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Beccaria – “On Crimes And Punishments”

November 4, 2018 By Margit

Cesare Beccaria is seen by many people as the “father of criminology.” Here is a brief summary of his ideas and famous essay “On Crimes and Punishments,” both in video and text format.

Table of Contents

Discussions about Crime and Punishment

Cesare Beccaria is seen by many people as the “father of criminology” for his ideas about crime, punishment, and criminal justice procedures. He was an Italian born as an aristocrat in the year 1738 in Milan. At that time European thought about crime and punishment was still very much dominated by the old idea that crime was sin and that it was caused by the devil and by demons. And in part to punish the devil and the demons that were causing crime, very harsh punishments were used. At the time when Beccaria came along, the era of Enlightenment was in full swing, and scientists were starting to challenge the old views, but the people who had political power were not ready to leave those old ideas behind yet.

Beccaria didn’t start out as an intellectual. In fact, he wasn’t considered to be above average or interested really when it came to science or philosophy. But after he completed his law studies at the University of Pavia, he started to surround himself with a group of young men who were interested in all kinds of philosophical issues and social problems. And the intellectual discussions that Beccaria was able to have with these people led him to question many of the practices that were common in his time, including the way in which offenders were being punished for their crimes.

Publication of Beccaria’s “On Crimes and Punishments”

Beccaria’s famous work, “On Crimes and Punishments,” was published in 1764, when he was 26 years old. His essay called out the barbaric and arbitrary ways in which the criminal justice system operated. Sentences were very harsh, torture was common, there was a lot of corruption, there were secret accusations and secret trials, and there was a lot of arbitrariness in the way in which sentences were imposed. There was no such thing as equality before the law. And powerful people of high status were treated very differently from people who were poor and who did not have a lot of status.

Beccaria’s ideas clashed dramatically with these practices. And I’ll go through some of the central principles that his work is based on.

Only the Law Can Prescribe Punishment

According to Beccaria, only the law can prescribe punishment. It is up to the legislator to define crime and to prescribe which punishment should be imposed. It is not up to a magistrate or a judge to impose a penalty if the legislator has not prescribed it. And neither is it up to a judge to change what the law says about how a crime should be punished. The judge should do exactly what the law says.

The Law Applies Equally to All People

In addition, Beccaria said that the law applies equally to all people. And so punishment should be the same for all people, regardless of their power and status.

Making the Law and Law Enforcement Public

Beccaria also believed in the power of making the law and law enforcement public. More specifically, laws should be published so that people actually know about them, and trials should be public, too. Only then can onlookers judge if the trial is fair.

According to Beccaria, the Law and Law Enforcement Should be Public

Beccaria: Punishments Should be Proportional, Certain, and Swift

Regarding severe punishment, Beccaria said that if severe punishments do not prevent crime, they should not be used. Instead, punishments should be proportional to the harm that the crime has caused. According to Beccaria, the aim of punishment is not to cause pain to the offender, but to prevent them from doing it again and to prevent other people from committing crime. In order to be able to do that, Beccaria believed that punishment should be certain and swift. He believed that if offenders were sure that they would be punished and if punishment would come as quickly as possible after the offense, that this would have the largest chance of preventing crime.

Beccaria Argued Against the Death Penalty

As another controversial issue, Beccaria argued against the death penalty. In his view, the state does not have the right to repay violence with more violence. And in addition to that, Beccaria believed that the death penalty was useless. The death penalty is momentary, it is not lasting and therefore the death penalty cannot be very successful in preventing crimes. Instead, lasting punishments, such as life imprisonment, would be more successful in preventing crimes, because potential offenders will find this a much more miserable condition than the death penalty.

Cesare Beccaria had radical ideas about crime and punishment for his time

No Right To Torture

Similarly, according to Cesare Beccaria, the state does not have the right to torture. Because no one is guilty until he or she is found guilty, no one has the right to punish a person by torturing him or her. Plus, people who are under torture will want the torture to stop and might therefore make false claims, including that they committed a crime they did not commit. So torture is also ineffective.

The Power of Education

Instead of torture and severe penalties, Beccaria believed that education is the most certain method of preventing crime.

Beccaria: Controversy and Success

Beccaria’s ideas are hardly controversial today, but they caused a lot of controversy at the time, because they were an attack on the entire criminal justice system. Beccaria initially published his essay anonymously, because he didn’t necessarily consider it to be a great idea to publish such radical ideas. And this idea was partly confirmed when the book was put on the black list of the Catholic Church for a full 200 years.

But even though his ideas were controversial back then, his essay became an immediate success. In fact, Cesare Beccaria’s ideas became the basis for all modern criminal justice systems and there is some evidence that his essay influenced the American and French revolutions which happened not long after the publication of the essay. His ideas were not original, because others had also proposed them, but Beccaria was the first one to present them in a consistent way. Many people were ready for the changes that he proposed, which is why his essay was such a success.

Beccaria ends his essay with what can be seen as a kind of summary of his view:

“So that any punishment be not an act of violence of one or of many against another, it is essential that it be public, prompt, necessary, minimal in severity as possible under given circumstances, proportional to the crime, and prescribed by the laws.”

You can find Cesare Beccaria’s full essay “On Crimes and Punishments” here .

Cesare Beccaria, father of criminology and classical criminology

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Essay on Crime And Punishment

Students are often asked to write an essay on Crime And Punishment in their schools and colleges. And if you’re also looking for the same, we have created 100-word, 250-word, and 500-word essays on the topic.

Let’s take a look…

100 Words Essay on Crime And Punishment

Understanding crime.

Crime is an act that breaks the law. It can be small, like stealing candy, or big, like robbing a bank. Some people commit crimes because they are poor, others because they want power or excitement. No matter the reason, crime harms others and disrupts peace in society.

Purpose of Punishment

Punishment is given to people who commit crimes. It serves two main purposes. First, it discourages the person from committing the crime again. Second, it warns others that crime leads to unpleasant consequences.

Types of Punishment

Punishments can be different based on the crime. For small crimes, punishments can be fines or community service. For serious crimes, punishments can be jail time or even the death penalty in some places.

Effectiveness of Punishment

Punishment can stop people from committing crimes, but it’s not always effective. Sometimes, people commit crimes again after being punished. This shows that we need to find better ways to prevent crime, like education and providing opportunities.

Crime and punishment are important topics in our society. While punishment can deter crime, it’s not a perfect solution. We need to work on other ways to prevent crime, ensuring a peaceful and safe society for all.

250 Words Essay on Crime And Punishment

Understanding crime and punishment.

Crime refers to acts that break the law. These are actions that society and law consider wrong. For example, stealing or hurting someone physically. Punishment, on the other hand, is what happens when someone commits a crime. It could be a fine, jail time, or community service.

Why Crimes Happen

People commit crimes for many reasons. Some do it out of need, like stealing food to eat. Others might do it because they think it’s fun or exciting. Sometimes, people commit crimes because they are angry or upset. Understanding these reasons can help us stop crimes before they happen.

Punishments are given based on the crime. Small crimes, like stealing a candy bar, might result in a small fine. Bigger crimes, like hurting someone, could lead to jail time. Some punishments aim to help the person learn from their mistakes, like community service.

Effect of Punishment

The goal of punishment is to stop people from committing crimes. It makes people think twice before doing something wrong. Yet, sometimes, punishment doesn’t work. Some people continue to commit crimes even after being punished. This shows that we need to find better ways to stop crime.

In conclusion, crime and punishment are important aspects of our society. They help keep order and ensure safety. By understanding the reasons behind crime and the effects of punishment, we can work towards a safer and more peaceful society.

500 Words Essay on Crime And Punishment

Crime is an act that goes against the laws set by society. It’s like breaking the rules that everyone has agreed to follow. These rules, or laws, are made to keep peace and order. When someone breaks them, it disrupts this peace and order. Crimes can be different in nature, like stealing, hurting someone, or telling lies about someone else.

What is Punishment?

Punishment is what happens when someone is found guilty of a crime. It’s a way for society to show that breaking the law is not okay. Punishments can also be different based on the crime. For example, if someone steals, they might have to give back what they stole and spend some time in jail. If someone hurts another person, they might have to go to jail for a long time.

The Purpose of Punishment

Punishment serves several important roles. First, it helps to teach the person who committed the crime that what they did was wrong. This is called deterrence. The idea is that if the punishment is tough, people will think twice before committing a crime.

Second, punishment also protects society. When a person who has committed a crime is in jail, they can’t commit more crimes. This is called protection.

Finally, punishment can also help the person who committed the crime to become a better person. This is called rehabilitation. The idea is to help them understand why what they did was wrong and how they can avoid doing it in the future.

The Balance Between Crime and Punishment

It’s important to make sure the punishment fits the crime. This means that the punishment should be just right – not too harsh, not too light. If the punishment is too harsh, it’s not fair to the person who committed the crime. If it’s too light, it might not stop them or others from committing more crimes.

Finding the right balance can be hard. That’s why we have judges and courts. They look at all the details of the crime and the person who committed it. Then they decide what the right punishment should be.

