl et al. (2017) also consider that negative perceptions, stereotypical beliefs and Stereotype Threat reinforce dysfunctional attribution patterns, which ultimately lead to a lower proportion of women, especially in the areas of technology and engineering. The authors also focus on self-concept as a key element to avoid the gender gap, based on Expectancy-Value Theory.

4.2.4. Social structures and contextual influences

Olmedo-Torre et al. (2018) insist on the relevance of the perception of the immediate environment. It is important to involve families and teachers in the search for a solution. According to Botella et al. (2019) gender roles and patterns and stereotypes installed in the family and in society about relevant careers for both men and women have an impact on the future education of boys and girls, and on their career choices. There are proposals to address these obstacles, such as the promotion of female role models in STEM fields, academic counselling, teacher mentoring, internship opportunities and career and skills development.

Furthermore, picking up on the idea of mentoring, according to Finzel et al. (2018) the probability of choosing higher studies in computer science is lower for women than for men. However, the low proportion is not due to a lack of competence of female students, as they are not less qualified. Instead, the presence of gender stereotypes and the absence of female role models are possible reasons for the low representation of women in computer science. Therefore, mentoring programmes are proposed to encourage the development of higher education in STEM.

In terms of real-world initiatives, Reich-Stiebert and Eyssel (2017) propose an intervention with robots. They aim to investigate whether "female" gendered robots could effectively support learning in STEM disciplines, and whether "male" gendered robots could support learning in linguistic and literary studies. After conducting the study, it can be concluded that the female agent tends to be more effective regardless of the gender of the participants.

Moreover, Henriksen et al. (2015) indicate that the challenge for future research is to further explore the social structures, discourses, curricular components, etc., that impede women's participation in the fields of science, where they have so far had only a small representation.

In addition to all of the above, the educational factor leads to the employment factor. According to González-González et al. (2018) , the problem of educational segregation extends to professional life. Finally, Cincera et al. (2017) point out that an optimal response to segregation is to encourage interactive learning through multimedia applications, in order to attract students' attention to science.

5. Conclusions

5.1. methodologies and methods and population groups.

According to the literature, the methodologies and methods that can be applied in gender gap studies in the STEM education sector may differ. Mixed models ( Herman et al., 2019 ; Padwick et al., 2016 ) and multi-method approaches ( Borsotti, 2018 ; Brauner et al., 2018 ; Ertl et al., 2017b ; Finzel et al., 2018 ; Henriksen et al., 2015 ; Olmedo-Torre et al., 2018 ) can be used. Quantitative studies ( Cantley et al., 2017 ; Cincera et al., 2017 ; Görlitz and Gravert, 2018 ; Kang et al., 2019 ; Reich-Stiebert and Eyssel, 2017 ; Salmi et al., 2016 ; Stoeger et al., 2017 ; Stoeger et al., 2017 ; Sullivan et al., 2015 ; Wulff et al., 2018 ), or qualitative studies ( Botella et al., 2019 ; Martinho et al., 2015 ) can also be applied. On the other hand, another type of study is based on the review of initiatives ( González-González et al., 2018 ; Heybach and Pickup, 2017 ; Peixoto et al., 2018 ).

However, what is most interesting is to know which population groups are of scientific interest in investigating this topic of study. The literature reveals that it is of interest to investigate from early ages to the working stages ( González-González et al., 2018 ; Herman et al., 2019 ) through primary education ( Padwick et al., 2016 ; Salmi et al., 2016 ; Sullivan et al., 2015 ), secondary ( Brauner et al., 2018 ; Cincera et al., 2017 ; Kang et al., 2019 ; Wulff et al., 2018 ) and university ( Ertl et al., 2017b ; Henriksen et al., 2015 ; Martinho et al., 2015 ; Olmedo-Torre et al., 2018 ; Reich-Stiebert and Eyssel, 2017 ; Stoeger et al., 2017 ). Moreover, as revealed in the literature, it is not only interesting to focus on one age group. Research can be conducted with students and women who are at different stages of their educational trajectory ( Botella et al., 2019 ; Cantley et al., 2017 ; Finzel et al., 2018 ; Görlitz and Gravert, 2018 ; Stoeger et al., 2017 ), such as students in primary, secondary and university education simultaneously.

5.2. Measurement and assessment resources

It is helpful to know what resources can be used to carry out studies in which the gender gap in the STEM education sector is studied and measured. Among the resources are gender gap measurement and assessment tools. After consulting the literature, it is noted that some instruments are aimed at detecting scientific identity, such as the Aspires Questionnaire ( Padwick et al., 2016 ). There are also instruments for measuring attitudes towards science, such as: Deci-Ryan motivation, Situation motivation test, Science attitudes, Future educational plans, Raven test, Knowledge test and School achievement ( Salmi et al., 2016 ).

On the other hand, Sullivan et al. (2015) have used an adaptation of the Papastergiou questionnaire to measure perceptions and self-efficacy concerning Computer Science. Along the lines of motivation, the Aiken Scale ( Cantley et al., 2017 ) is helpful and validated for measuring interest in mathematics. In addition, Wulff et al. (2018) , who conducted a Physics Olympiad, used: Content interest physics and Situational interest, for the measurement of interest. In the context of the IRIS project, Henriksen et al. (2015) used the validated IRIS Q questionnaire.

