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What Is a Learning Disability?

Sanjana is a health writer and editor. Her work spans various health-related topics, including mental health, fitness, nutrition, and wellness.

learning difficulties assignment

Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania.

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Learning disabilities are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders that can significantly hamper a person’s ability to learn new things. As a result, the person may have trouble with tasks such as speaking, reading, writing, paying attention, understanding information, remembering things, performing mathematical calculations, or coordinating movements.

Learning disabilities typically develop at a young age and are often diagnosed during the person’s school years, since the primary focus at school is learning. It is estimated that 8% to 10% of children below the age of 18 in the United States have some type of learning disability.

However, some people are not diagnosed until they attend college or get a job, and others never receive an official diagnosis, so they go through life without knowing why they have so much trouble with academics, work, relationships, and basic day-to-day tasks.

It’s important to understand that people with learning disabilities generally have average to superior intelligence and are often gifted in fields such as science, math, fine arts, and other creative mediums. The person is often bright and intelligent, but there may be a gap between their potential and the skills expected from a person of their age .

Nevertheless, some of the most accomplished and influential people in history have had learning disabilities, including Albert Einstein, Leonardo da Vinci, Thomas Edison, and Winston Churchill.

This article explores the types, causes, symptoms, and treatment of learning disabilities.

Types of Learning Disabilities

“Learning disability” is an umbrella term that encompasses many types of specific learning disorders, including:

  • Dyslexia: Dyslexia is the most common learning disability, accounting for 80% of all learning disability cases. It is a language processing disorder characterized by difficulty with speaking, reading, writing, or understanding words. This can cause the person's vocabulary to develop at a slower pace and lead to issues with grammar, reading comprehension, and other language skills.
  • Dysgraphia: People with dysgraphia may have difficulty putting their thoughts into writing due to issues with vocabulary, spelling, grammar, memory, and critical thinking. This condition is characterized by poor handwriting, as the person may struggle with letter spacing, spatial awareness, and motor planning. Dysgraphia can make it hard for the person to think and write simultaneously.
  • Dyscalculia: Sometimes known as “math dyslexia,” this condition includes learning disorders related to mathematics, such as difficulty with numbers, concepts, and reasoning. People with dyscalculia may struggle to count money, read clocks and tell time, perform mental math calculations, identify number patterns, and apply mathematical formulae.
  • Auditory processing disorder (APD): People with APD may have difficulty processing sounds because their brain misinterprets auditory information received by the ear. As a result, they may confuse the order of sounds in certain words, or they may not be able to distinguish between sounds such as the teacher’s voice and the background noise in the classroom.
  • Language processing disorder (LPD): This is a subset of APD, characterized by difficulties with processing spoken language . The person may have difficulty attaching meaning to sound groups representing words, sentences, and stories.
  • Nonverbal learning disabilities (NVLD): NVLD is characterized by difficulty interpreting nonverbal cues such as facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, and other nonverbal signals.
  • Visual perceptual/visual motor deficit: People with this condition may have difficulty with hand-eye coordination and motor activities. They may frequently lose their spot while reading, demonstrate unusual eye movements while reading or writing, confuse similar-looking letters, have difficulty navigating their environment, and struggle to manage items like pens, pencils, crayons, glue, and scissors.

Symptoms of Learning Disabilities

These are some of the symptoms of learning disabilities:

  • Poor memory
  • Difficulty focusing
  • Short attention span
  • Difficulty with reading or writing
  • Inability to distinguish between sounds, letters, or numbers
  • Difficulty sounding out words
  • Tendency to put numbers or letters in the wrong sequence
  • Difficulty telling time
  • Confusion between right and left
  • Tendency to reverse letters
  • Difficulty grasping certain words and concepts
  • Disconnect between words and meaning (i.e.. saying one thing but meaning another)
  • Difficulty expressing thoughts and emotions
  • Poor hand-eye coordination
  • Delayed speech development 
  • Disorganization
  • Trouble with listening and following instructions
  • Inappropriate responses
  • Restlessness and impulsiveness
  • Tendency to act out
  • Difficulty with discipline
  • Resistance to change 
  • Inconsistent performance on a daily or weekly basis

While all children struggle with some of these things from time to time during their school years, people with learning disabilities tend to have a cluster of these symptoms that persist even as they get older.

According to the National Institute for Learning Development (NILD), frustration is a hallmark of this condition, since people with learning disabilities often excel at some things but do very poorly in other areas, and are often acutely aware of the gaps between what they can and cannot do.

The NILD notes that people with learning disabilities often find themselves failing in certain academic or professional areas due to reasons beyond their control, or having to put in tremendous amounts of effort in order to succeed. This experience can be difficult, confusing, and demotivating, often causing the person to feel sad and disappointed.

Causes of Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are caused by differences in the neurological functioning of the person’s brain. These differences can occur before the person is born, during their birth, or in early childhood, and may be caused by factors such as:

  • Maternal illness during pregnancy
  • Birth complications that block the flow of oxygen to the baby’s brain
  • Certain genes that can make the person more genetically predisposed to developing a learning disability
  • Injury or illness, such as meningitis, in early childhood 
  • Health conditions such as cerebral palsy and Down’s syndrome often involve some extent of learning disability

However, it’s important to note that learning disabilities should not be mistaken for learning problems that arise due to other factors such as:

  • Visual, hearing, verbal, or motor handicaps
  • Intellectual disability
  • Emotional disturbances
  • Economic , cultural, or environmental disadvantages

Diagnosing Learning Disabilities

A healthcare professional can diagnose learning disabilities. The diagnostic process might involve:

  • Academic testing: The healthcare provider may administer a standardized achievement test that checks the person’s reading, writing, and arithmetic skills, as well as an intelligence quotient (IQ) test . If the person performs well on the IQ test but has a lower score on the achievement test, it could indicate that they have a learning disability.
  • Performance review: The healthcare provider may review and evaluate the person’s academic, professional, social, and developmental performance.
  • Medical history: The healthcare provider will likely ask questions about the person’s personal and family medical history.
  • Physical and neurological exam: The healthcare provider may conduct a physical and neurological exam to check for other health conditions such as brain diseases, mental health conditions, and developmental and intellectual disabilities .

Every learning disability has different symptoms and everyone’s experience of the condition is unique as they may experience differences in the frequency and intensity of their symptoms.

Some people may have a single, isolated learning difficulty that doesn’t have a severe impact on their day-to-day life; whereas others may have several learning disabilities that overlap with each other and make it difficult for them to function without support.

Treating Learning Disabilities

Learning disabilities are lifelong conditions that cannot be fixed or cured; however, with timely diagnosis, treatment, and support, people with learning disabilities can be successful at school, work, and among their community.

Treatment for learning disabilities may involve:

  • Special education: Children with learning disabilities may benefit from education by specially trained teachers who perform a comprehensive evaluation of the child’s abilities and then help the child build on their strengths while compensating for their disabilities. 
  • Medication: Some people may need to take medication to improve their ability to focus and concentrate.
  • Therapy: Psychotherapy can help people with learning disabilities deal with emotional issues and develop coping skills.
  • Other interventions: People with learning disabilities may also benefit from other interventions such as speech and language therapy.
  • Support groups: People with learning disabilities as well as parents of children with learning disabilities may benefit from support group meetings that help them connect with others who have similar experiences. Learning difficulties can often lead to tension, misunderstandings, and conflicts among the family, particularly among families where the condition is hereditary.

A Word From Verywell

Every human being is equipped with a unique set of strengths and weaknesses. All of us are able to do some things effortlessly but struggle in other areas. 

It’s important to recognize that while people with learning disabilities have some challenges with learning, they are not in any way inferior to anyone else . Special education, treatment, support, kindness, and patience can help them achieve success.

Vidyadharan V, Tharayil HM. Learning disorder or learning disability: Time to rethink . Indian J Psychol Med . 2019;41(3):276-278. doi:10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_371_18

National Institute for Learning Development. What is a learning disability?

National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke. Learning disabilities .

Learning Difficulties Association of America. Types of learning disabilities .

Walden University. 7 learning disabilities every psychology professional should study .

Kohli A, Sharma S, Padhy SK. Specific learning disabilities: Issues that remain unanswered . Indian J Psychol Med . 2018;40(5):399-405. doi:10.4103/IJPSYM.IJPSYM_86_18

Learning Difficulties Association of America. Symptoms of learning disabilities .

American Academy of Pediatricians. Diagnosing a learning disability .

National Health Service. Learning disabilities .

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. How are learning disabilities diagnosed?

National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. What are some signs of learning disabilities?

By Sanjana Gupta Sanjana is a health writer and editor. Her work spans various health-related topics, including mental health, fitness, nutrition, and wellness.

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Tips for recognizing learning disorders in the classroom.

Characteristics of learning disabilities that can hide in plain sight

Writer: Rae Jacobson

What You'll Learn

  • Why is it hard to spot some learning disorders?
  • How do learning disorders affect kids in school?
  • What signs should teachers look for?

Teachers are often the first to notice that a child has a learning disorder. Sometimes the signs are easy to spot, like a student who’s way behind in reading. Or a child who’s working hard but just keeps failing tests. But sometimes the signs are harder to see. And that can mean kids who need help don’t get it.

Kids with LDs often have a big gap between what it seems like they should be able to do and what they’re actually able do. For example, a student who writes awesome essays but can barely do basic math assignments. Or a kid who gives great answers class but can’t get their ideas down on paper. These gaps often cause kids with learning disorders to be labeled as lazy or told to just try harder, which can take a toll on their self-esteem. Knowing what to look for can help teachers and parents get kids the help they need.

Students who need constant reminders of what to do next might be struggling with a skill called working memory. That’s the task of remembering and processing new information, a common issue for kids with LDs. They also may struggle with time management. They may have trouble with transitions or seem disorganized.

Other common signs of learning differences include difficulty following directions, trouble concentrating, and not getting homework done on time — or at all. Failing tests, especially ones you know they’ve studied for, is also a sign.

If a student seems shy — not talking in class or sitting in the back row — they may be trying to hide a learning issue. Other kids might do the opposite, acting out to draw attention away from difficulties or pretending not to care about school. Kids may even cut class, skip school, or be “sick” more often than is usual.

Helping students with learning disabilities get the help they need can make a big difference both in school and out — and for years to come.

Teachers are often the first to notice that a child might have a learning disorder. Sometimes the signs are easy to spot — a student who just isn’t making headway in reading , for example. Or a child who, despite obvious effort, can’t seem to master the times tables. But the signs are not always as clear, and many children, embarrassed that they are struggling to do things that seem easy for other kids, go to pains to hide their difficulties.

Here are some less-obvious signs of learning disorders in children to watch for in the classroom.

Not living up to his potential

If you notice that a student who seems as if he should be succeeding, but he isn’t —either in one specific subject or in his overall school performance — it could be a sign that he has learning disorder.

This is often described as a discrepancy between ability and aptitude i.e. a gap between what it seems a student should be able to do and what he’s actually able do.

Some examples of how this gap might appear in the classroom include:

  • A student who writes fantastic essays but has serious difficulty getting through basic math assignments, or vice versa.
  • A kid who’s great at answering questions in class but can’t get her point down on paper.
  • A student whose intelligence is obvious in person, but isn’t reflected on his report card.

Not trying hard enough

Kids who aren’t doing as well in school as expected may appear to be lazy or just not applying themselves , when in fact they may be struggling with a learning disorder. Adults with learning issues recall being told repeatedly, before they were diagnosed, that they weren’t trying hard enough. Kids who look like they’re not trying may actually be trying very hard, but failing, or trying to hide an embarrassing deficiency.