Final Thoughts

Crime and punishment are important parts of our society. They help keep order and teach people the difference between right and wrong. It’s a complex system, but it’s necessary to ensure that we can all live in peace and safety. It’s also a system that is always changing and evolving, as we learn more about what works best to deter crime and rehabilitate those who have committed crimes.

Remember, the goal is not just to punish, but also to prevent future crimes and help those who have committed crimes to become better people. This way, we can all live in a safer and more peaceful society.

That’s it! I hope the essay helped you.

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Crime and Punishment, Essay Example

Pages: 1

Words: 301

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Crime is a violent act with an aim of hurting other individual. The aim of a crime is to destabilize the peace and tranquillity of the society. There are various aspects that make up a crime. They include:

  • The nature of the crime
  • The motive of the crime
  • Whether the culprit was caught or not
  • The punishment
  • The reason of the punishment
  • The effectiveness of the punishment

The above aspects are vital in understanding crime and punishment. Crime has origin like any other thing in existence. There are theories that have been brought up to understand crime with an aim of stopping it. These criminals behaviour are known to have been triggered by something to do these acts of violence. There are some French and Italian thinkers who have come up with various schools of thought to understand crime and the motives behind them. These thinkers have been able to understand the minds of criminals. Understanding the minds of the criminals can lead to early prevention of crime (Tonry, 2000).

The punishment for the crimes is something that has evolved through the ages. The punishment was meant to change the behaviour of the perpetrator and was to be fitting to the crime. This is something that initially brought up a lot of problems since the perpetrators came out not reformed. It is something that has changed over the ages as various reformers have come up to change the status quo.  These reformers made a significant difference and the change was positive. The main reason for punishment is being achieved now. This is now up for debate since change comes from an individual choice to change their habit and behaviour ( Dostoevsky, 2004).

Tonry H. Michael . (2000). The Handbook of Crime & Punishment . Foster City, CA: Oxford University press.

Dostoevsky F. (2004). Crime and Punishment Enriched Classics . Kentucky: Simon and Schuster.

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essay on punishment and crime

An Essay on Crimes and Punishments

  • Cesare Bonesana di Beccaria (author)
  • Voltaire (author)

An extremely influential Enlightenment treatise on legal reform in which Beccaria advocates the ending of torture and the death penalty. The book also contains a lengthy commentary by Voltaire which is an indication of high highly French enlightened thinkers regarded the work.

  • EBook PDF This text-based PDF or EBook was created from the HTML version of this book and is part of the Portable Library of Liberty.
  • Facsimile PDF This is a facsimile or image-based PDF made from scans of the original book.
  • Kindle This is an E-book formatted for Amazon Kindle devices.

An Essay on Crimes and Punishments. By the Marquis Beccaria of Milan. With a Commentary by M. de Voltaire. A New Edition Corrected. (Albany: W.C. Little & Co., 1872).

The text is in the public domain.

  • United States

Related Collections:

“ No man can be judged a criminal until he be found guilty; nor can society take from him the public protection, until it have been proved that he has violated the conditions on which it was granted. What right, then, but that of power, can authorise the punishment of a citizen, so long as there… ”

Excerpts from

An essay on crimes and punishments, by cesare beccaria translated from the italian, 1775 (original published in 1764), introduction, chapter i: of the origin of punishments, chapter ii: of the right to punish, chapter vi: of the proportion between crimes and punishments, chapter xii: of the intent of punishments, chapter xix: of the advantage of immediate punishment, chapter xxvii: of the mildness of punishments.

The Classic Journal

A journal of undergraduate writing and research, from wip at uga, an analysis of crime and punishment.

by Paris Whitney

essay on punishment and crime

Crime and Punishment by Fyodor Dostoevsky is a novel that has been deemed controversial, yet notable over the course of centuries. This novel was influenced by the time period and setting of 19 th century St. Petersburg, Russia. Society was transitioning from medieval traditions to Westernization, which had a large impact on civilians, specifically those in poverty. Dostoevsky writes this novel centered around a poor man whose poverty drives him to test an ideology that results in his own detriment. Although this is important, the plot is only part of what makes this novel significant. What continues to make this novel memorable centuries after it was written is how Dostoevsky uses the concept of time to progress the plot and establish information, how his use of symbolism contributes to the message and meaning of the story and its characters, and how his writing has unintentionally embraced and related to different philosophies.

symbolism, nature, time, philosophy, existentialism, ego transcendence

Fyodor Dostoevsky is perhaps the most controversial author of the nineteenth century. His best-known work is Crime and Punishment , a novel that explores the psychological depths of man. At the center is Raskolnikov, a character who inflicts and experiences a great deal of suffering, all because he perceives himself to be superior to the average man.

Crime and Punishment takes place in St. Petersburg, Russia. The time is 1860, Alexander II holds reign, and consequently political skepticism is abundant. In addition to skepticism, the country’s economic state has disproportionate effects on its citizens, as the increasing wealth gap parallels the increase of turmoil in the streets. The novel follows Rodion Raskolnikov, a man of lower class whose poverty leads him to forming an idea and testing its validity. This theory is that certain men are exempt from laws created by society, as their actions against these laws are done for the greater good. In order to test this theory, Raskolnikov forms a plan to murder Alyona Ivanovna, an old pawnbroker whom he has had many exchanges with. After killing Ivanovna, he ends up killing her sister Lizaveta as well, when her appearance at Ivanovna’s apartment startles his original plan. In a frenzy, he leaves their bodies at the crime scene, and on his way out his mental state begins to spiral leading the readers to follow his psychological decline. 

Around the world, philologists and psychologists alike have studied Crime and Punishment to understand what makes this work essential to literature. Through studies of symbolism, philosophy, and psychology, it is recognized how Dostoevsky uses the concept of time to develop the story, how he uses symbolism to reflect underlying emotions and intentions of characters, and how different ideologies may be related to the meaning behind Crime and Punishment. These components used together showcase how Dostoevsky’s work remains notable for centuries.  

Crime and Punishment is a novel symbolic of the drawbacks that society can have on individuals, specifically those who are at a disadvantage as a result of their class or mental state. When Dostoevsky penned this novel, the time was 1866. 19 th century Russia was a transition period from medieval traditions to Westernization. During this transition, many people struggled to accommodate to the changing times. There was unrest in the streets, conflict amongst the classes, economic upheaval, and a lack of concern for those suffering by the government. Those who were of higher class were better able to navigate this complex transition, while those in poverty lacked the materials necessary to accommodate to the coming changes. Previously Westernized countries exhibited unrest fromtheir populations while progressing in societal advancement. There was concern about this potentially translating into Russia’s development. Russia was not exempt from these issues, and Dostoevsky was no help in assuring that peace would be maintained. Dostoevsky’s work concerned people in power when he indirectly made an association between violence and societal progression, and how this may prompt the masses to revolt against their government. Localized current events, such as a rise in domestic violence and murder, also influenced this novel. Due to these real-life events that inspired Dostoevsky’s work, it can be said that Crime and Punishment is an accurate representation of its time period [ 1 ] .

Not only was time period an influence on his work, but Dostoevsky would manipulate the concept of time itself to convey the meaning behind his stories. In Crime and Punishment , Dostoevsky writes Raskolnikov as a character continuously in a fever of thoughts. His mind is constantly running rampant, unrelenting even in slumber. Before significant events Raskolnikov would either flashback or dream of memories foreshadowing future moments. An example of this is before committing to murder Alyona Ivanovna, his subconscious takes him and the reader back to a moment where he and his father witnessed the cruel killing of a mule at the hands of a crowd for being too weak to pull a wagon . From a third person perspective, young Raskolnikov’s reaction to this moment is described hither, “But by now the poor boy is beside himself. With a shout he plunges through the crowd into the sorrel, embraces her dead, bloodstained muzzle, and he kisses her, kisses her on the eyes, on the mouth…” (Dostoevsky, 1866, pg. 57). By preceding Raskolnikov’s murderous intentions with his younger self’s mournful reaction to the mule’s death shows the audience how Raskolnikov has developed over time, and the degeneration resulting from his experiences in life.Time also seems to slow down when Raskolnikov is in moments of heightened emotion , because as he loses the ability to conceptualize, the more feverish his mind becomes. Towards the end of the novel, Raskolnikov reflects on the events that have occurred, saying “after a long time had passed, he thought his consciousness must have kept flashing on and off, with several dim, dark intervals, right up to the final catastrophe. He was absolutely convinced he had been mistaken about many things at the time; the duration of time of certain events, for example.” (Dostoevsky, 1866, pg. 417). This feverish mindset also manifests into physiological symptoms, giving Raskolnikov the appearance of being sick. “He was not completely unconscious all the time he was sick, but rather delirious, in a feverish state of half consciousness. He could recall a good deal later. Once in his room seemed full of people… They had all gone out. They were afraid of him.” (Dostoevsky, 1866, pg. 112). Dostoevsky uses syntax and diction to write these occurrences in a way that mimics Raskolnikov’s thinking. The transitions between events are frenetic, reflecting the tumultuous thoughts that plague Raskolnikov as a result of his actions. Choosing to modify the chronology of the novel in this way, he emphasizes the severity of situations by making the readers feel like they are experiencing the event as well.