However, not all possible resources are quantitative instruments. Focus groups ( Henriksen et al., 2015 ) and qualitative interviews ( Borsotti, 2018 ; Martinho et al., 2015 ) can also be applied to approach knowledge through discourses. Another qualitative strategy is analysing through drawings ( Brauner et al., 2018 ).

Cincera et al. (2017) used the SEI Questionnaire to close the reflection on data collection resources adapted from the NoS instrument. Kang et al. (2019) validated an instrument based on PRiSE and PISA within the MultiCO project. Olmedo-Torre et al. (2018) applied the validated survey "Survey for engineering students and graduates", collecting quantitative and qualitative data. Finally, Stoeger et al. (2017) applied the Questionnaire of Educational and Learning Capital (QELC) to analyse educational and learning capital.

5.3. Possible initiatives

On the other hand, another of the original contributions of this work is the systematisation of possible initiatives to implement aimed at closing the gender gap in the STEM education sector. In this sense, Peixoto et al. (2018) propose an initiative based on robotics as an inclusive and motivational measure to encourage interest from the school stage. Along the same lines, Sullivan et al. (2015) carried out outreach interventions through programming in secondary education.

In terms of proposals that worked positively in the studies, to boost interest and motivation in physics from secondary education, Wulff et al. (2018) applied a Physics Olympiad with boys and girls. Continuing also in the context of secondary education, a proposal that has generated positive effects is the redesign of the curriculum to promote STEM disciplines ( Görlitz and Gravert, 2018 ). Also, to motivate female secondary school students to consider Computer Science as a possible field of study, Finzel et al. (2018) conducted a mentoring programme called make IT. In the same line, Stoeger et al. (2017) conducted a mentoring-based study within the context of the CyberMentor programme.

Using different methodologies, Cantley et al. (2017) promoted the enjoyment of mathematics through Collaborative Cognitive Activation Strategies.

In the university environment, the School of Engineering of the University of Valencia (ETSE-UV) promotes actions to increase the number of female students ( Botella et al., 2019 ). The actions are institutional support, increasing the support network, promoting leadership, and promoting female role models.

Finally, initiatives should not only be promoted in schools and universities. As advocated by González-González et al. (2018) , communities and businesses should also promote good practices. Finally, along the same lines, Herman et al. (2019) promote the re-entry of STEM women into the labour market through a Blended Learning programme.

In this way, it is concluded that it is worth investing resources and efforts in proposals based on scope interventions. According to the professional or training stage, applying one type of initiative or another will be more appropriate, as has been seen among those discussed above.

5.4. Impact of stereotypes

Measures and interventions could combat the effects of segregation, including the "Leaky Pipeline" phenomenon and the Stereotype Threat. These stereotypes are perpetuated over time. One of the socially acquired roles is that of family care for women, as demonstrated by Weisgram and Diekman (2015) .

However, it is inappropriate to think that intervention measures should focus exclusively on women and girls. The gender gap is a system-wide problem. Education, business and society, and family and social actors are indispensable elements to be mentioned ( Craig et al., 2019 ; Fisher and Margolis, 2003 ; Lehman et al., 2017 ; Sax et al., 2017 ). However, it remains striking that initiatives heavily target women and girls.

The scientific vocation is considerably affected by stereotypes. These stereotypes must be fought to deconstruct them. Investing efforts to close the gender gap should not be a matter of quotas or public image. As presented in a study by the Harvard Business Review ( Hewlett et al., 2013 ), organisations that have a more diverse and inclusive workforce tend to be more innovative and experience greater market growth than companies that do not adopt such a philosophy.

However, action should not be delayed until secondary or university education. Authors such as Kang et al. (2019) –and accordance with Nurmi (2005) – confirm that career aspirations begin at the age of 11–12 years. Therefore, it is necessary to act from an early age, as supported by Brauner et al. (2010) , Miller et al. (2018) and Wang (2013) .

In this sense, girls generally prefer more family and contact-oriented occupations than boys, as Konrad et al. (2000) point out. Thus, women have continuously shown less interest in science and STEM occupations, especially in engineering ( Ceci and Williams, 2010 ; Diekman et al., 2010 ).

In addition to personal goals, outcome expectations and interests, other constructs such as self-concept, motivation, attitudes, performance, and self-efficacy should be addressed. By enhancing scientific and confident identity and self-confidence in the discipline, positive self-knowledge can be enhanced. Moreover, if people have gains in agency ( Bandura, 1977 ), they will feel more prepared to engage in what they really want to do.

5.5. Other segregation types

Finally, while the work presented in this paper focuses on horizontal segregation in women's entry and persistence in STEM fields, horizontal segregation is not the only form of segregation that exists. It is also essential to recognise the existence and impact of vertical segregation ( Corbett and Hill, 2015 ). The latter type prevents or hinders promotion within the field, resulting in the Glass Ceiling phenomenon. Vertical segregation manifests mainly in the labour sector once women are immersed in the labour market. This phenomenon occurs because of the obstacles and barriers women face that make it difficult to progress at the same rate as their male counterparts ( Cotter et al., 2001 ; de Welde and Laursen, 2011 ; Zeng, 2011 ). When the Glass Ceiling occurs in the academic and scientific space, it is accompanied by the Scissors Effect ( Wood, 2009 ).