  If a student constantly has to be reminded what to do next, you might think he’s not paying attention , but it could be a sign that he’s having difficulty with what’s called “ working memory ” — holding, processing and building on new information. This is a common issue for kids with learning disorders.

Other signs to watch for include:

  • Difficulty following directions – especially if the student is hearing the information for the first time or there are several steps to remember
  • Daydreaming
  • Difficulty copying from the board
  • Trouble remembering assignments and doing them correctly

Students with learning disorders often try conceal their struggles from teachers and peers. Even if they’re managing to keep up with school work, with extra effort, it may be taking a big toll on their self esteem. If a student comes across as excessively shy during class — hanging back during group projects, sitting in the back row, or doing everything in his power to avoid being called on during class — he may be trying to hide a learning issue.

It’s also important to remember that hiding doesn’t always look like what it is. In fact, for some kids it may look just the opposite . Where some students shrink down, hoping to go unnoticed, others act out, drawing attention away from deficits by becoming the class clown, being defiant, or pretending to be “too cool” to care how they’re doing in school.

Missing homework

Students with learning disorders often struggle to get homework in on time – or at all. Homework troubles happen for a number of reasons.

  • A child may feel embarrassed to hand in work that is incorrect or unfinished.
  • Total wipe-out. Kids who struggle with memory and organization may have simply forgotten there was an assignment due at all.
  • Lost! Even when homework does get done, it still has to make it from home to school .

Every kid is bound to miss an assignment once in a while, but if a student routinely fails to turn in her homework it’s time to take a closer look at what’s going on.

Timing troubles

Kids with learning disabilities often struggle with time management, transitions and organization . These timing troubles can cause problems both in school and at home. Tell-tale signs to watch for include:

  • A child who always seems to take ‘too long’ to complete tasks – from assignments to putting on his shoes after gym.
  • A student’s who’s parents report that it takes him hours to get through his homework at night.
  • A kid who’s chronically late to school (I missed the bus – again!) or always seems to be rushing from one class to another.

Test Stress

Most kids will have test anxiety now and then, but if a student seems to have more trouble than expected it can be a clue that he has a learning disorder. Some things to watch for:

  • A student who always ends up scrambling to finish the test on time — or routinely exceeds the time limit — regardless of reminders.
  • A child who’s always the last one still working on a timed assignment.
  • Very messy handwriting
  • Serious pre-test anxiety
  • A student who fails numerous tests despite having studied

Emotionality

School can be an emotional minefield for students with learning disorders. From struggling to keep up with peers to falling behind on schoolwork, the opportunities to feel bad about themselves can be overwhelming.

  • Kids with learning disorders often struggle with feelings of shame, embarrassment, and low- self esteem . If a child often seems to be down on himself, depressed, or frustrated at school, an undiagnosed learning disorder could be a cause.
  • Kids with learning disorders may develop serious school-related anxiety . Especially before they are diagnosed, when they don’t understand why they keep up with their peers.
  • Additionally, kids with learning disorders often struggle with “self-regulation,” meaning they lack the tools to manage and process emotions and are easily overwhelmed — which can lead to outbursts. For example, a student who flies off the handle when he’s asked to stay in his seat, or is reduced to tears when asked to try a challenging assignment.

Students with learning disorders often go to great lengths to avoid school situations that trigger anxiety or stress. Some signs of avoidance to watch for include:

  • Excessive absences
  • Staying home “sick” on days when there are tests or other important assignments
  • Refusal to participate in challenging activities
  • Making frequent trips to the bathroom or asking to go to the nurse when faced with stressful assignments or tests
  • Cutting class, or skipping school entirely

Helping students with learning disabilities get the attention and support they need to do better and feel better will benefit that child– both in school and out – for years to come.

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Learning disorders: Know the signs, how to help

Learning disorders can make it hard for a child to read, write or do simple math. Know the symptoms and find out what you can do.

It can be hard to figure out that a child has a learning disorder. Some children have learning disorders for a long time before they are diagnosed. These children can have such a hard time in school that their self-esteem and drive to succeed goes down.

That's why it's a good idea for parents to know the symptoms of learning disorders. The sooner you spot the symptoms, the faster you can help your child succeed.

What is a learning disorder?

A learning disorder is present when the brain takes in and works with information in a way that is not typical. It keeps a person from learning a skill and using it well. People with learning disorders by and large have average or above-average intelligence. So, there's a gap between their expected skills, based on age and intelligence, and how they do in school.

Common learning disorders affect a child's ability to:

  • Use or understand language.
  • Learn other skills that don't involve words.

Reading is based on understanding speech. Learning disorders with reading often are based on a child's trouble understanding a spoken word as a mix of distinct sounds. This can make it hard to understand how a letter or letters represent a sound and how letters make a word.

Problems with short-term memory, also called working memory, can play a role.

Even when basic reading skills are mastered, children may have trouble with the following skills:

  • Reading at a typical pace.
  • Understanding what they read.
  • Recalling correctly what they read.
  • Making conclusions based on their reading.

One of the most common types of learning disorders is a reading disorder called dyslexia. It causes you to have trouble picking out different speech sounds in words and learning how letters relate to those sounds.

Writing requires complex skills that involve vision, movement and the ability to process information. A learning disorder in writing, also called dysgraphia, may cause the following:

  • Slow handwriting that takes a lot of work.
  • Trouble recalling how to form letters, copy shapes and draw lines.
  • Handwriting that's hard to read.
  • Trouble putting thoughts into writing.
  • Written text that's poorly organized or hard to understand.
  • Trouble with spelling, grammar and punctuation.

A learning disorder in math, also called dyscalculia, may cause problems with the following skills:

  • Understanding how numbers work and relate to each other.
  • Doing math problems.
  • Learning basic math rules.
  • Using math symbols.
  • Understanding word problems.
  • Organizing and recording information while solving a math problem.

Speech and Language

Children with speech and language disorders can have trouble using and understanding spoken or written words. They may have trouble:

  • Reading and writing.
  • Doing math word problems.
  • Following directions.
  • Answering questions.

A variety of speech and language disorders can affect kids. A few examples are:

  • Stuttering — trouble saying words or sentences in a way that flows smoothly.
  • Articulation errors — difficulty forming certain words or sounds.
  • Childhood apraxia — trouble accurately moving the lips, jaw and tongue to speak.

Children with speech or language disorders often can understand and work well with visual information. They also can use visual cues well in social situations.

Nonverbal skills

Children with nonverbal learning disorders often have good basic language skills. They can excel at memorizing words too. But these children may have trouble with some skills that don't involve speaking, such as:

  • Perceiving where objects are.
  • Understanding abstract concepts.
  • Reading people's emotions through facial expressions and other cues.
  • Moving the body, also called physical coordination. This type of trouble is known as dyspraxia.
  • Fine motor skills, such as writing. This issue may happen along with other learning disorders.
  • Paying attention, planning and organizing, as seen in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorders (ADHD).
  • Understanding higher-level reading or writing tasks, often appearing in later grade school.

What causes learning disorders?

Things that might play roles in learning disorders include:

  • Family history and genes. Having a blood relative, such as a parent, with a learning disorder raises the risk of a child having a disorder.
  • Risks before birth and shortly after. Learning disorders have been linked with poor growth in the uterus and exposure to alcohol or drugs before being born. Learning disorders also have been tied to being born too early and having a very low weight at birth.
  • Emotional trauma. This could involve a deeply stressful experience or emotional abuse. If either happens in early childhood, it may affect how the brain develops and raise the risk of learning disorders.
  • Physical trauma. Head injuries or nervous system illnesses might play a role in the development of learning disorders.
  • Poisonous substances. Exposure to high levels of toxins, such as lead, has been linked to a larger risk of learning disorders.

What are the symptoms of learning disorders?

At times, all children have trouble learning and using academic skills. But when the symptoms last for at least six months and don't get better with help from adults, a child might have a learning disorder.

The symptoms of a learning disorder in a child can include:

  • Not being able to master skills in reading, spelling, writing or math at or near the expected age and grade levels.
  • Trouble understanding and following instructions.
  • Problems remembering what someone just said.
  • Lacking coordination while walking, playing sports or doing things that use small muscles, such as holding a pencil.
  • Easily losing homework, schoolbooks or other items.
  • Trouble completing homework and assignments on time.
  • Acting out or having defiant, angry or large emotional reactions at school. Or, acting any of these ways while doing academic tasks such as homework or reading.

Seeking help for learning disorders

Early treatment is key, because the problem can grow. A child who doesn't learn to add numbers in elementary school won't be able to do algebra in high school. Children who have learning disorders also can have:

  • Anxiety about their grades.
  • Depression.
  • Low self-esteem.
  • Less motivation.

Some children might act out to distract attention from their challenges at school.

If you suspect your child has trouble learning, you can ask the school to check for a learning disorder. Or you can get a private evaluation outside of the school system. A child's teacher, parents or guardian, and health care provider are some of the people who can request an evaluation. Your child will likely first have a general physical exam that checks for vision, hearing or other medical problems that can make learning harder. Often, a child will have a series of exams done by a team of professionals, including a:

  • Psychologist.
  • Special education teacher.
  • Occupational therapist.
  • Social worker or nurse.
  • Speech and language specialist.

These professionals work together to decide whether a child's trouble meets the definition of a learning disorder. They also figure out what special-education services are needed if the child has a disorder. The team bases its decisions on:

  • The results of tests.
  • Teacher feedback.
  • Input from the parents or guardians.
  • A review of how the child does in school.

A child's health care provider also might do tests to look for mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression and ADHD . These mental health conditions can contribute to delays in academic skills.

For example, some children with ADHD struggle to finish classwork and homework. But ADHD might not necessarily cause them to have trouble learning academic skills. Instead, it may cause them to have a hard time performing those skills. Many children have ADHD along with a learning disorder.

Treatment options

If your child has a learning disorder, your child's provider or school might suggest:

  • Extra help. A reading specialist, math tutor or other trained professional can teach your child ways to do schoolwork, study and get organized.
  • Individualized education program (IEP). This written plan sets learning goals and describes the special-education services your child needs. Public schools develop IEPs for students whose challenges meet the school system's guidelines for a learning disorder. In some countries, IEPs are called individual education plans.
  • Changes in the classroom. These are also known as accommodations. For instance, some students with learning disorders get more time to complete work or tests. They may be asked to do fewer math problems in assignments. And they may get seated near their teachers to boost attention. Some students are allowed to use gadgets. These could include calculators to help solve math problems and programs that turn text into speech you can hear. The school also might be willing to provide audiobooks to listen to while reading along with a physical copy.
  • Therapy. Different types of therapy may help. Occupational therapy might improve writing problems. A speech-language therapist can help with language skills.
  • Medicine. Your child's health care provider might suggest medicine to treat depression or anxiety. Medicines for ADHD may help a child's ability to focus in school.
  • Complementary and alternative treatments. More research is needed to find out if these treatments work for learning disorders. They include diet changes, use of vitamins, eye exercises and a treatment that works with brain waves called neurofeedback.

Your child's treatment plan will likely change over time. You always can ask the school for more special-education services or classroom changes. If your child has an IEP , review it with the school at least every year. Your child may need less treatment or fewer learning aids over time. Early treatment can lessen the effects of a learning disorder.

In the meantime, help your child understand in simple terms the need for any other services and how they may help. Also, focus on your child's strengths. Encourage your child to pursue interests that boost confidence. Many kids with learning disorders go on to lead successful lives as adults.

Together, these tactics can boost your child's skills. They also use your child's strengths and help with learning in and outside of school.

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Academic Accommodations for Students with Learning Disabilities

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In recent years, the number of students diagnosed with disabilities who are attending postsecondary institutions has increased dramatically. Members of the largest group of students with disabilities have learning disabilities.