In addition to this, Crime and Punishment contains levels of symbolism to enhance the mental conditions of characters . George Gibian explored traditionalsymbolism [2] within Crime and Punishment , and came to find that many motifshave religious roots. Ranging from Christianity to Paganism to Russian Orthodoxy, Dostoevsky’s implementation of images such as water, vegetation, air, and earth come together to express the mental state of the characters immersed in a particular setting. For example, Gibian described how water is used as a symbol of rebirth or regeneration. In Crime and Punishment , Raskolnikov would aimlessly walk about the setting in moments where his mind and thoughts were chaotic. He would end up in symbolically important nature scenes, for instance beside a river that ran through his town, or on the ground surrounded by bushes and trees. When near the water, he would feel the weight of guilt coming from the crimes he has committed. “He stared at the darkening water of the canal. He seemed to be scrutinizing this water. At last red circles danced before his eyes, the buildings swayed, the passersby, the embankments, the carriages- everything around him began to swirl and dance. All of a sudden he shuddered. A wild and grotesque scene saved him, perhaps, from another fainting spell.” (Dostoevsky, 1866, pg. 163). In this scene, Raskolnikov’s physiological symptoms begin to arise as his consciousness fights for contrition. This is important because Raskolnikov’s proximity to water when these feelings arise is representative of the good side of his conscience, trying to push him in the direction of what is right.

While water and vegetation are symbols that typically have a positive connotation, their presence can be used to emphasize the degeneration of one’s mental state . An example would be Svidrigailov, a character whose presence is nothing short of problematic. He strives to satisfy his erotic desires regardless of who may be harmed in the process, solidifying his position as one of the antagonists in Crime and Punishment . Svidrigailov also possesses a dislike for nature. This is shown when he visits St. Petersburg, and in his final night of life he ends up spiraling in his hotel room. During this downward spiral, he hears the sound of trees rustling outside of his window combined with rain. Instead of comforting him, they drive him further towards insanity. “‘The trees are sighing. I must admit I don’t care for the sighing of trees on a dark, stormy night- it gives me the creeps!’” He takes time to contemplate his life, saying, “ ‘I never in my life liked water… You’d think now, of all times, I’d be indifferent to these fine points of esthetics and comfort, whereas actually I’m fussier,’” (Dostoevsky, 1866, pg. 480). He resents the sound of vegetation when having a mental breakdown, and he ends up committing suicide in the midst of a fog that has emerged after a thunderstorm- showing his opposition to growing as a person. The use of nature as a way to reflect internal torments and emotions of different characters shows Dostoevsky’s proficiency in storytelling. Having the character’s surroundings speak the unspoken about what they may be feeling adds a level of meaning to the novel. This implementation of pathetic fallacy strengthens the story while aiding the reader in understanding the message of the text. When looking at the novel as a whole, it is clear nature bridges a connection between the audience and the author, by contextualizing events using the description of the setting where they take place. The narrator establishing the environment before delving into details about actions is a way to indicate to the reader potential outcomes of events, or foreshadow underlying emotions.

Symbolism in this novel does not stop with traditional aspects. Janet Tucker [3] explored the significance of clothing in respect to a character’s religious prospects and how their clothing reflects their beliefs or state of mind. When being worn by someone who has dedicated their life to Christ, clothing is modest and kept to the best of their ability. Sonya is a character in Crime and Punishment who serves as a deuteragonist, being one of the women that only have pure intentions when it comes to helping Raskolnikov. She tries to help Raskolnikov find faith and become a better person, and she does her best to comfort him in his worst moments of mental distress. Sonya even follows Raskolnikov to Siberia when he is imprisoned, despite his resistance to loving her. After analyzing this description of character, it can be said that Sonya’s clothes reflect the graciousness of her soul. She conceals her body in rags because she is poor, although she tries her best to keep them from becoming tattered, showing her values and how she maintains her composed state of mind. Comparing her to Raskolnikov, his mental state is too far distracted for him to care about trivial matters such as his appearance. His clothes are riddled with holes, and he lacks the incentive to fix the damage. An interesting point that Tucker made is how Raskolnikov uses his clothes in his crimes. He wears an overcoat that he uses to conceal his murder weapon and the items he has stolen from Ivanovna after killing her. Considering this, Tucker’s point is validated by the quality of clothing matching the quality of the person who bears it. Dostoevsky using clothing to portend the mental state and values that characters hold is a creative and effective way to give the readers insight as to how they will be progressing throughout the novel. Astute members of the audience will be able to recognize the differences among presentation of characters and base predictions about their actions off of their clothing. It is also interesting to see how characters’ religious affiliations can be observed through their attention to quality of clothing, reflecting how they choose to preserve and care for their items. In contrast to nature’s reflection of emotions, clothing gives insight about personal traits and the morals that shape a character into who they are.

While symbolism is important to developing the meaning behind Crime and Punishment , what makes this novel so notable are the philosophies it both challenges and embraces unintentionally. Existentialism [4] is a philosophy maintaining the belief that as individuals, there is a right within everyone to determine quality of life through acts of free will. It is easy to see how Crime and Punishment can be regarded by many existentialists as representative of this philosophy, but overall Dostoevsky is not one many would like to consider an archetype for existentialism. And, in retrospect, he is not. Dostoevsky’s main character in Crime and Punishment spends a lot of his time soliloquizing his belief that certain men are greater than others. Raskolnikov thinks men like this come to be by exercising their free will in ways that defy the common laws of life, but with the intention that what they are doing will better the world in the end. This idea is the reason behind Raskolnikov’s eventual murder of Alyona Ivanovna, a pawnbroker, and her half-sister Lizaveta. He kills Ivanovna as a way to test if he can be one of these people, but quickly discovers in the throes of his crime that he is not. This misconstrued idea of free will presented in Crime and Punishment can be where many begin to wonder if Dostoevsky was an existentialist. But a conclusion can be made that Dostoevsky’s free will is psychologically based and pushes the boundaries between what is right and what is wrong. Existentialism, on the other hand, is a philosophy centered around creativity and authenticity of the self.       

On a more granular level, while Dostoevsky was not an existentialist, his work shows his agreement with the philosophical concept of ego transcendence [5] . Transcendence of the ego is described as an advancement of the “authentic self” through experiences that result in a greater awareness. Once this awareness is achieved, this person usually begins to see themselves as greater than the average human. This is easily relatable to Raskolnikov’s philosophy that he reiterates often throughout the novel. The way that Dostoevsky sets his characters up for transcendence is through suffering. Richard Chapple analyzed the way Dostoevsky progresses Crime and Punishment by noting the use of the prism of the divine [6] . The prism of the divine includes 6 reasons that people suffer, and Dostoevsky provides different scenarios for representations of each reason. Raskolnikov suffers as a result of “recognition of transgression,” which is his guilt overpowering him after killing two women. It is even more stressful because in this guilt he realizes that he is not the monumental person he thought he was. In turn, he suffers because of “involvement in the torments and suffering of others,” as a result of brutally murdering his victims, followed by “greed and ambition.” Once failing to follow through with his entire plan beyond murdering Ivanovna, the weight of his ambition becomes heavy as it never had a chance at being attained. This dissatisfaction with himself contributes more to his depression than the fact that he is a murderer.

The last three prisms of the divine are “lack of faith,” “pride,” and the “inability to love.” Here, it is important to note Chapple’s perspective on how pride stems into all categories of suffering. Chapple discussed concepts such as clothing, a previously mentioned symbol, and how its relation to pride can be interpreted. He states, “The proud often suffer because of poverty or other seemingly external circumstances such as name, clothing and position. Pride generates a façade, and characters wear masks to conceal an inner reality…” (1983, p. 97). While Raskolnikov’s hubris is his biggest torment, Raskolnikov suffers for all of these reasons, and these intersections are where Sonya tries to ease his pain. When Raskolnikov is in his apartment with Sonya and is attempting to explain his crimes, she reassures him that she will not forsake him as he believes she will, going as far as to promise to follow him wherever he goes, even to prison. When he asks her what he should do, she advises him to go back to where he committed these atrocities, kiss the earth and kneel on the ground, then confess aloud that he is a murderer. By doing so, he is confessing to God and has a chance of being forgiven for his sins.

While religion plays a big role in Crime and Punishment , Dostoevsky’s implementation of Lazarus is predominately referencing the song rather than the biblical story- though that is mentioned. The Lazarus song [7] is a song that encapsulates the belief that the relationship between the rich and the poor should include the rich helping those in poverty by almsgiving. When Raskolnikov is preparing to face Porfiry Petrovich, a detective in the case of Ivanovna and Lizaveta’s murders, he says to himself “I’ll have to play the part of Lazarus for him too,” ( Crime and Punishment , 237). When Raskolnikov says this, he means that he is going to have to embrace his situation as a poor, college dropout, as a way to appear more innocent to Petrovich. This manipulation is seen from the side of poor people such as Raskolnikov, but also from those of wealth.