Perceived barriers include the lack of female role models and references, gender bias, hostile work environment, lack of natural work-family balance, unequal growth opportunities based on gender, and the gender pay gap ( Botella et al., 2019 ; ISACA, 2017 ).

As can be seen, the two types of segregation, vertical and horizontal, share a common trigger: perceived barriers in the environment and context. For this reason, it is essential to work on these barriers to reduce them until they are eradicated.

6. Threats to the validity of the study

The systematic review and mapping presented in this paper, just like any other research method, may suffer from threats to its validity, as well as some limitations. Two categories of threats are identified: construct validity and validity of conclusions.

To preserve the validity of the construct, a series of measures were applied to maintain the objectivity of the results. These measures were: to review previous SLRs to confirm the need to carry out the presented study, and to follow systematised and documented phases marked by inclusion, exclusion, and quality criteria, with the ultimate aim of mitigating possible biases. On the other hand, although a search protocol has been defined, this does not guarantee that all publications related to the subject are included. In order to weigh up this threat, searches have been carried out in the two main research databases, namely Web of Science and Scopus.

In addition, for the validity of the conclusions, the data extraction process has been described step by step and documented by means of different spreadsheets which are available from the links: http://bit.ly/3a4gRM5 , http://bit.ly/39lO0DX and http://bit.ly/36fnBpi .

The main limitation encountered in the research was the initial management of the large volume of results obtained from the equation of terms. The initial starting point was 4571 results, which meant that the start of the process took longer than desired.

Finally, as a future prospect, it is proposed to make systematic updates of the literature presented, with the aim of identifying new proposals for intervention, as well as methodological approaches to the factors influencing the gender gap.

Declarations

Author contribution statement.

All authors listed have significantly contributed to the development and the writing of this article.

Funding statement

This work was supported by the Spanish Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovación y Universidades under a FPU fellowship (FPU017/01252). This work has been possible with the support of the Erasmus+ Programme of the European Union in its Key Action 2 "Capacity-building in Higher Education". Project W-STEM "Building the future of Latin America: engaging women into STEM" (Reference number 598923-EPP-1-2018-1-ES-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP). The content of this publication does not reflect the official opinion of the European Union. Responsibility for the information and views expressed in the publication lies entirely with the authors.

Data availability statement

Declaration of interest's statement.

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

No additional information is available for this paper.

Acknowledgements

This research work has been carried out within the PhD Programme of the University of Salamanca in the field of Education in the Knowledge Society ( http://knowledgesociety.usal.es ), and this research was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities with a grant for the training of University Teachers (FPU017/01252). Also, the authors would like to thank Elena P. Hernández Rivero (Language Centre-USAL) for translation support.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following is the supplementary data related to this article:

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Research uncovers differences between men and women in sleep, circadian rhythms and metabolism

A new review of research evidence has explored the key differences in how women and men sleep, variations in their body clocks, and how this affects their metabolism.

Published in Sleep Medicine Reviews , the paper highlights the crucial role sex plays in understanding these factors and suggests a person's biological sex should be considered when treating sleep, circadian rhythm and metabolic disorders.

Differences in sleep

The review found women rate their sleep quality lower than men's and report more fluctuations in their quality of sleep, corresponding to changes throughout the menstrual cycle.

"Lower sleep quality is associated with anxiety and depressive disorders, which are twice as common in women as in men," says Dr Sarah L. Chellappa from the University of Southampton and senior author of the paper. "Women are also more likely than men to be diagnosed with insomnia, although the reasons are not entirely clear. Recognising and comprehending sex differences in sleep and circadian rhythms is essential for tailoring approaches and treatment strategies for sleep disorders and associated mental health conditions."

The paper's authors also found women have a 25 to 50 per cent higher likelihood of developing restless legs syndrome and are up to four times as likely to develop sleep-related eating disorder, where people eat repeatedly during the night.

Meanwhile, men are three times more likely to be diagnosed with obstructive sleep apnoea (OSA). OSA manifests differently in women and men, which might explain this disparity. OSA is associated with a heightened risk of heart failure in women, but not men.

Sleep lab studies found women sleep more than men, spending around 8 minutes longer in non-REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep, where brain activity slows down. While the time we spend in NREM declines with age, this decline is more substantial in older men. Women also entered REM sleep, characterised by high levels of brain activity and vivid dreaming, earlier than men.

Variations in body clocks

The team of all women researchers from the University of Southampton in the UK, and Stanford University and Harvard University in the United States, found differences between the sexes are also present in our circadian rhythms.

They found melatonin, a hormone that helps with the timing of circadian rhythms and sleep, is secreted earlier in women than men. Core body temperature, which is at its highest before sleep and its lowest a few hours before waking, follows a similar pattern, reaching its peak earlier in women than in men.

Corresponding to these findings, other studies suggest women's intrinsic circadian periods are shorter than men's by around six minutes.