In most situations, a learning disability is not readily observable. Because there are no outward signs of a disability such as a white cane or wheelchair, students with learning disabilities are often overlooked or misunderstood. Some instructors and administrators suspect that students who claim to have learning disabilities are faking it, are playing the system, or lack the intelligence needed to succeed in college. Understanding the implications of learning disabilities, preparing to teach students with diverse characteristics, and learning to accommodate students with learning disabilities are essential for faculty and staff to provide academic and career opportunities for these students that are equivalent to those provided to their nondisabled peers.

Learning Disabilities and Functional Limitations

Generally speaking, students may be diagnosed with learning disabilities if they are of average or above-average intelligence and there is a significant discrepancy between their academic achievement and their intellectual ability. The diagnosis of a learning disability is often made by a psychologist trained in administering and interpreting psycho-educational assessments. Psychologists use the results of their assessments to understand how individuals receive, process, integrate, retain, and communicate information. Since these functions cannot always be directly observed, it is often difficult to diagnose specific learning disabilities, determine their impact, and recommend appropriate accommodations.

There are many types of learning disabilities; they often impact student abilities in one or more of the following categories:

  • Spoken language —listening and speaking.
  • Written language —reading, writing, and spelling.
  • Arithmetic —calculation and mathematical concepts.
  • Reasoning —organization and integration of ideas and thoughts.

Learning disabilities may also be present along with other disabilities such as mobility and sensory impairments, brain injuries, Attention Deficit Disorder/Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADD/ADHD), and psychiatric disabilities.

Described below are some of the functional limitations that may require accommodations. A student with a learning disability may have one or more of these limitations.

  • Auditory perception and processing —the student may have difficulty processing information communicated through lectures or class discussions. They may have difficulty distinguishing subtle differences in sound or knowing which sounds to attend to.
  • Visual perception and processing —the student may have difficulty distinguishing subtle differences in shape (e.g., the letters b and d), deciding what images to focus on when multiple images are present, skip words or repeat sections when reading, or misjudge depth or distance. They may have difficulty processing information communicated via overhead projection, through video, in graphs and charts, by email, or within web-based distance learning courses.
  • Information processing speed —the student may process auditory and visual information more slowly than the average person. They may be a slow reader because of the need for additional time to decode and comprehend written material.
  • Abstract reasoning —the student may have difficulty understanding the context of subjects such as philosophy and logic, which require high level reasoning skills.
  • Memory (long-term, short-term) —the student may have difficulty with the storing or recalling of information during short or long time periods.
  • Spoken and written language —the student may have difficulty with spelling (e.g., mixing up letters) or with speaking (e.g., reversing words or phrases).
  • Mathematical calculation —the student may have difficulty manipulating numbers, may sometimes invert numbers, and may have difficulty converting problems described in words to mathematical expressions.
  • Executive functioning (planning and time management) —the student may have difficulty breaking larger projects into smaller sub-projects, creating and following a timeline, and meeting deadlines.

Universal Design

As the number of individuals being diagnosed with learning disabilities has increased, so have the understanding and utilization of academic and technological strategies for accommodation. There are a number of things instructors can do while planning a course to make it more accessible to all students, including those with learning disabilities. Proactively considering these strategies is part of a process called universal design (UD). UD offers the following suggestions:

  • Include a statement in your syllabus inviting students to talk with you and the disability services office about disability-related issues.
  • Point out campus resources available to all students such as tutoring centers, study skills labs, counseling centers, and computer labs.
  • Clearly and early in a course define course requirements, announce the dates of exams, and tell students when assignments are due. Avoid last-minute readings or additional assignments and provide advance notice of changes in assignments and due dates.
  • Provide printed materials early to allow students sufficient time to read and comprehend the material. Many students with learning disabilities find it beneficial to use software that can read the textbook and other text-based materials aloud. In order for them to take advantage of this technology, the printed text must first be converted into an electronic file. This process can be time-consuming.
  • Use multi-modal methods to present classroom material, in order to address a variety of learning styles and strengths (e.g., auditory, visual, kinesthetic). Provide important information in both oral and written formats.
  • When teaching a lesson, state objectives, review previous lessons, and summarize periodically.
  • Use more than one way to demonstrate or explain information.
  • Read aloud what you write on the board or present on an overhead visual.
  • Keep instructions brief and uncomplicated. Repeat them word-for-word.
  • Allow time for clarification of directions and essential information.
  • Use captioned videos and know how to turn on the captioning feature. Although captioned videos are typically used for students who are deaf, they also help some students with learning disabilities and those for whom English is a second language, by ensuring content is presented visually and audibly. Give all students an opportunity to view a video multiple times (e.g., by making it available in a library or learning center, or on a website).
  • Provide study guides or review sheets.
  • Have multiple methods for course assessment, such as allowing students to take an exam or writing a paper; work alone or in a group; or deliver an oral, written, or videotaped project presentation.
  • Stress organization and ideas rather than mechanics when grading in-class writing assignments and assessments.
  • Design distance learning courses with accessibility in mind. For example, avoid real-time chat sessions, because not all students can type quickly or accurately enough to fully participate.

Accommodations

Typically, a higher education institution requires that a student with a disability register with the office that provides support services for students with disabilities, in order to receive accommodations. It is the student's responsibility to request services in a timely manner. These offices confirm the student's disability and eligibility for services and accommodations. A course instructor typically receives a letter from this office detailing recommended accommodations for a student. The student with a disability is responsible for meeting all course requirements using only approved accommodations.

The goal is to give the student with a disability equal access to the learning environment. Individualized accommodations are not designed to give the student an advantage over other students, to alter a fundamental aspect of the course, nor to weaken academic rigor.

A specific learning disability is unique to the individual and can be manifested in a variety of ways. Therefore, accommodations for a specific student must be tailored to the individual. The following are examples of classroom, assignment, and examination accommodations that may be recommended for a student with a learning disability. When in doubt about how to assist a student, work with the student privately or contact the campus office that provides support services for students with disabilities.

Classroom and Assignment Accommodations

You may be asked to

  • assist the student in finding effective peer note-takers from the class. Alternatively, you could provide the student with a copy of your lecture notes or outline.
  • allow the student to tape record lectures.
  • allow the student additional time to complete in-class assignments, particularly writing assignments.
  • provide feedback and assist the student in planning the workflow of assignments. This is especially important with large writing assignments. It may be helpful to break the larger assignment into smaller components with opportunities for draft feedback.
  • provide assistance with proofreading written work.

Examination Accommodations

You may be asked to allow the student with a learning disability

  • extended exam time, typically time and one half to double time.
  • to take exams in a room with reduced distractions.
  • the assistance of a reader, scribe, or word processor for exams.
  • the option of an oral exam.
  • to use spelling and grammar assistive devices for essay exams.
  • to use a calculator for exams.
  • to use scratch paper during exams.

Additional Resources

Your campus student disability support office is a valuable resource for better understanding learning disabilities and effective instructional strategies. The following resources may also be helpful:

The Center for Universal Design in Education is a comprehensive resource on the principles, processes, and strategies for applying UD in academic settings. 

The Faculty Room is a space for faculty and administrators at postsecondary institutions to learn about how to create classroom environments and activities that maximize the learning of all students, including those with disabilities.

Invisible Disabilities and Postsecondary Education is the title of both a video and a publication that include suggestions for working with students with invisible disabilities on postsecondary campuses.

Equal Access: Universal Design of Instruction is the title of both a video and a publication that provide postsecondary instructors with strategies for making campuses welcoming and accessible to all students.

LDOnline is a comprehensive website on learning disabilities for parents, teachers, and other professionals.

The Learning Disabilities Association of America , (LDA) is a nonprofit grassroots organization whose members are individuals with learning disabilities, their families, and professionals who work with them to advance the education and general welfare of children and adults with learning disabilities.

About DO-IT

DO-IT (Disabilities, Opportunities, Internetworking, and Technology) serves to increase the successful participation of individuals with disabilities in challenging academic programs such as those in science, engineering, mathematics, and technology. Primary funding for DO-IT is provided by the National Science Foundation, the State of Washington, and the U.S. Department of Education. DO-IT is a collaboration of UW Information Technology and the Colleges of Engineering and Education at the University of Washington.

Grants and gifts fund DO-IT publications, videos, and programs to support the academic and career success of people with disabilities. Contribute today by sending a check to DO-IT, Box 354842, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-4842.

Your gift is tax deductible as specified in IRS regulations. Pursuant to RCW 19.09, the University of Washington is registered as a charitable organization with the Secretary of State, state of Washington. For more information call the Office of the Secretary of State, 1-800-322-4483.

To order free publications or newsletters use the DO-IT Publications Order Form ; to order videos and training materials use the Videos, Books and Comprehensive Training Materials Order Form . For further information, to be placed on the DO-IT mailing list, request materials in an alternate format, or to make comments or suggestions about DO-IT publications or web pages contact:

DO-IT University of Washington Box 354842 Seattle, WA 98195-4842 [email protected] www.uw.edu/doit 206-685-DOIT (3648) (voice/TTY) 888-972-DOIT (3648) (voice/TTY) 206-221-4171 (fax) 509-328-9331 (voice/TTY) Spokane

Founder and Director: Sheryl Burgstahler , Ph.D.

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Acknowledgment

The contents of this publication were developed under a grant from the U.S. Department of Education (#P333A020044, #P333A050064). However, these contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the U.S. Department of Education, and you should not assume endorsement by the federal government. Copyright © 2012, 2009, 2007, 2004, University of Washington. Permission is granted to copy these materials for educational, noncommercial purposes provided the source is acknowledged.

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Review article, understanding difficulties and resulting confusion in learning: an integrative review.

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  • 1 Melbourne Centre for the Study of Higher Education, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
  • 2 School of Education, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, Australia
  • 3 University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
  • 4 Department of Educational Studies, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, Australia
  • 5 College of Education, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, United States

Difficulties are often an unavoidable but important part of the learning process. This seems particularly so for complex conceptual learning. Challenges in the learning process are however, particularly difficult to detect and respond to in educational environments where growing class sizes and the increased use of digital technologies mean that teachers are unable to provide nuanced and personalized feedback and support to help students overcome their difficulties. Individual differences, the specifics of the learning activity, and the difficulty of giving individual feedback in large classes and digital environments all add to the challenge of responding to student difficulties and confusion. In this integrative review, we aim to explore difficulties and resulting emotional responses in learning. We will review the primary principles of cognitive disequilibrium and contrast these principles with work on desirable difficulties, productive failure, impasse driven learning, and pure discovery-based learning. We conclude with a theoretical model of the zones of optimal and sub-optimal confusion as a way of conceptualizing the parameters of productive and non-productive difficulties experienced by students while they learn.

Introduction

As class sizes in education are increasing and technology is impacting on education at all levels, these trends create significant challenges for teachers as they attempt to support individual students. Technology undoubtedly provides substantial advantages for students, enabling them to access information from around the planet easily and at any time. The advantages and disadvantages of the increased use of technology have come to light over time as students increasingly engage with new innovations. In this review, we will address an issue that has become progressively evident in digital learning environments but is relevant to all educational settings, particularly as class sizes grow. We will explore the difficulties in attempting to understand and account for the struggles students experience while learning a particular emphasis on what happens when students experience difficulties and become confused.