Raskolnikov’s sister, Dunya, was engaged to a man of the name Luzhin who expected her to marry him out of desperation. When Dunya backs out of the marriage, Luzhin scolds himself for not using his money to manipulate her into staying by purchasing expensive gifts, as opposed for thinking he should have treated her better. It is through secondary characters like these when many underlying messages are being portrayed. While Raskolnikov is the central character of Crime and Punishment , Dostoevsky uses secondary characters as a way to reflect certain aspects that Raskolnikov may be lacking, such as consciousness and an ability to recognize and admit to one’s mistakes. With Sonya, she was a part of a family that forced her into prostitution because they were too poor to provide for her, with a father who was too drunk to care. Marmeladov was the father’s name, and he is who Raskolnikov first meets in a bar and confesses to his shame about the situation he has put his daughter in. Similarly, Raskolnikov’s mother reduces his sister to working in uncomfortable scenarios in order to be able to send Raskolnikov to college. She feels guilt at this when Dunya becomes the center of town drama, after the husband in the family she works for begins to lust after her. These characters have made mistakes, but what parallels them to Raskolnikov is the fact that they acknowledge their wrongs, whereas he has to find the courage to do so .

Raskolnikov’s struggles with admitting that he can make mistakes like anybody else stem from his beliefs that there are two types of people in the world. He references Napoleon throughout the novel, because he believes him to be an example of how things considered to be bad have to happen in order for progress to be made. Pearl Niemi defines this as “power-cult [ 8] ,” the part of Raskolnikov believing in certain people’s superiority to regular laws. The part of Raskolnikov that cripples him once he tries exercising this belief can be referred to as “child-cult.” The child-cult is Raskolnikov’s emotions and thoughts that challenge the power-cult and ultimately overtake it. This duality within Raskolnikov has an interesting relation with his name. “Raskolot,” is the Russian verb meaning division, or split. When analyzing the schism between Raskolnikov’s feelings and actions, it gives his name a greater meaning and shows how Dostoevsky was very intentional with his work.

Considering what makes a novel notable, Hugh Curtler [9] elaborated on the idea that a novel which can be widely interpreted is what makes it memorable. Curtler referred to the part of the writer that allows for this to happen as the “poet,” because they write without clarification. In this respect, they acknowledge how Dostoevsky was successful at this throughout the majority of Crime and Punishment. Where Curtler thought Dostoevsky failed with this novel is in the epilogue. Instead of leaving the audience to gather their own opinions about certain aspects, he writes an epilogue that confirms what would have been better left unsaid, specifically Raskolnikov’s ability to feel emotions such as sadness, love, regret,etc .

In retrospect, Dostoevsky’s use of time, symbolism, and philosophical aspects in Crime and Punishment each provide different levels of meaning to the story. When incorporating the concept of time in terms of context and story progression, it allows the reader to grasp the importance of the events being foreshadowed, in addition to understanding the influences on decisions of characters. His attention to detail using motifs to communicate underlying emotions and intentions of his characters creates another layer of meaning for this novel, as the interpretation of these motifs make Crime and Punishment different for every reader. And lastly, Dostoevsky’s novel embraces different philosophies, while simultaneously maintaining its individuality from any one ideology. He writes this novel in a way where it applies to different ideals, wherein itself it is exclusive from being categorized, due to its unique central message. This message is one that can be applied to many time periods in history, including the 21 st century. The inevitable progression of societies tends to commonly leave those who are underprivileged to fend for themselves. When this isolation persists, is it unexpected to have people who attempt to create a life for themselves trying to prove that they are worth something, when their government treats them like nothing? Crime and Punishment provides a variety of perspectives for the audience’s consideration. Despite the many ways that this novel can be read and interpreted, one thing is clear, Crime and Punishment is illustrious.

Bourgeois, P. (1980). Dostoevsky and Existentialism: An Experiment in Hermeneutics. Journal of Thought, 15(2), 29-37. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42588842

Chapple, R. (1983). A Catalogue of Suffering in the Works of Dostoevsky: His Christian Foundation. The South Central Bulletin, 43(4), 94-99. doi:10.2307/3187246

Curtler, H. (2004). The Artistic Failure of Crime and Punishment.  Journal of Aesthetic Education,   38 (1), 1-11. doi:10.2307/3527358

Dostoevsky, F. (1866). Crime and Punishment. Signet Classics.

Gibian, G. (1955). Traditional Symbolism in Crime and Punishment.  PMLA,   70 (5), 979-996. doi:10.2307/459881

Harrison, L. (2013). THE NUMINOUS EXPERIENCE OF EGO TRANSCENDENCE IN DOSTOEVSKY. The Slavic and East European Journal, 57(3), 388-402. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/43857534

Ivanits, L. (2002). The Other Lazarus in Crime and Punishment.  The Russian Review,   61 (3), 341-357. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3664132

Kohlberg, L. (1963). Psychological Analysis and Literary Form: A Study of the Doubles in Dostoevsky. Daedalus, 92(2), 345-362. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/20026782

Niemi, P. (1963). THE ART OF “CRIME AND PUNISHMENT”.  Modern Fiction Studies,   9 (4), 291-313. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/26278717

Tucker, J. (2009). Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”: Stopping History’s Clock. Russian History, 36(3), 443-453. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24664577

Tucker, J. (2000). The Religious Symbolism of Clothing in Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment. The Slavic and East European Journal, 44(2), 253-265. doi:10.2307/309952

[1] Tucker, J. (2009). Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”: Stopping History’s Clock. Russian History, 36(3), 443-453. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24664577

[2] Gibian, G. (1955). Traditional Symbolism in Crime and Punishment. PMLA, 70(5), 979-996. doi:10.2307/459881

[3] Tucker, J. (2009). Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”: Stopping History’s Clock. Russian History, 36(3), 443-453. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/24664577

[4] Bourgeois, P. (1980). Dostoevsky and Existentialism: An Experiment in Hermeneutics. Journal of Thought, 15(2), 29-37. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/42588842

[5] Harrison, L. (2013). THE NUMINOUS EXPERIENCE OF EGO TRANSCENDENCE IN DOSTOEVSKY. The Slavic and East European Journal, 57(3), 388-402. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/43857534

[6] Chapple, R. (1983). A Catalogue of Suffering in the Works of Dostoevsky: His Christian Foundation. The South Central Bulletin, 43(4), 94-99. doi:10.2307/3187246

[7 ] Ivanits, L. (2002). The Other Lazarus in Crime and Punishment. The Russian Review, 61(3), 341-357. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3664132

[8 ] Niemi, P. (1963). THE ART OF “CRIME AND PUNISHMENT”. Modern Fiction Studies, 9(4), 291-313. Retrieved May 8, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/26278717

[9] Curtler, H. (2004). The Artistic Failure of Crime and Punishment. Journal of Aesthetic Education, 38(1), 1-11. doi:10.2307/3527358

Citation style: APA 6 th edition

Crime and punishment IELTS model essay with vocabulary

Our band nine sample essays give you the opportunity to learn from successful essays that show off the best structure, vocabulary and grammar. This IELTS essay on crime and punishment explores the advantages and disadvantages of harsh punishment for criminals.

band Nine Sample Essay

In some countries, crimes are punished harshly. what are some advantages and disadvantages of this approach.

Several nations have opted to implement a system of strict penalties, such as long jail sentences and execution, for crimes. In this essay, I will explore the advantage that this is a good deterrent with the disadvantage that this harms rehabilitation .

Punitive measures can help deter future crime. If people can see that crimes will be punished harshly, they are far less likely to want to commit a crime . Because people consider risk versus reward before acting, making crime as risky as possible by increasing punishment can stop criminals. Conversely, when countries have light punishments for crimes like shoplifting , people in those countries might feel like it is worth the risk to do these crimes.

However, these strong punishments also increase recidivism by failing to rehabilitate people. One of the main purposes of sending people to prison is to prevent them from committing crimes when they leave; however, making prisons and other punishments too strict works against this purpose. When criminals have a heavily punitive experience, they lose self-confidence and become distrustful of authority , meaning they are more likely to be involved in crime when they leave prison. Alternatively, if prisoners have access to training and support, such as drug rehabilitation programs and anger management classes, they are far more likely to rejoin society in a productive way. 

In conclusion, the correct punishment for crimes is a complex issue. On the one hand, strong measures deter crime; on the other hand, the same measures make it more likely for prisoners to reoffend .

crime and punishment vocabulary

Although crime and punishment is a common topic in the IELTS exam, there, thankfully, is not too much vocabulary you need to know for it. Let’s take a look at some of the high level vocabulary in this answer to kick start your learning.

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Crime & Punishment Essay Titles

IELTS Essay Questions for the Topic of Crime & Punishment. All essay questions below are reported by IELTS candidates and seem to have been repeated over the years. Regardless of the years the questions were reported, you could get any question below in your test. You should, therefore, prepare ideas for all questions given below. This topic is more likely to appear in the Academic test than the GT writing test. However, all candidates should prepare for all topics to be safe.