Dr Renske Lok from Stanford University, who led the review, says: "While this difference may be small, it is significant. The misalignment between the central body clock and the sleep/wake cycle is approximately five times larger in women than in men. Imagine if someone's watch was consistently running six minutes faster or slower. Over the course of days, weeks, and months, this difference can lead to a noticeable misalignment between the internal clock and external cues, such as light and darkness.

"Disruptions in circadian rhythms have been linked to various health problems, including sleep disorders, mood disorders and impaired cognitive function. Even minor differences in circadian periods can have significant implications for overall health and well-being."

Men tend to be later chronotypes, preferring to go to bed and wake up later than women. This may lead to social jet lag, where their circadian rhythm doesn't align with social demands, like work. They also have less consistent rest-activity schedules than women on a day-to-day basis.

Impact on metabolism

The research team also investigated if the global increase in obesity might be partially related to people not getting enough sleep -- with 30 per cent of 30- to 64-year-olds sleeping less than six hours a night in the United States, with similar numbers in Europe.

There were big differences between how women's and men's brains responded to pictures of food after sleep deprivation. Brain networks associated with cognitive (decision making) and affective (emotional) processes were twice as active in women than in men. Another study found women had a 1.5 times higher activation in the limbic region (involved in emotion processing, memory formation, and behavioural regulation) in response to images of sweet food compared to men.

Despite this difference in brain activity, men tend to overeat more than women in response to sleep loss. Another study found more fragmented sleep, taking longer to get to sleep, and spending more time in bed trying to get to sleep were only associated with more hunger in men.

Both women and men nightshift workers are more likely to develop type 2 diabetes, but this risk is higher in men. Sixty-six per cent of women nightshift workers experienced emotional eating and another study suggests they are around 1.5 times more likely to be overweight or obese compared to women working day shifts.

The researchers also found emerging evidence on how women and men respond differently to treatments for sleep and circadian disorders. For example, weight loss was more successful in treating women with OSA than men, while women prescribed zolpidem (an insomnia medication) may require a lower dosage than men to avoid lingering sleepiness the next morning.

Dr Chellappa added: "Most of sleep and circadian interventions are a newly emerging field with limited research on sex differences. As we understand more about how women and men sleep, differences in their circadian rhythms and how these affect their metabolism, we can move towards more precise and personalised healthcare which enhances the likelihood of positive outcomes."

The research was funded by the Alexander Von Humboldt Foundation, the US Department of Defense and the National Institute of Health.

Sleep Disorder Research
Insomnia Research
Gender Difference
Sleep Disorders
Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Circadian rhythm sleep disorder
Glutamic acid
Sleep deprivation

Story Source:

Materials provided by University of Southampton . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

Renske Lok, Jingyi Qian, Sarah L. Chellappa. Sex differences in sleep, circadian rhythms, and metabolism: Implications for precision medicine . Sleep Medicine Reviews , 2024; 75: 101926 DOI: 10.1016/j.smrv.2024.101926

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Gender medicine ‘built on shaky foundations’, Cass review finds

Analysis finds most research underpinning clinical guidelines, hormone treatments and puberty blockers to be low quality

Review of gender services has major implications for mental health services

The head of the world’s largest review into children’s care has said that gender medicine is “built on shaky foundations”.

Dr Hilary Cass, the paediatrician commissioned to conduct a review of the services provided by the NHS to children and young people questioning their gender identity, said that while doctors tended to be cautious in implementing new findings in emerging areas of medicine, “quite the reverse happened in the field of gender care for children”.

Cass commissioned the University of York to conduct a series of analyses as part of her review.

Two papers examined the quality and development of current guidelines and recommendations for managing gender dysphoria in children and young people. Most of the 23 clinical guidelines reviewed were not independent or evidence based, the researchers found.

A third paper on puberty blockers found that of 50 studies, only one was of high quality.

Similarly, of 53 studies included in a fourth paper on the use of hormone treatment, only one was of sufficiently high quality, with little or only inconsistent evidence on key outcomes.

Here are the main findings of the reviews:

Clinical guidelines

Increasing numbers of children and young people experiencing gender dysphoria are being referred to specialist gender services. There are various guidelines outlining approaches to the clinical care of these children and adolescents.

In the first two papers, the York researchers examined the quality and development of published guidelines or clinical guidance containing recommendations for managing gender dysphoria in children and young people up to the age of 18.

They studied a total of 23 guidelines published in different countries between 1998 and 2022. All but two were published after 2010.

Most of them lacked “an independent and evidence-based approach and information about how recommendations were developed”, the researchers said.

Few guidelines were informed by a systematic review of empirical evidence and they lack transparency about how their recommendations were developed. Only two reported consulting directly with children and young people during their development, the York academics found.

“Healthcare services and professionals should take into account the poor quality and interrelated nature of published guidance to support the management of children and adolescents experiencing gender dysphoria/incongruence,” the researchers wrote.

Writing in the British Medical Journal (BMJ) , Cass said that while medicine was usually based on the pillars of integrating the best available research evidence with clinical expertise, and patient values and preferences, she “found that in gender medicine those pillars are built on shaky foundations”.