Running into problems while learning is often accompanied by an emotional response. Emotion, more broadly, plays a vital role in the integration of new knowledge with prior knowledge. This has been found to be the case in brain imaging studies (e.g., LeDoux, 1992 ), laboratory-based studies (e.g., Isen et al., 1987 ), and applied educational studies (e.g., Pekrun, 2005 ). A clear example of how emotion can impact on the learning process is where it creates an obstacle to learning, reflected in, for example, the vast body of work that has examined the detrimental effect of anxiety on the learning of mathematics ( Hembree, 1990 ). Similarly, confusion has been associated with blockages or impasses in the learning process ( Kennedy and Lodge, 2016 ).

Despite its importance, understanding, identifying and responding to difficulties and the resulting emotions in learning can be problematic, particularly in larger classes and in digital environments. Without the affordances of synchronous face-to-face human interaction in digital environments, emotions like confusion are difficult to detect. It is therefore challenging to respond to students with support or feedback to help their progress when they are stuck and become confused. Humans are uniquely tuned to respond to the emotional reactions of other humans ( Damasio, 1994 ). Intuitively we know what it is like to feel confused as a result of a difficulty in the learning process, yet confusion is not regarded as one of the “basic” emotions: like, for example, happiness, sadness, and anger ( Ekman, 2008 ). And while student confusion is relatively easy for an experienced teacher to detect in face-to-face settings ( Lepper and Woolverton, 2002 ), it is a complex emotion that is difficult to explain scientifically ( Silvia, 2010 ; Pekrun and Stephens, 2011 ). But we know that confusion is both commonly felt by students, is able to be diagnosed by teachers, and able to be resolved productively with teacher support (see for example, Lehman et al., 2008 ). Thus, at the most fundamental level, confusion is both widely experienced and relatively easily detected by teachers, despite the uncertainty about the exact relationship between difficulties and emotional responses in learning. Thus, student emotions, such as confusion, are relatively straightforward for experienced teachers to detect, understand and respond to in face-to-face settings with relatively small class sizes (see Woolfolk and Brooks, 1983 ; Woolf et al., 2009 ; Mainhard et al., 2018 ). The same is not true in digital environments or large classes. Emotions are less obvious to teachers when there are many students or when they interact with students via electronic methods ( Wosnitza and Volet, 2005 ). This means that alternate practices are needed to respond to students when they experience difficulties in these emerging environments.

The increased difficulty in detecting and responding to student emotions is one of several key reasons why a deeper understanding of difficulties and associated emotional responses is needed as new technologies and increasing class sizes impact education. Digital learning environments, especially online or distance learning environments, are often explicitly designed so that students will have flexibility and autonomy in their studies. Students, when studying online or at a distance, are often able to access course material and resources in their own time (and place) and are often not constrained by centralized timetables. As a result, there is often a greater onus on students in these environments to be more autonomous and self-directed in their learning ( Huang, 2002 ). Thus, increased learning flexibility often leads to students having fewer opportunities for engaging with teaching staff and receiving feedback in real time ( Mansour and Mupinga, 2007 ). While activities can be made available in the form of webinars and other synchronous formats, there remains a substantial responsibility on students to be autonomous and make good decisions about their own progress without requiring the real-time intervention of teaching staff.

Digital learning environments that largely provide self-directed students with autonomy and flexibility can potentially be created to detect and respond to student difficulties, but this potential has not yet been realized ( Arguel et al., 2017 ). A key challenge for educational technology researchers and educators is to create digital environments that are better able to provide support for and potentially respond to difficulties and the resulting emotions such as confusion, without the requirement of having a teacher on-call to support students. For this to occur, sophisticated digital learning environments need to be created that can support students in their autonomous, personalized and self-directed learning and provide feedback that in some way, emulates what a teacher does in more traditional, face-to-face settings.

In order for a digital learning environment to be responsive to difficulties—or indeed to other emotions that impact on learning—it is necessary for the system to detect the emotions that students experience during their learning ( Arguel et al., 2017 ). These emotional responses are the key indicator teachers use in face-to-face settings to determine when students are having problems. Given the difficulty of identifying emotions in digital learning environments in ways that humans can in face-to-face environments, this is a particularly vexing issue and one that has led to the growth of the burgeoning field of affective computing ( Picard, 2000 ). A second requirement is that digital learning environments need to be reactive to emotional responses such as confusion once these responses have been detected. For example, it would be useful if confused learners were given system-generated, programmed support to help them resolve their difficulties within the environment itself. Without a teacher present and without any automated support, it is possible that a student may succumb to their confusion, get frustrated and, as a result, disengage entirely ( D'Mello and Graesser, 2014 ). While it is difficult enough to determine when students become confused in these environments, it is even more complex to know when and how to intervene to prevent the confusion from becoming boredom or frustration. Finally, it would be a distinct advantage if any response or feedback that a digital learning environment provided a confused student could be tailored and personalized to the individual student and their learning pathway, progress and process ( Lodge, 2018 ). Teachers are able to quickly adapt to an individual student's emotional responses in a classroom in smaller classes. This enables teachers to intervene with individualized, customized assistance and feedback for students, which can help them manage both their emotions and their approach to the particular learning activity they are finding confusing. Effective intervention represents a significant challenge for designers of digital learning environments as teachers are adept at responding to student emotions in nuanced and personalized ways that are not easily programmed into a digital system.

Taken together, it is apparent that the increased use of digital learning environments has created a need for better understanding and intervening when students experience difficulties and become confused. This situation is, however, not helped by ongoing conjecture in the literature as to whether difficulties in the learning process resulting in confusion are detrimental or beneficial for learning ( Arguel et al., 2017 ). For example, Dweck (1986) argues that confusion is consistently detrimental to learning and is mediated by prior achievement, IQ scores, and confidence. She suggests that students who have poor prior achievement and confidence are at risk of attributing the experience of reaching a learning impasse and their resulting emotional response to their lack of aptitude. That is, students who become confused while completing a learning activity may interpret their confusion as a sign that they are incapable of learning the material. This argument aligns with a body of literature showing that persistent confusion can lead to frustration and boredom, which as a result has a negative impact on learning ( D'Mello and Graesser, 2014 ). More recently, however, research has suggested that difficulties resulting in confusion can benefit student learning. This is perhaps best exemplified in the research on what have been labeled “desirable difficulties” ( Bjork and Bjork, 2011 ), specific features of the learning situation that introduce beneficial difficulties that reliably enhance learning. Along similar lines, D'Mello et al. (2014) found that inducing difficulties and confusion in an intelligent tutoring system appeared to enhance learning. Moreover, some research has indicated that difficulties may be particularly beneficial for conceptual learning, where students sometimes need to overcome misconceptions before developing a more sophisticated understanding of the topic area ( Kennedy and Lodge, 2016 ). For example, Chen et al. (2013) developed a predict-observe-explain activity about commonly misconceived notions in electronics. Conflicting information was presented to students in the form of scenarios and the resulting confusion, when resolved, appeared to enhance student learning, particularly in relation to correcting the misconceptions. What is apparent from this research is that there seems to be a complex mix of factors that lead to students experiencing difficulties and uncertainty about what kinds of outcomes occur as a result. The factors vary between students and the kinds of difficulties faced will differ across knowledge domains and task types.

From these few studies it is evident that experiencing difficulties and confusion might be beneficial for different students under different circumstances and that the role of confusion in productive learning is important to understand across different learning environments, knowledge domains, and types of learning activities. Dweck's (1986) work indicates that confusion may be interpreted, managed and adapted to in different ways by students depending on their levels of confidence and past achievements. On the other hand, the work of D'Mello et al. (2014) and Chen et al. (2013) suggests that confusion can help students' learning, particularly when conceptual learning or conceptual change is the aim of the activity.

In this integrative review, we examine the literature on difficulties in learning. We focus here on the ways in which it might be possible to detect confusion experienced as a result of difficulties and intervene when students are counterproductively confused. Our aim is to explore the ways in which the difficulties students experience in learning could be harnessed for the purpose of enhancing their education. If digital learning environments are to reach their potential, they must be designed in a way to enable sophisticated support and feedback to confused students, in ways that are similar to those a teacher can provide in small group face-to-face settings.

Difficulties, Confusion, and Their Role in Learning

While confusion is common in educational practice and learning research, generally speaking, it has been poorly defined and understood in the educational literature ( Silvia, 2010 ). Confusion is often associated with reaching a cognitive impasse or “being stuck” while trying to learn something new ( Woolf et al., 2009 ), and it is also commonly regarded as a negative emotional experience or something to be avoided while learning (“Miss, help me, I am confused!”; see also Kort et al., 2001 ). Both of these aspects of confusion—being stuck and a feeling to be avoided—have perhaps led to the everyday notion that confusion is detrimental to learning. While there is certainly research that suggests when confusion persists to the point of frustration, it commonly leads to negative outcomes and has a detrimental impact on understanding ( Dweck, 1986 ; D'Mello and Graesser, 2011 ), as mentioned above, there are times when it may be beneficial to experience a cognitive impasse and the feeling of confusion when learning.

When it comes to defining what confusion actually is , there has been some ambiguity as to the extent to which it is a cognitive or emotional phenomenon ( D'Mello and Graesser, 2014 ). This uncertainty stems from debates about whether or not emotions such as confusion require some element of interpretation in order for the subjective experience of the emotion to take form. These views are derived from an attributional perspective on emotion ( Schachter and Singer, 1962 ). The process, according to this perspective, is that confusion is the result of an individual's attribution of an affective response to a preceding subjective experience. In other words, the student reaches an impasse that causes them some difficulty. As a result of the impasse, the student has some sort of emotional response to the situation they find themselves in. That emotional response is then interpreted by the individual—they attribute meaning to it—which may be confusion (or anxiety, or excitement). In this way, the individual experiences or “attributes” the emotion of confusion to the impasse. This interpretation is particularly important given that confusion in learning needs to be about some educational material attempting to be understood by a student ( Silvia, 2010 ). However, the attributional process also suggests that there are substantial differences between individuals in terms of the attributions they make. Two students can experience the exact same educational conditions and interpret them in vastly different ways, leading one to be confused while the other experiences no such response. The interaction between subjective experience and content knowledge has led to confusion being defined as an “epistemic emotion” ( Pekrun and Stephens, 2011 ). In other words, confusion can be defined as an affective response that occurs in relation to how people come to know or understand something. When defined as an epistemic emotion, confusion is considered to have both cognitive and affective components.

While it is reasonably clear that confusion has both cognitive and affective components, what is less obvious is whether difficulties in learning that result in confusion are productive or unproductive in learning. The literature in this area is somewhat equivocal. D'Mello et al. (2014) examined students when learning about scientific reasoning using an intelligent tutoring system. By inducing confusion through the presentation of contradictory information, they were able to determine whether the experience of being confused contributed negatively or positively to learning outcomes. Two virtual agents were used in the intelligent tutoring system to present information about the topic. In the confusion condition, the information from the two agents was contradictory and thus confusing for students. D'Mello and colleagues found that when students completed the “confused” (i.e., contradictory) condition compared to when they completed the control (i.e., non-contradictory) condition they showed enhanced performance, and as a result, argued that confusion can be beneficial for learning. What remains unclear though is whether it was the difficulty, the subjective experience of confusion or a mixture of both that was responsible for the observed differences between the groups.

Numerous attempts have been made to induce difficulties and confusion during learning to determine under what conditions it contributes productively to student learning outcomes (e.g., Lee et al., 2011 ; Lehman et al., 2013 ; Andres et al., 2014 ; Lodge and Kennedy, 2015 ). For example, Grawemeyer et al. (2015) examined students' confusion (and other emotions) during an activity in a digital learning environment that focussed on fractions. They found that, when provided with the appropriate support at the right time, in the form of feedback and instruction, the difficulties experienced by students led to enhanced learning. Similarly, Muller et al. (2007) considered how videos including the presentation and subsequent correction (refutation) of a misconceived notion could create student confusion compared to videos which used more traditional didactic presentation methods. Students who watched physics videos using the refutation method were exposed to the most confusing aspects of the concepts at the beginning of the video followed by an explanation of the commonly misconceived aspects of the content. Despite their higher levels of reported confusion, students in the refutation condition showed greater knowledge gains compared to students who watched the more traditional videos. Muller and his colleagues argued that these findings are related to the extra mental effort expended in trying to understand the material when it is confusing.