Crime & Punishment Essay Questions for IELTS Writing Task 2

The crime rate nowadays is decreasing compared to the past due to advance technology which can prevent and solve crime. Do you agree or disagree? (Reported 2017, 2021 Academic Test)
Many criminals commit further crimes as soon as they released from prison. What do you think are the causes of this? What possible solutions can you suggest? (Reported 2015, 2017, 2022 Academic Test)
It is often thought that the increase in juvenile crime can be attributed to violence in the media. Do you agree that this is the main cause of juvenile crime? What solutions can you offer to deal with this situation? (common question)
In some societies, the number of crimes committed by teenagers is growing. Some people think that regardless of age, teenagers who commit major crimes should receive adult punishment. To what extent do you agree? (2020, 2023)
Some countries are struggling with an increase in the rate of crime. Many people think that having more police on the streets is the only way to reduce crime. To what extent do you agree? (2018, 2020)
Some people think that women should not be allowed to work in the police force. Do you agree or disagree?
Many crimes are often related to the consumption of alcohol. Some people think that the best way to reduce the crime rate is to ban alcohol. Do you think this is an effective measure against crime? What other solutions can you suggest?
Some people think certain prisoners should be made to do unpaid community work instead of being put behind bars. To what extent do you agree? (Reported 2017, 2020, GT Test)
Many people believe that having a fixed punishment for all crimes is more efficient. What are the advantages and disadvantages of having a fixed punishment? (common question)
Some people think that the government should be responsible for crime prevention, while others believe that it is the responsibility of the individual to protect themselves. Discuss both sides and give your opinion.
The death penalty is the best way to control and reduce serious crime. To what extent do you agree? (2018, 2020)
While it is sometimes thought that prison is the best place for criminals, others believe that there are better ways to deal with them. What is your opinion? (common question – this is often reworded with a focus on the best ways to deal with criminals)
Crime rate, in most countries, is often higher in urban areas than in rural areas. Why do you think that is? What can be done to reduce the crime rate?
Some people think that poverty is the reason behind most crimes. Do you agree or disagree?
Internet crime is increasing rapidly as more and more people are using the internet to make financial transactions. What can be done to tackle this problem ?
Some people think that the parents of children who commit crime should also receive a punishment. Do you agree or disagree? (2020)

Reported essay questions are from students who have taken their IELTS test. That means questions may have appeared more frequently than have been reported. These questions may vary slightly in wording and focus from the original question. Also note that these questions could also appear in IELTS speaking part 3 which is another good reason to prepare all topics thoroughly.

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78 Crime and Punishment Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best crime and punishment topic ideas & essay examples, ✏️ good research topics about crime and punishment, 📌 interesting topics to write about crime and punishment, ❓ questions about crime and punishment.

  • The Long Way to Confession in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime and Punishment The act of confession is one of the central themes in Crime and Punishment, since it is the climax point of the novel signifying crucial changes in Raskolnikov’s mental and physical state.
  • Part IV of Fyodor Dostoevsky’ “Crime and Punishment” Bearing in mind Svidrigailov’s motives, we can say that he is a man of honor, as he wants to compensate his fault in Dunya’s eyes and worries about her future. We will write a custom essay specifically for you by our professional experts 808 writers online Learn More
  • Raskolnikov’s Crime in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment” Using the ingenuity of Fyodor Dostoevsky and his eternal masterpiece Crime and Punishment, the paper is going to prove the idea that the actual crime committed by Rodion Raskolnikov was the arrogance he had towards […]
  • The Victim Is Always Guilty: “Crime and Punishment” by F. Dostoyevsky Dostoyevsky explores a variety of issues that concern the aspects of crime and the relation between the criminal and his victim.
  • Raskolnikov’s Crime: The Novel Crime and Punishment It is possible to dream in such places, but hardly to live, as the physical and spiritual health of Dostoevsky’s characters plainly testifies.
  • Utilitarianists’ Ideology in “Crime and Punishment” by Fyodor Dostoyevsky The main character of the novel Crime and Punishment by Dostoyevsky was influenced by the ideas of West European utilitarianism, based on the theories of correct actions and values.”New, “strange, unfinished ideas’ ‘ of Western […]
  • Is the Murder in Dostoyevsky’s Novel “Crime and Punishment” Justified? In the same way, the greed and avarice of the old Alyona Ivanovna do not justify the commission of such a violent and severe crime.
  • Reading “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoevsky The most important moments from the first part occur in the second chapter, when Raskolnikov, in a conversation with Marmeladov, expresses his opinion that poverty is not a vice it is the truth, while severe […]
  • Foucault’s “Discipline and Punish” and Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment” The book examines the social context of punishment and the implications of shifting power. People were condemned and punished for acting in a way that did not conform to the law.
  • Female Images in the Novel “Crime and Punishment”
  • The Discussion of Duality of the Characters in “Crime and Punishment”
  • Tracing Inequality in “Crime and Punishment”
  • Existentialism in “Demian” and “Crime and Punishment”
  • The Criticism of Socialism in the Novel “Crime and Punishment”
  • Religious Symbolism in “Crime and Punishment”
  • Fyodor Dostoyevsky’s Extraordinary Man Theory in “Crime and Punishment”
  • The Use of Crime as a Device in “Crime and Punishment”
  • Physical and Mental Suffering in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
  • Comparing Moral Systems in “Lord of the Flies,” “Crime and Punishment,” “Scarlet Letter,” and “Pygmalion”
  • The Theme of Madness and Mental Delusion in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
  • The Limitations of Reason Exposed in “Crime and Punishment”
  • Ethical Transformation of Self in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
  • An Overview of the Realism in “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoevsky
  • A Literary Analysis and a Comparison of “Crime and Punishment” by Fyodor Dostoyevsky and “A Doll’s House” by Henrik Ibsen
  • The Dismal Society That Traps Russians in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
  • The Bolshevik Revolution and Its Relation to “Crime and Punishment”
  • The Importance of Minor Characters in “Crime and Punishment”
  • Utilitarianism in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
  • Christianity in “Crime and Punishment” by Fyodor Dostoyevsky
  • Comparing Suffering in “Crime and Punishment” and “One Day in the Life”
  • The Symbolism of the Cross in “Crime and Punishment”
  • A Comparison of the “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoevsky and “Othello” by Shakespeare
  • Psychoanalysis in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
  • Depiction of Social Issues in the “Brothers Karamazov” and “Crime and Punishment” by Fyodor Dostoyevsky
  • The Protagonist and Antagonist of “Crime and Punishment”
  • The Motif of Poverty Throughout “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoyevsky
  • The Complexity of Characters in Dostoyevsky’s Novel “Crime and Punishment”
  • Application of Psychoanalysis on Dreams in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
  • Comparisons Between “A Hero of Our Times” by Lermontov and “Crime and Punishment” by Dostoevsky
  • A Character Analysis on Raskolnikov in “Crime and Punishment”
  • Rationalizing Radicalism in “Crime and Punishment” vs. “Demons” by Dostoevsky
  • An Analysis of the Theme of Alienation in “Crime and Punishment” by Fyodor Dostoyevsky
  • Kindness and Cruelty in “Crime and Punishment”
  • The Theory of Duality of Personality in Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
  • The Influence of the Environment on the Profession of Sonia in “Crime and Punishment” by Fyodor Dostoevsky
  • Motivation of Raskolnikov’s in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s “Crime and Punishment”
  • The Underlying Message in “Crime and Punishment” by Fyodor Dostoyevsky
  • The Questions Raised in the Novel “Crime and Punishment”
  • How Would You Describe the Protagonist and Antagonist of “Crime and Punishment”?
  • What Is the Main Idea of “Crime and Punishment” by Fyodor Dostoyevsky?
  • When Was the “Crime and Punishment” Written?
  • What Is the List of “Crime and Punishment” Characters?
  • Who Are the Main Characters of “Crime and Punishment”?
  • How a Real-Life French Serial Killer Inspired Dostoyevsky to Write “Crime and Punishment”?
  • What Is the Nature of Sonia’s Kindness in “Crime and Punishment”?
  • What Are Some Interesting Facts About the Book “Crime and Punishment”?
  • Why Are the Names Blanked Out in “Crime and Punishment”?
  • What Is the Value System in “Crime and Punishment”?
  • What Were the Conditions of Raskolnikov’s Life From “Crime and Punishment”?
  • Is Raskolnikov From “Crime and Punishment” a Spiritual Person?
  • Is “Crime and Punishment” an Example of an Empirical View of Utilitarianism?
  • How Is the Theme of Nihilism Described in “Crime and Punishment”?
  • What Is the Role of Dreams in “Crime and Punishment”?
  • How Do the Main Characters of “Crime and Punishment” Cope With Their Suffering?
  • What Time Period Does “Crime and Punishment” Take Place In?
  • How Would You Refute the Statement That Raskolnikov in “Crime and Punishment” Kills for Financial Gain?
  • Which View of Poverty, Pride, and Suffering in the Novel “Crime and Punishment”?
  • Why Sonya Is an Extraordinary Woman in the Novel “Crime and Punishment”?
  • Is There a Connection Between the Bolshevik Revolution and “Crime and Punishment”?
  • What Are Raskolnikov’s Main Motives in “Crime and Punishment”?
  • How St. Petersburg Life Is Depicted in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Novel “Crime and Punishment”?
  • What Literary Devices Are Used in “Crime and Punishment”?
  • How Many Pages Is “Crime and Punishment”?
  • What Was the Philosophy and Ideology of Raskolnikov From “Crime and Punishment”?
  • What Is the Moral Lesson of “Crime and Punishment”?
  • Does Raskolnikov From “Crime and Punishment” Have a Mental Illness?
  • What Happened to Raskolnikov in the End of “Crime and Punishment”?
  • Why Does Raskolnikov From “Crime and Punishment” Decide to Confess His Crime?
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Essays on Crime and Punishment

Prompt examples for "crime and punishment" essays, guilt and redemption.