She said the World Professional Association of Transgender Healthcare (WPATH) had been “highly influential in directing international practice, although its guidelines were found by the University of York’s appraisal to lack developmental rigour and transparency”.

In the foreword to her report, Cass said while doctors tended to be cautious in implementing new findings “quite the reverse happened in the field of gender care for children”.

In one example, she said a single Dutch medical study, “suggesting puberty blockers may improve psychological wellbeing for a narrowly defined group of children with gender incongruence”, had formed the basis for their use to “spread at pace to other countries”. Subsequently, there was a “greater readiness to start masculinising/feminising hormones in mid-teens”.

She added: “Some practitioners abandoned normal clinical approaches to holistic assessment, which has meant that this group of young people have been exceptionalised compared to other young people with similarly complex presentations. They deserve very much better.”

Both papers repeatedly pointed to a key problem in this area of medicine: a dearth of good data.

She said: “Filling this knowledge gap would be of great help to the young people wanting to make informed choices about their treatment.”

Cass said the NHS should put in place a “full programme of research” looking at the characteristics, interventions and outcomes of every young person presenting to gender services, with consent routinely sought for enrolment in a research study that followed them into adulthood.

Gender medicine was “an area of remarkably weak evidence”, her review found, with study results also “exaggerated or misrepresented by people on all sides of the debate to support their viewpoint”.

Alongside a puberty blocker trial, which could be in place by December, there should be research into psychosocial interventions and the use of the masculinising and feminising hormones testosterone and oestrogen, the review found.

Hormone treatment

Many trans people who seek medical intervention in their transition opt to take hormones to masculinise or feminise their body, an approach that has been used in transgender adults for decades.

“It is a well-established practice that has transformed the lives of many transgender people,” the Cass review notes, adding that while these drugs are not without long-term problems and side-effects, for many they are dramatically outweighed by the benefits.

For birth-registered females, the approach means taking testosterone, which brings about changes including the growth of facial hair and a deepening of the voice, while for birth-registered males, it involves taking hormones including oestrogen to promote changes including the growth of breasts and an increase in body fat. Some of these changes may be irreversible.

However, in recent years a growing proportion of adolescents have begun taking these cross-sex, or gender-affirming, hormones, with the vast majority who are prescribed puberty blockers subsequently moving on to such medication.

This growing take-up among young people has led to questions over the impact of these hormones in areas ranging from mental health to sexual functioning and fertility.

Now researchers at the University of York have carried out a review of the evidence, comprising an analysis of 53 previously published studies, in an attempt to set out what is known – and what is not – about the risks, benefits and possible side-effects of such hormones on young people.

All but one study, which looked at side-effects, were rated of moderate or low quality, with the researchers finding limited evidence for the impact of such hormones on trans adolescents with respect to outcomes, including gender dysphoria and body satisfaction.

The researchers noted inconsistent findings around the impact of such hormones on growth, height, bone health and cardiometabolic effects, such as BMI and cholesterol markers. In addition, they found no study assessed fertility in birth-registered females, and only one looked at fertility in birth-registered males.

“These findings add to other systematic reviews in concluding there is insufficient and/or inconsistent evidence about the risks and benefits of hormone interventions in this population,” the authors write.

However, the review did find some evidence that masculinising or feminising hormones might help with psychological health in young trans people. An analysis of five studies in the area suggested hormone treatment may improve depression, anxiety and other aspects of mental health in adolescents after 12 months of treatment, with three of four studies reporting an improvement around suicidality and/or self-harm (one reported no change).

But unpicking the precise role of such hormones is difficult. “Most studies included adolescents who received puberty suppression, making it difficult to determine the effects of hormones alone,” the authors write, adding that robust research on psychological health with long-term follow-up was needed.

The Cass review has recommended NHS England should review the current policy on masculinising or feminising hormones, advising that while there should be the option to provide such drugs from age 16, extreme caution was recommended, and there should be a clear clinical rationale for not waiting until an individual reached 18.

Puberty blockers

Treatments to suppress puberty in adolescents became available through routine clinical practice in the UK a decade ago.

While the drugs have long been used to treat precocious puberty – when children start puberty at an extremely young age – they have only been used off-label in children with gender dysphoria or incongruence since the late 1990s. The rationale for giving puberty blockers, which originated in the Netherlands, was to buy thinking time for young people and improve their ability to smooth their transition in later life.

Data from gender clinics reported in the Cass review showed the vast majority of people who started puberty suppression went on to have masculinising or feminising hormones, suggesting that puberty blockers did not buy people time to think.

To understand the broader effects of puberty blockers, researchers at the University of York identified 50 papers that reported on the effects of the drugs in adolescents with gender dysphoria or incongruence. According to their systematic review, only one of these studies was high quality, with a further 25 papers regarded as moderate quality. The remaining 24 were deemed too weak to be included in the analysis.

Many of the reports looked at how well puberty was suppressed and the treatment’s side-effects, but fewer looked at whether the drugs had their intended benefits.

Of two studies that investigated gender dysphoria and body satisfaction, neither found a change after receiving puberty blockers. The York team found “very limited” evidence that puberty blockers improved mental health.