These findings, and particularly Muller et al.'s (2007) interpretation of their results, suggests that, when students experience difficulties and confusion, it may in fact serve as a trigger to help them overcome any conceptual obstacles they encounter during their learning. Along similar lines, Ohlsson (2011) argues that impasses and difficulties experienced in the learning process could be effective triggers for students to rethink their learning approaches. When students reach a conceptual impasse, this may serve as a cue that their current strategy or approach to the learning material is not effective, leading them to consider alternate strategies ( D'Mello and Graesser, 2012 ). This perspective is consistent with research that has considered students' strategies for dealing with challenging material. In a series of experimental studies, Alter et al. (2007) found that, when difficulties are introduced while people learn and reason about new information, it triggers a shift in strategy, activating a more systematic or analytic approach to the material. It may be, therefore, that difficulties encountered during the learning process that are accompanied by a subjective feeling of confusion can lead students to alter their learning strategies which may resolve the impasse, resulting in learning benefits. What this research and the findings suggest, however, is that students need to be able to identify the trigger as a cue to change strategy, which necessitates a capacity for monitoring and self-regulation.

Findings from other studies have found that confusion-inducing difficulties are not a productive part of the learning process despite the empirical research supporting the notion that confusion is beneficial in students' learning. For example, Andres et al. (2014) examined confusion while students engaged with a problem solving-based video game designed to help them learn about physics. In this study, confusion negatively impacted on students' ability to solve the problems and, compared to students who were less confused, confused students were less likely to master the learning material. A second study, Poehnl and Bogner (2013) , presented alternative scientific conceptions to a large group of ninth grade students. Despite the apparently higher levels of confusion in this group compared to a group who were not exposed to the confusion-inducing alternate conceptions, this group performed worse in terms of the overall number of conceptions learned. As such, there is conflicting evidence about what role difficulties and resulting confusion play in learning under different conditions. Given the possibility that confusion may operate as a trigger for action. This again highlights the possible role of self-regulation in this process. Year nine students in the Poehnl and Bogner study may not have the same capacity to self-regulate their learning as university students in the other studies discussed here.

Perhaps surprisingly, these are among the few empirical investigations to directly consider the impact of confusion on students' learning that have found it has a deleterious effect and those that have often involve younger students. However, research from other areas of learning and instruction, while not directly considering the role of confusion in learning, have provided findings that are relevant to the role that difficulties and confusion may play in students' learning. The important distinction seems to be the divergence between difficulties that students experience and the emotions that they experience as a result of these difficulties. While there has been limited research examining students' experiences of confusion, there has been much work done on trying to understand the role of difficulties in the learning process. For this review, we scanned the literature in educational psychology, experimental psychology, and education to look for concepts that share a family resemblance (as per Wittgenstein, 1968 ) to the research on difficulties and confusion.

Research on Learning Challenges and Difficulties

Prominent among similar bodies of work that may assist in understanding how difficulties might contribute to learning in digital environments is research in areas such as desirable difficulties (e.g., Bjork and Bjork, 2011 ), productive failure (e.g., Kapur, 2008 ), impasse-driven learning (e.g., VanLehn, 1988 ), cognitive disequilibrium (e.g., Graesser et al., 2005 ), and investigations of learning in discovery-based environments (e.g., Moreno, 2004 ; Alfieri et al., 2011 ). It is among these cognate fields of research that we may find further evidence to support the processes that lead to confusion being beneficial (or not) for learning. Our aim in attempting to compare and contrast this literature is to better understand how difficulties and confusion may be beneficial to learning and under what conditions.

Studies of desirable difficulties typically consider how aspects of the learning process can encumber learners, and how this process (or “difficulty”) can lead to enhanced learning compared to learners not exposed to the difficulty ( Bjork and Bjork, 2011 ). For example, Sungkhasettee et al. (2011) asked participants to study lists of words either upright or inverted. When learning the inverted words, participants demonstrated superior recall to conditions where the words were presented upright. In a similar study using more educationally relevant material, Adams et al. (2013) reported on a series of studies where erroneous examples were given to students who were learning mathematics in a digital environment. Across these studies, Adams et al. found that the use of erroneous examples in mathematics instruction led to improvements in learning consistent with those observed in the broader literature on desirable difficulties. In order to describe the mechanism by which difficulties enhance learning, Adams et al., argue that the use of incorrect examples encourages students to process the learning material in a different way, which leads to better retention and transfer of their understanding. They suggest that students, by considering and engaging in alternative problem solutions, process material more deeply and this is thought to be responsible for the enhanced learning observed (see also McDaniel and Butler, 2011 ).

The growing body of research on desirable difficulties has raised some questions about what constitutes a beneficial difficulty in the learning process ( Yue et al., 2013 ). For example, in a widely cited study, Diemand-Yauman et al. (2011) presented material to participants (study 1) and students (study 2) in easy and hard to read fonts. They found that participants and students who studied material in hard to read fonts performed better when later quizzed on the material. The authors hypothesized that the difficulty in reading the disfluent font slowed the learning process down, leading to deeper encoding, thus creating a desirable difficulty. Subsequent attempts to replicate this disfluency-based desirable difficulty have failed (e.g., Rummer et al., 2016 ), creating further uncertainty about what constitutes a desirable difficulty. Whatever the boundary conditions of desirable difficulties, it is apparent that certain kinds of difficulties in the learning process can reliably enhance the encoding, storage and retrieval of information. Participants exposed to desirable difficulties in the majority of the research on these effects to date have done so predominantly under laboratory conditions. However, it is apparent that there were substantial advantages to introducing targeted difficulties in the learning process that are strong candidates for enhancing learning in live educational settings ( Yan et al., 2017 ) and for further explaining how difficulties contribute to quality learning more broadly.

The principle of productive failure provides another possibility for framing the use of difficulties to enhance learning. Productive failure is a way of sequencing learning activities to give students an opportunity to familiarize themselves with a complex problem or issue in a structured environment but without significant instruction on the content of the material to be learned ( Kapur, 2015 ). Kapur (2014) tested groups of students who were given an opportunity to solve mathematics problems either before or after being given explicit instruction on the procedure associated with how to solve the problems. He found that the group of students who were given the opportunity to attempt problems before being given explicit instructions, despite often failing in their first attempts, overall demonstrated significantly greater gains in learning compared to students who received instructions prior to attempting to solve problems. Without necessarily having the requisite skills or information to solve the problems they were presented with, students would often reach an impasse in the learning process. Kapur (2015) argued that the impasse reached through the failed attempts at learning helps students generate more and different problem-solving strategies through a process that enhances learning over both the shorter and the longer term. It should be noted here that the tasks used in productive failure studies are different to those used in studies of desirable difficulties. Studies on productive failure tend to use more realistic problems given to students rather than tasks that rely more on memorisation.

Despite the different kinds of tasks used, there are clear parallels between the “failure” aspect of productive failure, and the “difficulties” encountered by students within a desirable difficulty paradigm ( Kapur and Bielaczyc, 2012 ). In both situations, there is a deliberate strategy to encumber students' learning process and potentially trigger confusion. Unlike the work on desirable difficulties, however, much of the research on productive failure has been carried out in naturalistic educational settings. This is achieved partly through the sequencing of the activity. The lack of direct instruction on the problem or issue often leads students to inevitably reach an impasse in the learning process that is seemingly accompanied by a sense of confusion ( Hung et al., 2009 ). As summarized by Kapur (2015) , the benefits of productive failure have been demonstrated many times in the peer-reviewed literature (e.g., Kapur, 2008 ; Kapur and Rummel, 2012 ). The results of these studies demonstrate that when students engage in some problem solving first followed by just-in-time instruction when they reach an impasse (i.e., the process leads to failure), it leads to enhanced learning in educational situations that are designed to rely on direct instruction.

Productive failure shares some similarity with the notion of impasse-driven learning, which focuses on what happens when students reach a blockage in their learning. VanLehn (1988) suggests that when students reach an impasse in the learning process, it forces them to go into a problem-solving strategy he labeled “repair.” In other words, students engage in a metacognitive process whereby they attempt to use problem-solving strategies to overcome the impasse or seek help. In both cases, the necessity of engaging in “meta-level” thinking is hypothesized to lead to more effective learning. This notion is similar to the argument made by Ohlsson (2011) in relation to strategy shifting and again highlights the importance of a capacity to monitor and self-regulate learning. In a test of impasse-driven learning, Blumberg et al. (2008) examined frequent and infrequent players of video games and asked them to describe their experiences as they worked through a novel video game. They found that participants who engaged in video games regularly were more able to describe their problem-solving strategies and moments of insight than those infrequently exposed to the types of impasses found in the games. To examine how this process applies to tutoring, VanLehn et al. (2003) analyzed dialogue in tutoring sessions on physics. Their results suggested that students were receptive to tutoring particularly when they reached an impasse in the learning process compared to when they were not at an impasse. The research on impasse-driven learning again suggests that there is something critical about the metacognitive, learning or study strategies that students engage in when their learning process is disrupted or challenged in some way.

At the core of desirable difficulties, productive failure and impasse driven learning is the notion that a difficulty or deliberately designed challenges are important for learning ( VanLehn, 1988 ; Ohlsson, 2011 ). Contemporary, and increasingly popular models of instruction, rooted in Bruner's (1961) notion of discovery-based learning also share this feature. Discovery-based models of teaching and learning such as problem-based learning typically present students with an ill-structured scenario, situation or problem, which they discuss, often in groups, and investigate in order to resolve. Students, in discussing the problem among themselves with or without a more expert facilitator, inevitably encounter material that they do not understand, that is confusing, and represents an impasse in their investigation of the problem. These impasses are central to the problem-based learning instructional model as they both drive the learning process (becoming the “learning issues” that guide students' learning and guide their investigations of the problem) and they also are said to act as intrinsic motivators for students as they attempt to resolve the problem ( Schmidt, 1993 ).

Given some of the core similarities between these theoretical models,—productive failure, impasse driven learning, desirable difficulties, and problem-based learning—a key question for educational researchers is: what are the underlying cognitive and learning processes that both bring about student confusion, and underpin the potential learning benefits derived from it? Also, how do these processes differ between individual students, learning different material, and engaged in different types of tasks? Graesser and D'Mello (2012) suggest that the prime candidate for this underpinning process is cognitive disequilibrium. The notion of cognitive disequilibrium is derived from Piaget's work on cognitive development ( Piaget, 1964 ). It occurs when there is an imbalance created when new information does not seamlessly integrate with existing mental schema. It is plausible then that confusion is the result of certain types of difficulties in the learning process, namely those that lead to an impasse underpinned by cognitive disequilibrium. In attempting to design for and provide interventions for productive challenges then, what appears to be important is not the introduction of difficulties per se but the introduction of difficulties that lead to an impasse and a sense of disequilibrium. Based on the research across these domains this, in turn, is hypothesized to lead to a change in learning approach or problem-solving strategy that can enhance learning.