Explore the theme of guilt and redemption in "Crime and Punishment." How does Raskolnikov's guilt evolve throughout the novel, and what is the significance of his quest for redemption?

Psychological Character Analysis

Analyze the psychological aspects of Raskolnikov's character. What motivates his actions, and how do his mental and emotional struggles contribute to the narrative's depth?

Moral Dilemmas

Discuss the moral dilemmas faced by various characters in the story, including Raskolnikov, Sonia, and Porfiry. How do these dilemmas reflect larger societal and ethical questions?

Social Critique

Examine Dostoevsky's critique of society and its impact on individuals. How does the novel address issues of poverty, alienation, and the justice system in 19th-century Russia?

Symbolism and Motifs

Analyze the use of symbolism and motifs in the narrative, such as the yellow paint, the axe, and the recurring dream. What do these symbols represent, and how do they enhance the novel's themes?

Narrative Structure

Consider the novel's narrative structure, which alternates between third-person and first-person perspectives. How does this structure provide insight into different characters' thoughts and perspectives?

Dostoevsky’s Crime Punishment: Raskolnikov Vs. Svidrigailov

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A Bruise on The Heart - Symbolic Image in Crime and Punishment

Isolability in dostoevsky’s crime and punishment, analysis of raskolnikov’s character in crime and punishment, environmental consciousness in the novel crime and punishment, let us write you an essay from scratch.

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Analysis of The Novel `crime and Punishment’ Written by Fyodor Dostoevskys

Existentialism in dostoevsky's novel crime and punishment, the irony in fyodor dostoyevsky’s crime and punishment, utilitarianism in crime and punishment by fyodor dostoevsky, get a personalized essay in under 3 hours.

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Analysis of Raskolnikov’s Intent to Kill in Crime and Punishment

Ubermensch theory in "crime and punishment" and "brothers karamazov", delinquency in crime and punishment, the crime features in crime and punishment, super women in crime and punishment, consequences of escaping punishment in crime and punishment and the scarlet letter, raskolnikov's psychological punishment in dostoyevsky’s novel, sin and salvation: a spiritual rebirth of the characters in crime and punishment, the dualism of raskolnikov's character in crime and punishment, dostoevsky's raskolnikov: a study of alienation, the ethics of murder: the complication of "the trolley problem", rodion raskolnikov, or, how i do not worry and love god, the first part of the novel - the symbolism of raskolnikov's dream, understanding the nature of raskolnikov through his subconscious, terrorism and drug trafficking at the south american borders, the description of marmeladov in crime and punishment, mass incarceration: locked up in america, the role of the forensic dna analysis, crimes many professional athletes get away with, if one has luck.

Fyodor Dostoyevsky

Philosophical novel, Psychological fiction, Crime fiction

Raskolnikov, Sonya, Razumíkhin, Dunya, Luzhin, Svidrigaïlov, Porfiry Petrovich

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essay on punishment and crime

The pros and cons of the death penalty

Despite global progress towards abolition, public opinion remains divided as executions increase

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Anti-death penalty protests outside the US Supreme Court

Pro: public support

Con: wrongful execution risk, pro: could reduce crime, con: not a deterrent, pro: sense of retribution, con: extremely expensive.

 The number of executions is rising around the world, even as many countries move towards abolishing or limiting the use of capital punishment.

According to the latest figures from Amnesty International – compiled from official statistics, media reports and information passed on from individuals sentenced to death – there were 883 executions worldwide in 2022. This total excludes China, which does not release details of those killed by the state but is believed to execute thousands of people a year. The global figure is up 53% from 2021 and is the highest number since 2017.

Amnesty said that at the end of 2022 there were more than 28,000 people under sentence of death in 52 countries.

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In the past half century capital punishment has increasingly been viewed as a human-rights issue. More than 120 countries have abolished the death penalty in law or in practice, according to The Death Penalty Project . Now, executions are most commonly carried out in China, Iran, Egypt and Saudi Arabia (although there is little reliable data for countries such as Afghanistan, North Korea and Syria).

Although use of the death penalty is gradually declining in the US, a 2021 survey by Gallup found a majority of Americans (54%) said they were "in favour of the death penalty for a person convicted of murder".

In France, which abolished death by guillotine only in 1981, presidential frontrunner Marine Le Pen has vowed to hold a referendum on restoring capital punishment, which is backed by a huge majority of her supporters .

A YouGov poll in 2022 found 40% of Britons were still in favour of the death penalty, with Conservative voters far more likely to support it (58%), and those aged over 65 more than twice as likely as those aged 18-24.

One of the most "compelling forces" driving worldwide opinions against the death penalty has been "the increasing recognition of the potential for error in its use", wrote criminology professor Carolyn Hoyle and Saul Lehrfreund, co-director of the London-based NGO The Death Penalty Project, in a blog for the University of Oxford’s Death Penalty Research Unit . With justice systems prone to error, bias and coercion, wrongful executions are, in fact, "inevitable".

Since 1993, Washington-based non-profit organisation The Death Penalty Information Center has been tracking wrongful executions in the US, going back to the Supreme Court ruling in 1972. In a 2021 report, "The Innocence Epidemic", it concluded that at least 185 people had been wrongfully convicted and sentenced to death since 1972. Nearly 70% of those cases involved "official misconduct by police, prosecutors or other government officials" – more so in cases involving a defendant of colour.

"The death penalty has always been, and continues to be, disproportionately wielded against black people and other people of colour," explained the National Association of Criminal Defense Lawyers , regarding the US. As of 2019, "black and Hispanic people represent 31% of the US population, but 53% of death-row inmates".

The "commonest justification" for the death penalty is that it functions as a "unique deterrent" for others, wrote Lehrfreund.

"Nobody has ever committed a crime after being executed," Lee Anderson, the former Tory party deputy chairman, told The Spectator last year, backing calls to bring back the death penalty in Britain. A subsequent poll by Omnisis found 43% of British respondents agreed capital punishment would be an effective deterrent.

"When the UK first suspended the death penalty in 1965, many hoped that removing violence from the top end of justice would trickle down through society, making us more civilised," wrote Tim Stanley in The Telegraph . "Instead, crime went up, and today, as predators exploit our liberality, a state without the death penalty resembles a lion tamer without a whip."

The death penalty has "no deterrent effect", said the American Civil Liberties Union . "Claims that each execution deters a certain number of murders have been thoroughly discredited by social science research." 

Most murders are committed either in the heat of passion, under the influence of alcohol or drugs, or because of mental illness. The few murderers who plan their crimes "intend and expect to avoid punishment altogether by not getting caught". 

The Death Penalty Project concluded after a review of multiple studies that capital punishment "does not deter murder to a marginally greater extent than does the threat or application of life imprisonment". In 2021, the Human Rights Council cited studies which showed that some member states that had abolished the death penalty saw their murder rates stay the same, or even decline.

Of the "four major justifications for punishment" – deterrence, rehabilitation, incapacitation and retribution – it is the last of these that has "often been scorned by academics and judges", said Robert Blecker, a professor emeritus at New York Law School, in The New York Times . But "ultimately, it provides capital punishment with its only truly moral foundation".

Supporters often point to religious justification based on the Bible, citing "an eye for an eye". But retribution is "not simply revenge", said Blecker. "Revenge may be limitless and misdirected at the undeserving, as with collective punishment. Retribution, on the other hand, can help restore a moral balance. It demands that punishment must be limited and proportional."

Many supporters of the death penalty argue that it is more cost-effective than feeding and housing an inmate for the whole of a life-without-parole sentence . But in countries with arduous appeals processes and strong human-rights organisations, the death penalty is – counterintuitively – far more expensive than imprisonment for life.

More than a dozen US states found in 2007 that death penalty cases were up to 10 times more expensive than comparable non-death penalty cases. That year, New Jersey became the first state to ban executions for reasons of "time and money", said NBC News .

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Harriet Marsden is a writer for The Week, mostly covering UK and global news and politics. Before joining the site, she was a freelance journalist for seven years, specialising in social affairs, gender equality and culture. She worked for The Guardian, The Times and The Independent, and regularly contributed articles to The Sunday Times, The Telegraph, The New Statesman, Tortoise Media and Metro, as well as appearing on BBC Radio London, Times Radio and “Woman’s Hour”. She has a master’s in international journalism from City University, London, and was awarded the "journalist-at-large" fellowship by the Local Trust charity in 2021. 

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There once was a small home in the city of Jabalia in northern Gaza filled with love and life, established by the sweat of a young man seeking stability for his family. It was a precious kingdom, embracing you with its warmth as soon as you walked inside. Every corner held a memory, and every tile told a story. Yaqeen Baker , a Palestinian mother living in Gaza, on the loss of her family’s home

I was the ruler of this kingdom. To me, there was no home like ours, and its value to our family was beyond measure. It was my palace and my shelter.