Overall, the researchers said “no conclusions” could be drawn about the impact on gender dysphoria, mental and psychosocial health or cognitive development, though there was some evidence bone health and height may be compromised during treatment.

Based on the York work, the Cass review finds that puberty blockers offer no obvious benefit in helping transgender males to help their transition in later life, particularly if the drugs do not lead to an increase in height in adult life. For transgender females, the benefits of stopping irreversible changes such as a deeper voice and facial hair have to be weighed up against the need for penile growth should the person opt for vaginoplasty, the creation of a vagina and vulva.

In March, NHS England announced that children with gender dysphoria would no longer receive puberty blockers as routine practice. Instead, their use will be confined to a trial that the Cass review says should form part of a broader research programme into the effects of masculinising and feminising hormones.

Transgender
Young people

More on this story

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Ban on children’s puberty blockers to be enforced in private sector in England

What Cass review says about surge in children seeking gender services

Adult transgender clinics in England face inquiry into patient care

‘Children are being used as a football’: Hilary Cass on her review of gender identity services

Thousands of children unsure of gender identity ‘let down by NHS’, report finds

What are the key findings of the NHS gender identity review?

Mother criticises ‘agenda from above’ after release of Cass report

Cass review set to confirm shift in NHS care for children with gender dysphoria

Q&A: Julian Nyarko on why Large Language Models like ChatGPT treat Black- and white-sounding names differently

Since ChaptGPT and other Large Language Models (LLMs) came on the scene, questions have loomed large about the technology’s potential for perpetuating racial and cultural biases.

Stanford Law School Professor Julian Nyarko , who focuses much of his scholarship on algorithmic fairness and computational methods, has been at the forefront of many of these inquiries over the last several years. His latest paper, “What’s in a Name? Auditing Large Language Models for Race and Gender Bias,” makes some startling observations about how the most popular LLMs treat certain queries that include first and last names suggestive of race or gender.

Asking ChatGPT-4 for advice on how much one should pay for a used bicycle being sold by someone named Jamal Washington, for example, will yield a different—far lower—dollar amount than the same request using a seller’s name, like Logan Becker, that would widely be seen as belonging to a white man. “It’s $150 for white-sounding names and $75 for black-sounding names,” says Nyarko, who is also a faculty fellow at the Stanford Institute for Economic Policy Research (SIEPR) and an associate director and a senior fellow at the Stanford Institute for Human-Centered AI (HAI). “Other scenarios, for example in the area of car sales, show less of a disparity, but a disparity nonetheless.”

Names associated with Black women receive the least advantageous outcomes, according to the paper.

Nyarko co-authored What’s in a Name with lead author Amit Haim, JSD ’24 (JSM ’20), and Stanford Law School research fellow Alejandro Salinas. What differentiates their study from other similar inquiries into LLM bias, the authors say, is their use of an audit design as the framework for their study. Audit designs are empirical methods designed to identify and measure the level of bias in different domains of society, such as housing and employment. One of the best known examples is the 2003 study in which researchers submitted resumes for various jobs, varying only the name of the applicant, using stereotypical African-American, white, male and female names.

Here, Nyarko explains how he and his co-authors brought that same methodology to the realm of LLMs, what the findings tell us, and what should be done.

Can you start by providing a little background and context for the study? Many people might expect that LLMs would treat a person’s name as a neutral data point, but that isn’t the case at all, according to your research?

Ideally when someone submits a query to a language model, what they would want to see, even if they add a person’s name to the query, is a response that is not sensitive to the name. But at the end of the day, these models just create the most likely next token– or the most likely next word–based on how they were trained. So, let’s say part of the training data are Craigslist posts. If a car is being sold by a Black person, or a person with a Black-sounding name, it tends to be sold for less on Craigslist than the same type of car being sold by a white person, or a person with a white-sounding name. This happens for many reasons, for instance because the Black car seller is more likely to live in a lower resourced community where there is less money. And so if you ask one of these models for advice on how much you should offer for a used car, and the only additional data you provide is the name of the seller, the model will implicitly assume that the next tokens after the offer that you should make are maybe “$10,000” as opposed to “$12,000.” It is a little bit difficult to analogize that to human decision making, where there’s something like intent. And these models don’t have intent in the same way. But they learn these associations in the data and then reproduce them when they’re queried.

What types of biases did you study?

Our research focuses on five scenarios in which a user might seek advice from an LLM: strategies for purchasing an item like a car or bicycle, designed to assess bias in the area of socio-economic status; questions about likely outcomes in chess, which goes to the issue of intellectual capabilities; querying who might be more likely to win public office, which is about electability and popularity; sports ability, and advice-seeking in connection with making a job offer to someone.

Is there a way to drill down into the code, or the “backend” of the LLMs, to see what is going on from a technical perspective?