A Framework for Understanding and Seeing Difficulties and Resulting Confusion in Learning

From this review, it seems clear that difficulties experienced during learning and resulting in confusion can be either productive or unproductive depending on the arrangement of and relationship between a range of variables within a learning environment. These include the type of learning activity, the knowledge domain being learned, and individual differences such as how students attribute difficulties and their capacity for self-regulated learning. For any particular learning or content area, the degree to which difficulties are experienced by a learner, and whether the experience of the resulting epistemic emotion will be productive or unproductive, is a result of a complex relationship between:

(i) Individually-based variables, such as prior knowledge, self-efficacy, and self-regulation;

(ii) The sequence, structure and design of learning tasks and activities; and

(iii) The design and timeliness feedback, guidance, and support provided to students during the learning activity or task.

A key challenge for educational researchers is to determine what sets of relationships between what variables lead to adaptive and maladaptive learning processes and outcomes in digital learning environments.

The review of the literature also suggests two learning processes could be promoted when students experience confusion: one general and one specific. The first, more general, process is that difficulties encourage students to invest more “mental effort” in their learning; they somehow work harder cognitively—through attention or concentration—to resolve the conceptual impasse and the confusion that has resulted from it. The second is that students, when piqued by a conceptual impasse and the resulting feelings of confusion, actively generate and adopt alternative approaches to the learning material they are seeking to understand. This second process suggests that students do not simply invest a greater effort in their learning; it suggests that they investigate and adopt alternative study approaches and strategies, which they then apply. In order for this second process to occur, students need to be sufficiently able to monitor their progress and understand how to take action on the basis of their experience of difficulty or the reaching of an impasse.

Finally, this review suggests that insurmountable learning difficulties may arise when students experience too much confusion or when confusion persists for too long. As discussed by D'Mello and Graesser (2014) one of the most important factors in the beneficial effect of confusion is that it is resolved. Unresolved, persistent confusion leads to frustration, boredom and therefore is detrimental for learning. In an example of this delicate balance in action, Lee et al. (2011) examined confusion while novices attempted to learn how to write computer code. They found that overcoming confusion can enhance learning but, when it remains unresolved, it leads to deleterious effects on student achievement. This observation speaks to the importance of addressing student confusion in a timely and personalized way. However, given the complexities introduced by the individual differences between students, this is not a straightforward task.

In many ways, these features of confusion are captured in Graesser's (2011) notion of a “zone of optimal confusion” (ZOC). Reminiscent of Vygotsky's (1978) concept of the zone of proximal development, the ZOC suggests that it is important not to have too little or too much difficulty but to aim to have just the right amount. If educators and educational designers aimed to create challenges and induce a change in learning strategy as a deliberate tactic to promote conceptual change, students would need to experience sufficient subjective difficulty for the impasse in the learning process to be experienced as confusion. However, if too much or persistent confusion is experienced, it will lead to frustration, hopelessness, boredom and giving up. To use difficulties as a deliberate instructional strategy in digital learning environments is, therefore, a double-edged sword. If students are not sufficiently engaged to become confused and redress their way of approaching the activity, they can then become bored and potentially regress back to their initial conception. If students can be guided and supported through their confusion, however, it can then lead to the productive learning outcomes reported in the empirical literature. That, in essence, is the ZOC.

One ongoing issue with the notion of “optimal confusion” is that it is difficult to determine what separates productive from non-productive confusion as learning unfolds. Given the complexities involved due to individual responses to difficulties in learning, the threshold at which constructive confusion becomes non-productive frustration or boredom will differ markedly between individuals ( Kennedy and Lodge, 2016 ). Identifying where a student might be along the confusion continuum in advance of knowing the outcome of the learning activity is a significant challenge. Kennedy and Lodge found that there were markers evident in trace data suggestive of students crossing the threshold into unproductive forms of confusion. For example, extended delays in progress observed as significant time lags between interactions or rapid cycling through activities are possible indicators of boredom or frustration respectively. Inferring in real time whether students are experiencing confusion that is productive or unproductive remains a challenge but there is some emerging evidence that data and analytics could be used to help predict how students are tracking and provide feedback and support independent of knowing the outcome ( Arguel et al., 2019 ).

Based on Graesser's (2011) “ZOC” and, using cognitive disequilibrium as a framing mechanism for the important role of confusion in learning, we propose a framework for confusion in digital learning environments (see Figure 1 ). From the top of Figure 1 , a learning event can be specifically designed to create cognitive disequilibrium. An example of this is the approach used by Muller et al. (2008) to create disequilibrium in videos. In this study, the researchers created disequilibrium by focussing on misconceptions as a core instructional strategy, the disequilibrium being generated through the distance between what people think they know and the accepted scientific understanding. From there, disequilibrium is generated as a cause of an impasse in the learning process. At this stage, students will move into the ZOC so long as they are sufficiently engaged and attribute the impasse to be confusing. If this occurs in a productive way and the student has sufficient metacognitive awareness and skill to recognize the confusion as a cue to change strategy, the disequilibrium will be effectively resolved, conceptual change will occur, and students will move on to another learning event. If the confusion becomes persistent, on the other hand, then students may possibly move into the zone of sub-optimal confusion (ZOSOC). When this occurs, the confusion becomes unproductive and leads to possible frustration and/or boredom. Again, it is difficult to determine in real time when and how this occurs and that remains a challenge for future research to examine. The model proposed here builds on similar previous work by D'Mello and Graesser (2014) but is particularly focused on further elucidating both the underpinning processes and the characteristics of the learning design that might influence both the initiation of confusion and its resolution.

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Figure 1 . Conceptual framework for the zones of optimal and sub-optimal confusion.

Implications of the Framework

If it can be assumed that confusion is beneficial for learning under some circumstances then it is worth considering the implications of this for learning design. The creation of disequilibrium and confusion is important to both engage students and create the uncertainty required to help them develop conceptual knowledge. A learning event that is aimed at creating this disequilibrium will need to be designed with the aim of both getting students into the ZOC and making sure that they do not enter the ZOSOC. Enticing students to enter the ZOC has been achieved in numerous ways as described above. For example, the material presented or the medium through which it is presented can be contradictory, counterintuitive or the environment can have little to no guidance as in pure discovery-based learning and, to a lesser extent, productive failure. Taken together, there would appear to be many ways to lure students into the ZOC. That said, there are no guarantees that students will enter this ZOC. If a student has high levels of prior knowledge or is highly confident, for example, they may persist at a task with renewed vigor rather than attribute an impasse as confusing ( Arguel et al., 2016 ).

When it does occur, ensuring the confusion leads to a productive outcome is more challenging as it requires the students themselves resolving the disequilibrium, a timely intervention from a teacher, or in a way that can be automatically supported in a digital learning environment. Thus, there appear to be two broad options for ensuring confusion leads to productive outcomes. As alluded to above, the development of effective self-regulation in learning is one way of ensuring that students move from being confused to effectively learning. While students' skills in self-regulation are something they may at least partly bring to a learning event, there is also potential for building in interventions to assist with self-regulation into the learning environment ( Lodge et al., 2018 ). For example, if students did change their strategy or approach to a learning event, this creates an opportunity for them to reflect on the change in their approach and consider how such a strategy might be useful in future learning situations. So, while there are opportunities for helping students to effectively learn new material, there are also possibilities in these situations for students to consider the strategies they use when learning more broadly. In a very concrete manner, one intervention strategy is to help students to understand that difficulties and confusion as part of the learning process are perfectly normal and, indeed, necessary in many instances. Helping students to see confusion as a cue to try a different approach rather than see it is a sign that they are incapable would be a simple way to improve students' capacity to deal with difficult and confusing elements of learning.

A second option for ensuring that students effectively pass through the ZOC and achieve productive learning outcomes is to use feedback. Feedback can take many different forms in digital learning environments thus providing many options for intervening when students appear to be confused. The critical aspect of any intervention on confusion to avoid having students enter into the ZOSOC will be to personalize that feedback by taking into account their prior knowledge ( Lehman et al., 2012 ). Intelligent tutoring systems have some capacity for this level of personalisation. However, much remains to be done before these systems can be regarded as being truly adaptive to the affective components of student learning and applied at scale ( Baker, 2016 ). As a proof of concept though, there are examples of sophisticated adaptive systems that have been built to provide real time feedback and prompts based on student performance as they progress through procedural tasks. For example, adaptive systems have long been available to provide data-driven feedback and prompts to trainee surgeons ( Piromchai et al., 2017 ), and dentists ( Perry et al., 2015 ). That it is possible to create systems that can use data about student interaction to inform feedback interventions suggest that it is possible to build systems that will work across different knowledge domains to respond to students having difficulties.

In the interim, while intelligent tutoring and other adaptive systems built on machine learning and artificial intelligence mature, there are possibilities for building digital learning environments to cater for difficulties and resulting confusion. Most prominent among these are the development of sophisticated learning designs that can respond to student confusion through enhancing student self-regulation and providing feedback in the form of hints or formative information about the strategies or approaches being used. That is not to say that the development of such systems will be easy. Part of the approach to helping students become better equipped to deal with difficulties and confusion needs to be to address the notion that difficulties are inherently detrimental and an indicator that students are not capable.

Difficulties and the confusion that often results are difficult to detect, manage, and respond to in digital learning environments and large classes compared to smaller group face-to-face settings. Despite this, in this paper we have argued that difficulties and confusion are important in the process of learning, particularly when students are developing more sophisticated understandings of complex concepts. Work on desirable difficulties, impasse driven learning, productive failure, and pure discovery-based learning all provide clues as to how confusion could be beneficial for learning. The creation of a sense of cognitive disequilibrium appears to be a vital element and the confusion needs to be effectively resolved by helping students pass through the ZOC without them entering the ZOSOC. We have attempted here to provide a conceptual model for the process by which students pass through this optimal zone. Our hope is that this will help to outline the process of the development and resolution of confusion so that researchers and learning designers can continue to develop methods for ensuring students achieve productive outcomes as a result of becoming confused.

Author Contributions

JL, GK, LL, AA, and MP contributed to the conceptualization, research, and writing of this article.

The authors of this review received funding from the Australian Research Council for the work in this review as part of a Special Research Initiative (Grant number: SRI20300015).

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Acknowledgments

The authors acknowledge the contributions of Dr. Paula de Barba toward this project.

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Keywords: confusion, digital learning environments, desirable difficulties, productive failure, discovery-based learning, impasse driven learning, cognitive disequilibrium

Citation: Lodge JM, Kennedy G, Lockyer L, Arguel A and Pachman M (2018) Understanding Difficulties and Resulting Confusion in Learning: An Integrative Review. Front. Educ . 3:49. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2018.00049

Received: 28 September 2017; Accepted: 12 June 2018; Published: 28 June 2018.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2018 Lodge, Kennedy, Lockyer, Arguel and Pachman. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Jason M. Lodge, [email protected]

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Learning Disabilities

A learning disability (LD) is a neurological disorder that causes difficulty in organizing information received, remembering it, and expressing it, and therefore affects a person's basic functions such as reading, writing, comprehension, and reasoning. In simple terms, a learning disability results from a difference in the way a person's brain is "wired." While children with learning disabilities are as smart or smarter than their peers, they may have difficulty with reading, writing, spelling, reasoning, or recalling and/or organizing information if they are left to figure things out by themselves or if they are taught in conventional ways.

Jack Horner

A learning disability may not be curable, but with the right support and intervention, children with learning disabilities can succeed in school and go on to successful, often distinguished careers later in life. Parents can help children with learning disabilities achieve such success by encouraging their strengths, knowing their weaknesses, understanding the educational system, working with professionals and learning about strategies for dealing with specific difficulties.

It is important to understand that learning disabilities are defined differently by different groups. The concept of “learning disability” has one meaning for the general public, but a different meaning for professionals. Furthermore, different professional groups use different definitions of learning disability.