My kingdom has now been reduced to rubble under the Israeli airstrikes in Gaza. I weep as I try to remember what I left behind when we were forced to leave. My camera capturing happy family moments, destroyed. The clothes purchased in preparation for the birth of my daughter and new winter coats, all burned. My 3-year-old daughter’s new doll, lost forever.

Domicide: The Mass Destruction of Homes Should Be a Crime Against Humanity

By Balakrishnan Rajagopal Photos and accompanying text by Yaqeen Baker

Dr. Rajagopal is the U.N. special rapporteur on the right to adequate housing. Ms. Baker’s home was destroyed in the war in Gaza.

The widespread or systematic destruction of homes has long been a feature of modern warfare. But what is often lost in the images of rubble and statistics of destroyed buildings is the profound effect of this loss at a human level.

For a home is so much more than a structure: It is a repository of past experience and future dreams, of memories of births, deaths, marriages and intimate moments with our loved ones, amid neighbors and a familiar landscape. The idea of home brings comfort and gives meaning to our lives. Its destruction is the denial of a person’s dignity and humanity.

It is for this reason that the systematic and indiscriminate leveling of entire neighborhoods through explosive weapons — as happened in Aleppo, and Mariupol, and Grozny, and towns in Myanmar, or most acutely these days, in Gaza — should be considered a crime against humanity. A growing number of legal and other types of scholars agree.

It’s called domicide.

A living room decorated with purple accents. String lights hang from the ceiling and reflect off the tile floor.

Ms. Baker’s living room.

Yaqeen Baker Even seemingly trivial items, often relegated to the background in photos and memories, had their significance.

My simple kitchen tools were carefully chosen in green, and brought me great joy. On my 23rd birthday my husband gave me an electric mixer, and I consider it one of the best gifts I’ve ever received. The kitchen became my creative space, where I put joy into my delicious dishes and sweet treats. I looked after it with love and care.

Scholars have used the concept of domicide in the context of dam projects that displaced people in Canada and warfare in Syria, and it has been used to call attention to the systematic demolition of Palestinians’ homes and the denial of permits to build new ones in the West Bank by Israel.

As an independent expert tasked by the United Nations with promoting and protecting the right to adequate housing, I believe the crime of domicide should be enshrined in international humanitarian and criminal law so that governments and armed groups can be held to account. In an increasingly urbanized world, where densely populated cities are becoming common battlegrounds, the need for such action is all the more urgent.

We all understand that killing can be a murder, a war crime, a crime against humanity or an act of genocide, depending on the gravity and intention of the act. The same should apply for the destruction of homes.

In Gaza, we are witnessing destruction that is overwhelming in terms of its scale and impact, and far worse than what we saw in Dresden and Rotterdam during World War II, where about 25,000 homes were destroyed in each city. In Gaza, more than 70,000 housing units have been destroyed and more than 290,000 partially damaged. Recent conflicts are all proving to be equally destructive: In parts of Aleppo, up to 65 percent of structures were damaged or destroyed in five years of conflict, while in Mariupol, approximately 32 percent of the structures were damaged or destroyed in a year over 2021 and 2022. In about three months of conflict, a shocking 60 percent to 70 percent of structures in Gaza, and up to 84 percent of structures in parts of northern Gaza, have been damaged or destroyed.

Smoke rises from an incense burner sitting on a wooden coffee table.

Yaqeen Baker Our small incense burner filled the house with delicate plumes of smoke and serenity on Fridays as we recited from the Surah Al-Kahf of the Quran, the chapter traditionally read on that day.

In the guest room, I meticulously chose the right shade of purple for the curtains. After hanging them, I opened the room’s door repeatedly, peering in and smiling at their beauty, a perfect match with the sofa set.

The ferocity of the attacks is unprecedented: Israel is reported to have already dropped the explosive equivalent of the nuclear bomb dropped on Hiroshima almost twice over . Much of the infrastructure in Gaza that makes it possible and worthwhile to live in homes there — water and sanitation, education, electricity and health systems, and cultural infrastructure like mosques, churches, and public and historic buildings — have been damaged or destroyed. This crushing of Gaza as a place erases the past, present and future of many Palestinians.

Indeed, what has happened to homes and lives in Gaza is a stand-alone crime: domicide. It may not be an exaggeration to say that much of Gaza has been made uninhabitable, as South Africa’s complaint accusing Israel of genocide at the International Court of Justice alleges and which Israel denies. The court, in a preliminary ruling on Friday, called on Israel to take action to prevent genocide in Gaza and avoid the infliction of conditions that result in physical destruction in whole or in part.

I drew the same conclusion about domicide following the Russian bombing of Ukrainian cities in my report to the U.N. General Assembly in 2022. But right now, the accusation of domicide is largely a moral judgment. The preciousness of home, unlike the preciousness of life, has little recognition under international humanitarian or criminal law.

Some may ask whether the destruction by Hamas militants of Israeli towns and kibbutzim on Oct. 7 also amounts to domicide. While such attacks may constitute human rights violations and war crimes, the destruction of homes was not systematic or widespread enough to be comparable to the examples cited here.

Cinder block buildings in various states of destruction stretch in every direction. A plume of smoke rises to the right.

The view from Ms. Baker’s roof before her building was destroyed.

Yaqeen Baker The destruction of homes in Gaza has become commonplace, and so has the sentiment, “The important thing is that you’re safe — everything else can be replaced.” I do thank God that we survived. But our homes were dear to our hearts, holding many stories, our daily ups and downs and poignant memories.

We try to console ourselves by reminiscing about happy days in the past or trying to find a glimmer of hope for the future. As the bombs keep falling, it’s hard to see any light at the end of the tunnel.

Though attacks on individual homes, schools and hospitals can be crimes under humanitarian law, which applies to all international armed conflicts under the Geneva Conventions, the widespread or systematic destruction of homes is not by itself considered a crime in either international or noninternational armed conflicts. It is not mentioned in the Geneva Conventions or in the definition of crimes against humanity according to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court or in the U.N. draft articles on the prevention and punishment of crimes against humanity.

We should act to update these treaties to include domicide.

There is precedent for updating what we legally define as international crimes. The Rome Statute proscribed starvation as a weapon of war, and under a 2019 amendment, the proscription was extended to cover crimes in noninternational armed conflicts.

Accountability for domicide in Gaza cannot stop with potential criminal prosecutions or declaratory judgments by courts someday in the future. The enormous cost of rebuilding Gaza and the rest of the Palestinian territories, where homes have been destroyed for decades during occupation, should be borne by Israel and the countries that contributed to this destruction, including the United States, through its supply of weapons and political support.

That rebuilding will be hard work. The restoration of destroyed cities after World War II, such as Rotterdam, took more than two decades and cost billions of dollars, funded by the Marshall Plan . Ukraine’s recovery needs after just one year of conflict were estimated at $411 billion , with housing contributing to 37 percent of the cost. Mariupol’s reconstruction alone is expected to cost more than $14 billion and take up to 10 years.

And even if Gaza is physically rebuilt, the trauma of losing homes — the shattered lives, erased landscape and obliterated memories — will last for decades. Enshrining domicide in law may make countries think twice about inflicting such trauma in the future.

The Times is committed to publishing a diversity of letters to the editor. We’d like to hear what you think about this or any of our articles. Here are some tips . And here’s our email: [email protected].

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Governor says carjackers ‘will spend a long time in jail’ as lawmakers advance harsher punishment

Louisiana Gov. Jeff Landry addresses members of the House and Senate on opening day of a legislative special session focusing on crime, Monday, Feb. 19, 2024, in the House Chamber at the State Capitol in Baton Rouge, La. (Hilary Scheinuk/The Advocate via AP)

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In the moments before Linda Frickey was dragged to her death during a fatal carjacking, the 73-year-old had been sitting in her parked vehicle in New Orleans when she was surrounded by four teenagers.

The teens, who ranged in age from 15 to 17 during the time of the crime in 2022, pepper-sprayed and punched Frickey. As they sped away with her vehicle, Frickey, who was entangled in a seatbelt, was dragged alongside for a block before her arm was severed and she was dislodged — left to die on the street.

Lawmakers have pointed to Frickey’s death as one example of the carjackings, homicides and juvenile lawbreakers that they say are terrorizing Louisiana cities.

In an effort to subdue violent crimes, lawmakers have returned to the Capitol for a short special legislative session and are advancing a slew of Republican-authored tough-on-crime policies backed by new conservative Gov. Jeff Landry. The aggressive agenda, which in large part Democrats argue will hurt the state, could reshape parts of the Louisiana’s criminal justice system and public safety sector.

Among the proposed legislation is harsher punishment for certain crimes that plague urban areas. Under one bill, which received bipartisan support in a committee Tuesday and will advance to the House floor for debate, if someone is found guilty of carjacking, the minimum sentence would increase from two years to five. In addition, if the carjacking results in bodily injury, the offender would serve 20 to 30 years in jail without parole.

“To those who make the decision to carjack someone in Louisiana, here me clearly -- you better hope the car is full of gas and can you go where we can never find you, because when we do you will spend a long time in jail,” Landry said during his speech to the Legislature Monday, the first day of the crime-focused session.