Most of these newer LLMs, the ones people are most accustomed to, like ChatGPT-4, tend to be closed source. With open-source models, you can break it open and, in a technical way, look at the model and see how it is trained. And if you have the training data, you can look at whether the model was trained in such a way that it might encode disparities. But with the closed-source models, you have to find other ways to investigate. The nice parallel here is the human mind and decision making. With humans, we can devise strategies to look into people’s heads and make determinations about whether their decision-making is based on discriminatory motivations. In that context, audit studies were developed, where, for instance, two shoppers of different races go to buy a car or a house with exactly the same external variables, such as the clothes they are wearing and so forth. And the study looks at what kind of cars are offered to them, or the types of houses. One of the most famous of these types of studies involves resumes, where all the information on the resumes was the same, except the names.

So we thought this approach can be used in the large language model context to indirectly test whether these disparities are baked in.

Your study took a new approach to these types of studies looking at LLMs’ potential for perpetuating racial and gender biases, is that correct?

There are a couple of studies that have tried to do something similar in the past, for example CV studies on GPT looking into whether someone with the name Lakeisha is deemed to be less employable than someone with a name that is less stereotypically Black. But those studies have primarily looked at the question in a binary way: Should I hire this person? Yes or no. Those studies got mixed results. If you ask for a binary yes or no, you don’t get the nuance. Also, based on previous research, what wasn’t quite clear was the extent to which these models were biased. What we found was that if you switch to an open-ended question—for example, how much should I pay or what is the probability of this or that candidate winning an election, you get a much clearer, nuanced picture of the bias that is encoded.

How significant are the disparities you uncovered?

The biases are consistent across 42 prompt templates and several models, indicating a systemic issue rather than isolated incidents. One exception was the “chess” scenario we designed to check whether the model assumes a lower IQ for minorities. The questions posed were about who was more likely to win a chess match. While we found disparate results across gender–the models would predict more often that a man would win than it would predict that a woman would win–we didn’t find disparities across race in the chess context.

In some areas, the disparities were quite significant. In the bicycle sale example, we saw a significant Black-white gap, where the price offered to the white seller would be twice that of the Black seller. It was a little bit less in the area of car sales. A difference of $18,000 vs $16,000. The model tends to view Black basketball players as better than white players and city council candidates with white-sounding names were deemed more likely to win an election than those with Black-sounding names.

Does it change the results if you input additional data such as the year of a car or other details?

We found that while providing numerical, decision-relevant anchors in the prompt can successfully counteract the biases, qualitative details have inconsistent effects and may even increase disparities. If you just ask, “How much should I offer for a car, any car,” along with one of the names used in our study, the model has very little information and has to rely on encoded approximations of whatever it has learned, and that might be: Black people usually have less money, and drive worse cars. But then we have a high-context condition where we add “2015 Toyota Corolla,” and as expected, with the additional context, you see the bias shrink, though we didn’t see that every time. In fact, sometimes the biases increased when we gave the models more context. However, there’s one condition, what we call the numeric condition, where we gave it a specific quantifier as an anchor. So for instance, we would say, “How much should I offer for this car, which has a Kelley Blue Book value of $15,000?” What we saw consistently is that if you give this quantifier as an anchor, the model gives you the same response each time, without the biases.

Which leads to the question of what should be done in the face of your study? Do these LLMs already have systems in place to counteract these sorts of biases and what else can or should be done?

On the technical end, how to mitigate these biases is still an open, exploratory field. We know that OpenAI, for instance, has significant guardrails in its models. If you query too directly about differences across a gender or race, the model will just refuse to give you a straight answer in most contexts. And so one approach could be to extend these guardrails to also cover disparities discovered in audit studies. But this is a little bit like a game of Whac-a-Mole, where issues have to be fixed piece-by-piece as they are discovered. Overall, how to debias models is still a very active and exploratory field of research.

That said, at a minimum, I think we should know that these biases exist, and companies who deploy LLMs should test for these biases. These audit design tests can be implemented really easily, but there are many tough questions. Think about a financial advice chatbot. In order to have a good user experience, the chatbot most likely will have access to the user’s name. The example I like to think about is a chatbot that gives more conservative advice to users with Black-sounding names as opposed to those with white-sounding names. Now it is the case that, due to socio-economic disparities, users with Black-sounding names do tend to have–on average–fewer economic resources. And it is true that the lower your economic resources, the more conservative investment advice should be. If you have more money, you can be more adventurous with your dollars. And so in that sense, if a model gives people with different names different advice, it could lead to more satisfied users in the long run. But no matter what one might think about the desirability of using names as a proxy for socio-economic status, their use should always be the consequence of a conscious decision-making process, not an unconscious feature of the model.

This story was originally published on March 19, 2024 by Stanford Law School.