Common Learning Disabilities

  • Dyslexia – a language-based disability in which a person has trouble understanding written words. It may also be referred to as reading disability or reading disorder.
  • Dyscalculia – a mathematical disability in which a person has a difficult time solving arithmetic problems and grasping math concepts.
  • Dysgraphia – a writing disability in which a person finds it hard to form letters or write within a defined space.
  • Auditory and Visual Processing Disorders – sensory disabilities in which a person has difficulty processing auditory or visual information despite normal hearing and vision.
  • Nonverbal Learning Disabilities – a neurological disorder which originates in the right hemisphere of the brain, causing problems with visual-spatial, intuitive, organizational, evaluative and holistic processing functions.

(From: Learning Strategies for Problem Learners, by Thomas Lombardi, ldonline.org, and teachingld.org)

Possible Indicators

Becoming aware of the warning signs of learning disabilities and getting children the necessary help early on can be key to a child's future. The earlier a learning disability is detected, the better chance a child will have of succeeding in school and in life. All children learn in highly individual ways. To increase the likelihood of student success, detection is key.

  • Speaks later than most children
  • Pronunciation problems
  • Slow vocabulary growth, often unable to find the right word
  • Difficulty rhyming words
  • Trouble learning numbers, alphabet, days of the week, colors, shapes
  • Extremely restless and easily distracted
  • Trouble interacting with peers
  • Difficulty following directions or routines
  • Fine motor skills slow to develop
  • Slow to learn the connection between letters and sounds
  • Confuses basic words (run, eat, want)
  • Makes consistent reading and spelling errors including letter reversals (b/d), inversions (m/w), transpositions (felt/left), and substitutions (house/home)
  • Transposes number sequences and confuses arithmetic signs (+, -, x, /, =)
  • Slow to remember facts
  • Slow to learn new skills, relies heavily on memorization
  • Impulsive, difficulty planning
  • Unstable pencil grip
  • Trouble learning about time
  • Poor coordination, unaware of physical surroundings, prone to accidents
  • Reverses letter sequences (soiled/solid, left/felt)
  • Slow to learn prefixes, suffixes, root words, and other spelling strategies
  • Avoids reading aloud
  • Trouble with word problems
  • Difficulty with handwriting
  • Awkward, fist-like, or tight pencil grip
  • Avoids writing assignments
  • Slow or poor recall of facts
  • Difficulty making friends
  • Trouble understanding body language and facial expressions

High School Students and Adults

  • Continues to spell incorrectly, frequently spells the same word differently in a single piece of writing
  • Avoids reading and writing tasks
  • Trouble summarizing
  • Trouble with open-ended questions on tests
  • Weak memory skills
  • Difficulty adjusting to new settings
  • Works slowly
  • Poor grasp of abstract concepts
  • Either pays too little attention to details or focuses on them too much
  • Misreads information

Sample Strategies

Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed. Generally, a person with learning disabilities may experience difficulties in study skills, writing skills, oral skills, reading skills, math skills, and social skills.

In studying, students may experience inability to organize time and may be unable to finish assignments on time. They also may have trouble taking notes and following instructions. They often have difficulty spelling correctly and may make frequent grammatical errors which results in poor sentence structure and poor penmanship. If the lecturer speaks too fast, they may have difficulty understanding the lecture and recalling the words. They are often slow readers and sometimes have incorrect comprehension and poor retention. They may be confused with math symbols and may have difficulty with concepts of time and money. Realizing their inabilities  result in low self-esteem which can greatly affects their social skills. They might have impulsive behavior and be disorientated in time.

Dealing with students with learning disabilities, as with other students, requires that teachers have a good understanding of individual students’ strengths and needs, and plan instruction to build on their strengths and address their needs. The following are some suggestions and guidelines for a teacher with students with learning disabilities.

General Courtesy

  • Don't assume that the person is not listening just because you are getting no verbal or visual feedback.
  • Don't assume that you have to explain everything to students with learning disabilities. They do not necessarily have a problem with general comprehension.
  • Consult with the special education specialist to obtain help in understanding the specific nature of the learning disability for each student.
  • Never assess a student's capabilities based solely on their IQ or other standardized test scores.
  • Give student with learning disabilities priority in registration for classes.
  • Allow course substitution for nonessential course requirements in their major studies.
  • A student may have documented intelligence with test scores in the average to superior range with adequate sensory and motor systems and still have a learning disability. Learning disabilities often go undiagnosed, hence teacher observation can be a major source of identification.
  • Bring to the student's attention science role models with disabilities with a similar disability to that of the student. Point out that this individual got ahead by a combination of effort and by asking for help when needed.

Teacher Presentation

  • Always ask questions in a clarifying manner, then have the students with learning disabilities describe his or her understanding of the questions.
  • Use an overhead projector with an outline of the lesson or unit of the day.
  • Ensure that students have a managable course load.
  • Provide clear photocopies of your notes and overhead transparencies, if the student benefits from such strategies.
  • Provide students with chapter outlines or study guides that cue them to key points in their readings.
  • Provide a detailed course syllabus before class begins.
  • Ask questions in a way that helps the student gain confidence. Keep oral instructions logical and concise. Reinforce them with a brief cue words.
  • Repeat or re-word complicated directions. Frequently verbalize what is being written on the chalkboard.
  • Eliminate classroom distractions such as, excessive noise, flickering lights, etc.
  • Outline class presentations on the chalkboard or on an overhead transparency.
  • Outline material to be covered during each class period unit. (At the end of class, summarize the important segments of each presentation.)Establish the clarity of understanding that the student has about class assignments.
  • Give assignments both in written and oral form.
  • Have more complex lessons recorded and available to the students with learning disabilities.
  • Have practice exercises available for lessons, in case the student has problems.
  • Have students with learning disabilities underline key words or directions on activity sheets (then review the sheets with them).
  • Have complex homework assignments due in two or three days rather than on the next day.
  • Pace instruction carefully to ensure clarity.
  • Present new and or technical vocabulary on the chalkboard or overhead.
  • Provide and teach memory associations (mnemonic strategies).
  • Support one modality of presentation by following it with instruction and then use another modality.
  • Talk distinctly and at a rate that the student with a learning disability can be follow.
  • Technical content should be presented in small incremental steps.
  • Use plenty of examples, oral or otherwise, in order to make topics more applied.
  • Use straight forward instructions with step-by-step unambiguous terms. (Preferably, presented one at a time).
  • Write legibly, use large type; do not clutter the blackboard with non-current / non-relevant information.
  • Use props to make narrative situations more vivid and clear.
  • Assist the student, if necessary, in borrowing classmates' notes.
  • Consider cross-age or peer tutoring if the student appears unable to keep up with the class pace or with complex subject matter. The more capable reader can help in summarizing the essential points of the reading or in establishing the main idea of the reading.
  • Clearly label equipment, tools, and materials. Color code them for enhanced visual recognition.
  • Consider alternate activities/exercises that can be utilized with less difficulty for the student, but has the same or similar learning objectives.
  • Provide clear photocopies of your notes and overhead transparencies.
  • For students with learning disabilities, make available cue cards or labels designating the steps of a procedure to expedite the mastering.
  • Allow extended time for responses and the preparation and delivery of reports.
  • In dealing with abstract concepts, use visual tools such as charts and graphs. Also, paraphrase and present them in specific terms, and sequence and illustrate them with concrete examples, personal experiences, or hands-on exercises.
  • To minimize student anxiety, provide an individual orientation to the laboratory and equipment and give extra practice with tasks and equipment.
  • Find areas of strength in the student's lab experiences and emphasize those as much as possible.
  • Allow the students with learning disabilities the use of computers and spell checking programs on assignments.
  • Announce readings as well as assignments well in advance.
  • Find materials paralleling the textbook, but written at a lower reading level. (Also, include activities that make the reading assignment more relevant.)
  • Introduce simulations to make abstract content more concrete.
  • Make lists of required readings available early and arrange to obtain texts on tape from Recording for the Blind or a Reading/Typing Service.
  • Offer to read written material aloud, when necessary.
  • Read aloud material that is written on the chalkboard and on the overhead transparencies.
  • Review relevant material, preview the material to be presented, present the new material then summarize the material just presented.
  • Suggest that the students use both visual and auditory senses when reading the text.
  • Rely less on textbooks. Reading for students with learning disabilities may be slow and deliberate, and comprehension may be impaired for the student , particularly when dealing with large quantities of material. Comprehension and speed usually dramatically increase with the addition of auditory input.
  • Spend more time on building background for the reading selections and creating a mental scheme for the organization of the text.
  • Encourage students to practice using technical words in exchanges among peers.
  • Choose books with a reduced number of difficult words, direct non convoluted syntax, and passages that deliver clear meaning. Also, select readings that are organized by subheads because this aids in the flow of ideas.
  • When writing materials for reading by students with learning disabilities, some of the strategies referred to in the reading section of the hearing impaired presentation will be appropriate.
  • Allow the student to use a playback device, such as tape player, computer, mp3 player, etc...

Group Interaction and Discussion

  • Assist the student, if necessary, in borrowing classmates discussion notes.
  • Encourage questions during or after class to ensure that materials are understood by students with learning disabilities.
  • Give individual conferences to guide students with learning disabilities to monitor progress and understanding of the assignment and of the course content.
  • Give plenty of reinforcement when it is evident that the student with a learning disability is trying things that are made difficult by the disability.
  • Have frequent question-and-answer sessions for students with learning disabilities.

Field Experiences

  • Allow the students with learning disabilities the use of computers and spell checking programs on field notes and reports.
  • Review and discuss with the student the steps involved in a research activity. Think about which step(s) may be difficult for the student's specific functional limitations and jointly devise accommodations for that student.
  • Use appropriate laboratory and field strategies.
  • Avoid overly complicated language in exam questions and clearly separate items when spacing them on the exam sheet. (Refer to writing for students with hearing impairments in the reading section .)
  • Consider other forms of testing (oral, hands-on demonstration, open-book etc.). Some students with learning disabilities find that large print helps their processing ability.
  • Consider the use of illustrations by the students with learning disabilities as an acceptable form of response to questions in lieu of written responses.
  • Eliminate distractions while students are taking exams.
  • For students with perceptual problems, for whom transferring answers is especially difficult, avoid answer sheets, especially computer forms. Allow them to write answers (check or circle) on the test (or try to have them dictate their responses on a tape recorder.)
  • For students who have reading difficulties, have a proctor read the test to the student.
  • For students with writing difficulties, have someone scibe the answers for them or use a tape recorder to take down the answers.
  • Gradually increase expectations as the students with learning disabilities gains confidence.
  • Grant time extensions on exams and written assignments when there are significant demands on reading and writing skills.
  • If distractions are excessive, permit the students with learning disabilities to take examinations in a separate quiet room with a proctor.
  • Provide study questions for exams that demonstrate the format along with the content of the exam.
  • Review with the student how to proofread assignments and tests.
  • Do not test material just presented or outcomes just produced, since for the students with learning disabilities, additional time is generally required to assimilate new knowledge and concepts.
  • Permit the students with learning disabilities the use of a dictionary, thesaurus, or a calculator during tests.
  • Provide computer with spell check/grammar/ cut & paste features

Organizations

Council for Exceptional Children - Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD) The Division for Learning Disabilities (DLD) is one of 17 special interest groups of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). DLD works on behalf of students with learning disabilities and the professionals who serve them to meet the needs of youth currently identified as having learning disabilities in the United States.

Council for Learning Disabilities (CLD) Professionals representing diverse disciplines who are committed to the development of individuals with learning disabilities. Information on conferences, advocacy, research and teaching tips.

International Dyslexia Association General information, branch services, membership, conferences and seminars, bookstore and bulletin boards.