Carjackings in New Orleans decreased by 44% from 2022 to 2023, based on data from the city’s police department. However, high-profile carjackings in the city have made national news, including one that happened to a crew member of the Netflix series “Queer Eye” and was part of what caused the newest season — based in New Orleans — to be cut short, as reported by The Times-Picayune/The New Orleans Advocate .

On Tuesday, lawmakers also advanced bills that would designate illegal use of weapons or dangerous instrumentalities as a crime of violence. In addition, legislators green-lighted a bill that would toughen fentanyl-related penalties in cases where people distribute fentanyl in a way that appeals to children, such as the shape, color, taste or design of packaging. The crime would be punishable by a minimum of 25 years in jail without parole.

But harsher penalties are just one piece of the puzzle in the GOP-dominated Legislature’s agenda. Among this session’s bills are proposals to expand methods to carry out death-row executions , significant restrictions in parole eligibility, allowing the concealed carry of firearms without a permit, “qualified immunity” for law enforcement officers, and lowering the age of when someone charged with a felony can be tried as an adult to 17.

While lawmakers across the political spectrum agree that something has to be done to address crime in Louisiana — a state that in recent years has had one of the highest homicide rates in the country — their approaches have differed.

Republicans say the proposed policies prioritize victims and will keep criminals behind bars and off Louisiana streets. Democrats say the legislation won’t address crime and that the Legislature needs to take a holistic approach, including additional funding and programs to address drug addiction, improving outcomes for prisoners who re-enter society, and allocating more money for mental health and education.

Lawmakers must conclude the special session no later than the evening of March 6.

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Governor says carjackers ‘will spend a long time in jail’ as lawmakers advance harsher punishment

In an effort to subdue violent crimes, lawmakers have returned to the Capitol for a short special legislative session and are advancing a slew of Republican-authored tough-on-crime policies

BATON ROUGE, La. -- In the moments before Linda Frickey was dragged to her death during a fatal carjacking, the 73-year-old had been sitting in her parked vehicle in New Orleans when she was surrounded by four teenagers.

The teens, who ranged in age from 15 to 17 during the time of the crime in 2022, pepper-sprayed and punched Frickey. As they sped away with her vehicle, Frickey, who was entangled in a seatbelt, was dragged alongside for a block before her arm was severed and she was dislodged — left to die on the street.

Lawmakers have pointed to Frickey's death as one example of the carjackings, homicides and juvenile lawbreakers that they say are terrorizing Louisiana cities.

In an effort to subdue violent crimes, lawmakers have returned to the Capitol for a short special legislative session and are advancing a slew of Republican-authored tough-on-crime policies backed by new conservative Gov. Jeff Landry. The aggressive agenda, which in large part Democrats argue will hurt the state, could reshape parts of the Louisiana's criminal justice system and public safety sector.

Among the proposed legislation is harsher punishment for certain crimes that plague urban areas. Under one bill, which received bipartisan support in a committee Tuesday and will advance to the House floor for debate, if someone is found guilty of carjacking, the minimum sentence would increase from two years to five. In addition, if the carjacking results in bodily injury, the offender would serve 20 to 30 years in jail without parole.

“To those who make the decision to carjack someone in Louisiana, here me clearly -- you better hope the car is full of gas and can you go where we can never find you, because when we do you will spend a long time in jail,” Landry said during his speech to the Legislature Monday, the first day of the crime-focused session.

Carjackings in New Orleans decreased by 44% from 2022 to 2023, based on data from the city's police department. However, high-profile carjackings in the city have made national news, including one that happened to a crew member of the Netflix series “Queer Eye” and was part of what caused the newest season — based in New Orleans — to be cut short, as reported by The Times-Picayune/The New Orleans Advocate.

On Tuesday, lawmakers also advanced bills that would designate illegal use of weapons or dangerous instrumentalities as a crime of violence. In addition, legislators green-lighted a bill that would toughen fentanyl-related penalties in cases where people distribute fentanyl in a way that appeals to children, such as the shape, color, taste or design of packaging. The crime would be punishable by a minimum of 25 years in jail without parole.

But harsher penalties are just one piece of the puzzle in the GOP-dominated Legislature's agenda. Among this session's bills are proposals to expand methods to carry out death-row executions, significant restrictions in parole eligibility, allowing the concealed carry of firearms without a permit, “qualified immunity” for law enforcement officers, and lowering the age of when someone charged with a felony can be tried as an adult to 17.

While lawmakers across the political spectrum agree that something has to be done to address crime in Louisiana — a state that in recent years has had one of the highest homicide rates in the country — their approaches have differed.

Republicans say the proposed policies prioritize victims and will keep criminals behind bars and off Louisiana streets. Democrats say the legislation won’t address crime and that the Legislature needs to take a holistic approach, including additional funding and programs to address drug addiction , improving outcomes for prisoners who re-enter society, and allocating more money for mental health and education.

Lawmakers must conclude the special session no later than the evening of March 6.

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Governor says carjackers ‘will spend a long time in jail’ as lawmakers advance harsher punishment

Louisiana Gov. Jeff Landry addresses members of the House and Senate on opening day of a legislative special session focusing on crime, Monday, Feb. 19, 2024, in the House Chamber at the State Capitol in Baton Rouge, La. (Hilary Scheinuk/The Advocate via AP)

Louisiana Gov. Jeff Landry addresses members of the House and Senate on opening day of a legislative special session focusing on crime, Monday, Feb. 19, 2024, in the House Chamber at the State Capitol in Baton Rouge, La. (Hilary Scheinuk/The Advocate via AP)

Louisiana Gov. Jeff Landry, right, addresses members of the House and Senate on opening day of a legislative special session focusing on crime, Monday, Feb. 19, 2024, in the House Chamber at the State Capitol in Baton Rouge, La. (Hilary Scheinuk/The Advocate via AP)

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BATON ROUGE, La. (AP) — In the moments before Linda Frickey was dragged to her death during a fatal carjacking, the 73-year-old had been sitting in her parked vehicle in New Orleans when she was surrounded by four teenagers.

The teens, who ranged in age from 15 to 17 during the time of the crime in 2022, pepper-sprayed and punched Frickey. As they sped away with her vehicle, Frickey, who was entangled in a seatbelt, was dragged alongside for a block before her arm was severed and she was dislodged — left to die on the street.

Lawmakers have pointed to Frickey’s death as one example of the carjackings, homicides and juvenile lawbreakers that they say are terrorizing Louisiana cities.

In an effort to subdue violent crimes, lawmakers have returned to the Capitol for a short special legislative session and are advancing a slew of Republican-authored tough-on-crime policies backed by new conservative Gov. Jeff Landry. The aggressive agenda, which in large part Democrats argue will hurt the state, could reshape parts of the Louisiana’s criminal justice system and public safety sector.

Louisiana Gov. Jeff Landry addresses members of the House and Senate on opening day of a legislative special session focusing on crime, Monday, Feb. 19, 2024, in the House Chamber at the State Capitol in Baton Rouge, La. (Hilary Scheinuk/The Advocate via AP)

Among the proposed legislation is harsher punishment for certain crimes that plague urban areas. Under one bill, which received bipartisan support in a committee Tuesday and will advance to the House floor for debate, if someone is found guilty of carjacking, the minimum sentence would increase from two years to five. In addition, if the carjacking results in bodily injury, the offender would serve 20 to 30 years in jail without parole.

“To those who make the decision to carjack someone in Louisiana, here me clearly -- you better hope the car is full of gas and can you go where we can never find you, because when we do you will spend a long time in jail,” Landry said during his speech to the Legislature Monday, the first day of the crime-focused session.

Carjackings in New Orleans decreased by 44% from 2022 to 2023, based on data from the city’s police department. However, high-profile carjackings in the city have made national news, including one that happened to a crew member of the Netflix series “Queer Eye” and was part of what caused the newest season — based in New Orleans — to be cut short, as reported by The Times-Picayune/The New Orleans Advocate .

On Tuesday, lawmakers also advanced bills that would designate illegal use of weapons or dangerous instrumentalities as a crime of violence. In addition, legislators green-lighted a bill that would toughen fentanyl-related penalties in cases where people distribute fentanyl in a way that appeals to children, such as the shape, color, taste or design of packaging. The crime would be punishable by a minimum of 25 years in jail without parole.

But harsher penalties are just one piece of the puzzle in the GOP-dominated Legislature’s agenda. Among this session’s bills are proposals to expand methods to carry out death-row executions , significant restrictions in parole eligibility, allowing the concealed carry of firearms without a permit, “qualified immunity” for law enforcement officers, and lowering the age of when someone charged with a felony can be tried as an adult to 17.

While lawmakers across the political spectrum agree that something has to be done to address crime in Louisiana — a state that in recent years has had one of the highest homicide rates in the country — their approaches have differed.

Republicans say the proposed policies prioritize victims and will keep criminals behind bars and off Louisiana streets. Democrats say the legislation won’t address crime and that the Legislature needs to take a holistic approach, including additional funding and programs to address drug addiction, improving outcomes for prisoners who re-enter society, and allocating more money for mental health and education.

Lawmakers must conclude the special session no later than the evening of March 6.

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