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GENDER NORMS AND ATTITUDE TOWARDS ABORTION AMONG VERY YOUNG ADOLESCENTS IN KENYA AND NIGERIA

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Introduction: Unsafe abortion is a major cause of death in sub-Saharan African countries with very young adolescents (VYAs) at increased risk due to their high vulnerability to unprotected sex and unplanned pregnancies. Abortion beliefs and attitudes are considered to be partly rooted in traditional views on gender and religious influences. This study is informed by the limited data on gender norm perception and its association with abortion among VYAs despite the increasing prevalence of unsafe abortion reported among this group. Materials: Data for this study was collected as part of a longitudinal survey on the gendered socialization and sexual and reproductive health of very young, in-school adolescents aged 10-14 years in Kenya and Nigeria. The study obtained quantitative data from 1,912 VYAs using a structured questionnaire. The results presented in this paper are from the quantitative baseline data collected in Kenya and Nigeria Result: The study found significant regional differentials in attitudes toward abortion and gender norm perception of the VYAs from the two regions. VYAs from Nigeria were more likely to endorse abortion practices relative to their counterparts from Kenya. Factors associated with endorsement of abortion practice were gender norms about Sexual Double Standards (SDS) and Normative Heterosexual Relation (NHR) in Nigeria and knowledge of where to get a condom, NHR, and Normative Romantic Relationship (NRR) in Kenya. Conclusion: Intervention efforts seeking to promote positive gender norms and attitudes towards SRH must begin with the VYAs and must consider regional variations and address knowledge and access to SRH commodities.

Competing Interest Statement

The authors have declared no competing interest.

Funding Statement

The study was funded by the International Development Research Center (Canada) (108676-004).

Author Declarations

I confirm all relevant ethical guidelines have been followed, and any necessary IRB and/or ethics committee approvals have been obtained.

The details of the IRB/oversight body that provided approval or exemption for the research described are given below:

Ethical Review Committee of the Ministry of Health of Osun State and Kenya

I confirm that all necessary patient/participant consent has been obtained and the appropriate institutional forms have been archived, and that any patient/participant/sample identifiers included were not known to anyone (e.g., hospital staff, patients or participants themselves) outside the research group so cannot be used to identify individuals.

I understand that all clinical trials and any other prospective interventional studies must be registered with an ICMJE-approved registry, such as ClinicalTrials.gov. I confirm that any such study reported in the manuscript has been registered and the trial registration ID is provided (note: if posting a prospective study registered retrospectively, please provide a statement in the trial ID field explaining why the study was not registered in advance).

I have followed all appropriate research reporting guidelines, such as any relevant EQUATOR Network research reporting checklist(s) and other pertinent material, if applicable.

Data Availability

All data produced are available online at: https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/studies/38392.

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3. partisanship by gender, sexual orientation, marital and parental status.

Men continue to be more likely than women to associate with the Republican Party.

Partisan affiliation also varies by marital status, with gender differences in party identification apparent among married and unmarried voters.

Bar chart showing demographic group comparison between registered voters who tend more Republican and those who are more Democratic. Partisanship varies by gender, marital status and sexual orientation.

Sexual orientation is also strongly associated with partisanship among both men and women.

Among all registered voters, men tilt to the GOP (52% of men identify with or lean toward the Republican Party, 46% to the Democratic Party).
By a similar margin, women tilt Democratic (51% Democratic, 44% Republican, including leaners).

Marital status

Married men and women are more likely to identify with or lean toward the Republican Party than their unmarried counterparts, with 59% of married men and half of married women oriented toward the GOP.

And while majorities of both men and women voters who have never been married and do not live with a partner align with the Democratic Party, never-married women are particularly likely to do so:

Women who have never been married are three times as likely to associate with the Democratic Party as with the Republican Party (72% vs. 24%).
By a narrower – though still sizable – margin (61% to 37%), never-married men also favor the Democrats.
Democrats have a substantial advantage among both women and men who live with a partner but are not married, and a narrower edge among those who are divorced or separated.
Widowed men tilt Republican (55% GOP vs. 44% Democratic, including party leaners), while widowed women are about equally likely to associate with the GOP or Democrats (46% and 47%).

Sexual orientation

Lesbian, gay and bisexual women overwhelmingly identify with or lean toward the Democratic Party over the GOP (83% vs. 12%). Similarly, the Democratic Party enjoys a wide advantage among gay and bisexual men (83% vs. 17%).

Straight men are more likely to associate with the Republican Party than straight women (55% vs. 47%).

Gender and partisanship

The Republican Party has held an edge among men for much of the last 30 years. Although that narrowed somewhat between 2019 and 2021, the GOP advantage has since returned.

Trend charts over time showing that among registered voters, the Republican Party has held an edge among men for much of the last 30 years. Although that narrowed somewhat between 2019 and 2021, the GOP advantage has since returned. For women, the Democratic advantage is narrower than it was a few years ago.

While women have consistently been more likely to associate with the Democratic Party over the past several decades, the Democratic edge among women is narrower than it was a few years ago.

Parents are more Republican than voters without children

Dot plot chart showing that at all age levels among registered voters, parents with at least one child under 18 are more Republican-oriented than non-parents.

A slim majority (54%) of fathers of children under age 18 identify with or lean toward the Republican Party, compared with 44% of men who do not have children. There is a nearly identical gap in partisan association between mothers of minor children and women without children.

At all age levels, parents are more Republican-oriented than non-parents. For example, 55% of men ages 35 to 44 who have children under 18 identify with or lean toward the GOP. This compares with about a third (36%) of men of the same age who are not parents.

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100 Best Gender Research Topics
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Gender studies developed alongside and emerged out of Women's Studies. This non-exhaustive list introduces readers to scholarship in the field. The icon indicates free access to the linked research on JSTOR. Gender studies asks what it means to make gender salient, bringing a critical eye to everything from labor conditions to healthcare ...
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