Learning Disability Association of America The Learning Disabilities Association of America is a national, non-profit organization with the purpose of advancing the education and general welfare of children and adults of normal or potentially normal intelligence who manifest handicaps of a perceptual, conceptual, or coordinative nature.

The National Center for Learning Disabilities NCLD is a national non-profit organization committed to improving the lives of those affected by learning disabilities. NCLD provides, free of charge, the latest information on learning disabilities and resources available in communities nationwide to parents, professionals and adults with learning disabilities.

Learning Disability Resources

Learning Disability Online This site is about Learning Disabilities from the Research and Training Division of the Learning Disabilities Center. Questions and comments are appreciated. Information about, Research Articles, Training Activities, A List of Products, and Consumer Led Empowerment Training are included.

The Resources for Learning Disabilities This site contains a variety of resources for learning disabilities.

Assistive Software for Learning Disabilities

Creature Antics by Laureate Learning Systems Inc . Designed for those with severe difficulties, this program has cast of animated characters helping users to begin learning about cause and effect and turn taking. Similar programs included Creature Capers, Creature Cartoons, Creature Chorus, Creature features, Creature magic.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Laureate Learning Systems, Inc. Phone: +1-802-655-4755 Fax: +1-802-655-4757 E-mail: [email protected]

Early Learning I, II, III by Marblesoft This program is designed to let the student have fun learning while requite a minimum amount of time from the teacher or parent. Early Learning I includes 4 activities that teach pre-reading skills, Early Learning II includes 4 activities that teach addition and number sequencing. Early Learning III includes 3 activities that teach subtraction and number comparison.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Marblesoft USA E-mail: [email protected]

Following Directions: Left and Right by Laureate Learning Systems Inc. Designed to help those with disabilities and impairments, this program offers 10 activities to help student learn to follow directions and discriminate between left and right, accessible through keyboard, touch screen or single switch.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Laureate Learning Systems Inc. Phone: +1-802-655-4755 Fax: +1-802-655-4757 E-mail: [email protected]

Micro-LADs: MicroComputers Language Assessment and Development System by Laureate Learning Systems Inc. Designed to train 46 basic syntactic structures, this is aimed at the special needs of those with disabilities and impairments, accessible with keyboard, touch screen, single switch or mouse.

Monkeys jumping on the bed by Soft Touch Software This program combines a favorite preschool song with number and color activities. Students with cognitive delays respond to upbeat music and interesting sounds. Large graphics help learners focus on the action.

Availability: Commercial product. Contact: Soft Touch Software USA Phone: +1-877-763-8868 Fax: +1-661-396-8760 E-mail: [email protected]

Teach Me to Talk by Soft Touch Software Many students have difficulties learning to speak. This program features several strategies where children learn language through rhyme, rhythm, and repetition.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Soft Touch Software USA Phone: +1-877-763-8868 Fax: +1-661-396-8760 E-mail: [email protected]

Co: Writer 4000 by Don Johnston Inc. Co: Writer is a writing assistant with intelligent word prediction, a productivity tool for those who struggle with writing due to injury, physical limitation, language delay or learning disability. Co: Writer is suitable for all vocabulary levels. And the speech output gives auditory feedback to those who need to hear their words. Co: Writer is a whole-language-writing tool for novel communication and for student with language deficiencies or learning disabilities.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Don Johnston Inc USA Phone: +1-847-526-2682 Fax: +1-847-526-4177 E-mail: [email protected]

Write: OutLoud by Don Johnston Inc. Write: OutLoud is a flexible and user-friendly talking word processor that offers multisensory learning and positive reinforcement for writers of all ages and ability levels. Write: OutLoud uses CD-quality audio to repeat words, letters and sentences as students type. The auditory feedback is great for students with learning disabilities because they can hear if words are omitted or substituted. Write: OutLoud is a suitable creature writing program for all ages and especially for students with learning disabilities.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Don Johnston Inc. USA Phone: +1-847-526-2682 Fax: +1-847-526-4177 E-mail: [email protected]

Dyna Vox Mac by Dyna Vox Systems Inc. Dyna Vox Mac software helps students with disabilities break through the barriers to learn and succeed in the classroom. Dyna Vox software can be used to create dynamically linked communication pages for those with special speech, language and learning needs. Dyna Vox Mac acts as a speech/language therapy tool and also helps turn a Macintosh into an augmentative communication device for the speech disabled.

Availability: Commercial product Contact: Dyna Vox Systems Inc. Phone: +1-888-697-7332 E-mail: [email protected]

Fast Forword A software for very young children to build the critical early learning skills. It is recommended as an appropriate tool for children with Autism.

Address: Scientific Learning, 300 Frank H. Ogawa Plaza, Suite 500, Oakland CA 94612-2040 Phone: 1-888-665-9707 Fax: 510-444-3580 E-mail: [email protected] www.fastforword.com

Access to Math An on screen talking math worksheet that guides a student to math solutions. Students with learning disabilities can learn math at their own pace with this program.

Learning Disorders in Children

Many children may struggle in school with some topics or skills from time to time. When children try hard and still struggle with a specific set of skills over time, it could be a sign of a learning disorder. Having a learning disorder means that a child has difficulty in one or more areas of learning, even when overall intelligence or motivation is not affected.

Teacher working with student

Some of the symptoms of learning disorders are

  • Difficulty telling right from left
  • Reversing letters, words, or numbers, after first or second grade
  • Difficulties recognizing patterns or sorting items by size or shape
  • Difficulty understanding and following instructions or staying organized
  • Difficulty remembering what was just said or what was just read
  • Lacking coordination when moving around
  • Difficulty doing tasks with the hands, like writing, cutting, or drawing
  • Difficulty understanding the concept of time

Examples of learning disorders include

  • Dyslexia – difficulty with reading
  • Dyscalculia – difficulty with math
  • Dysgraphia – difficulty with writing

Children with learning disorders may feel frustrated that they cannot master a subject despite trying hard, and may act out, act helpless, or withdraw. Learning disorders can also be present with emotional or behavioral disorders, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD ), or anxiety . The combination of problems can make it particularly hard for a child to succeed in school. Properly diagnosing each disorder is crucial, so that the child can get the right kind of help for each.

Treatment for learning disorders

Children with learning disorders often need extra help and instruction that are specialized for them. Having a learning disorder can qualify a child for special education services in school. Schools usually do their own testing for learning disorders to see if a child needs intervention. An evaluation by a healthcare professional is needed if there are other concerns about the child’s behavior or emotions. Parents, healthcare providers, and the school can work together to find the right referrals and treatment.

Learn more about LD

Helping children with learning and attention issues

Why Family Health History is Important if Your Child has Attention and Learning Problems

What every parent should know…

Children with specific learning disabilities are eligible for special education services or accommodations at school under the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA) and an anti-discrimination law known as Section 504. The U.S. Department of Education issued a ‘Dear Colleague’ letter providing clarification to both parents and practitioners about ensuring a high-quality education for children with specific learning disabilities, including children with dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia.

Learn more about education services and accommodations

Read the guidelines from the U.S. Department of Justice Disability Rights Section about testing accommodations for individuals with disabilities. [263 KB / 9 pages]

Get help from your state’s Parent Training and Information Center

The role of healthcare providers

Healthcare providers can play an important part in collaborating with schools to help a child with learning disorders or other disabilities get the special services they need. The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has created a report that describes the roles that healthcare providers can have in helping children with disabilities , including learning disorders:

  • Identifying children in need of early intervention or special education services.
  • Sharing relevant information with early intervention or school personnel.
  • Meeting with early intervention or school personnel and parents or guardians.
  • Using early intervention or school information in medical diagnostic or treatment plans.
  • Working within an early intervention, school, or school-based health clinic.
  • Working at an administrative level to improve school functioning around children with special needs.

Exit Notification / Disclaimer Policy

  • The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.
  • Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by CDC or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.
  • You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.
  • CDC is not responsible for Section 508 compliance (accessibility) on other federal or private website.

Learning Disabilities Association of America

Helping Your Child Manage Difficult or Long-Term Assignments

Ffrustrated student doing difficult homework assignment

Some children are overwhelmed by multi-step projects or confusing assignments. Their first reaction is to ask for help or put the assignment off for another time. A number of strategies can help your child handle these types of assignments:

  • Underlining. Use magic markers to highlight important parts of directions.
  • Read all of the headings, table of contents, chapter questions and bolded words in reading assignments. Highlight or write them down if that helps. Highlight directions on any worksheet. If it is a math sheet, highlight symbols and signs.
  • Make lists of important words or concepts.
  • Tell yourself brief summaries into a tape recorder. Play them back and listen carefully. Do they make sense?

We suggest you review your child’s assignments to determine if there are any long-term projects waiting to be completed. Help your child set up a schedule to complete the assignment in a step-by-step fashion. Children do not intuitively know how to simplify a larger task into manageable steps. To help them with this process, it is useful to focus their attention on the main feature of the task (e.g., the outline, headings, words in italics or bold, the questions at the end or the beginning of the work). Based on just these general features of complex tasks, ask your child to describe the task or reading material. This strategy will help children reduce large amounts of information to topics, questions or categories.

There are other ways to reduce information or to make directions easier to understand. For example, children can use magic markers to not only highlight directions but key points as well. Once your child can identify the important points, he or she can use a different colored marker to mark the supporting points. This strategy can also be used in listening to teachers’ lectures. If note paper were divided into three columns, students could take notes on the main point in column one, supporting points in column two and questions or thoughts in column three.

Finally, there are ways to reduce the amount of information that must be organized when telling or writing stories. We know that many children will write better stories if they have first drawn small pictures of the story events. One picture can be drawn in each of the squares created by folding a piece of paper into six to twelve parts.

When children perceive a homework assignment as too difficult it becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. The assignment immediately becomes even more difficult because your child perceives it as such. If your child gives up without reasonable effort or requesting help, he or she will feel increasingly more helpless and hopeless towards school. Teach your child to question him or herself: “What do I know?”, “What can I do?” and “Who can I ask for help?” These questions will help your child develop the academic self-confidence and assertive skills necessary to successfully complete difficult or long-term assignments.

Authors:Dr. Sam Goldstein and Dr. Sydney Zentall

This column is excerpted and condensed from, Seven Steps to Homework Success: A Family Guide for Solving Common Homework Problems by Sydney S. Zentall, Ph.D. and Sam Goldstein, Ph.D. (1999, Specialty Press, Inc.), available for purchase by following this link.

learning difficulties assignment

Close up on students' hands as they take a written test

Accommodations for Students with LD

The National Center for Learning Disabilities presents examples of accommodations that allow students with learning disabilities to show what they know without giving them an unfair advantage. Accommodations are divided into the following categories: how information is presented to the student, how the student can respond, timing of tests and lessons, the learning environment, and test scheduling.

What are accommodations?

Accommodations are alterations in the way tasks are presented that allow children with learning disabilities to complete the same assignments as other students. Accommodations do not alter the content of assignments, give students an unfair advantage or in the case of assessments, change what a test measures. They do make it possible for students with LD to show what they know without being impeded by their disability.

How does a child receive accommodations?

Once a child has been formally identified with a learning disability, the child or parent may request accommodations for that child’s specific needs. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act states that a child’s IEP (Individualized Education Program) team — which both parent and child are a part of — must decide which accommodations are appropriate for him or her. Any appropriate accommodations should be written into a student’s IEP.

Here are some examples of possible accommodations for an IEP team to consider, broken into six categories:

  • Provide on audio tape
  • Provide in large print
  • Reduce number of items per page or line
  • Provide a designated reader
  • Present instructions orally
  • Allow for verbal responses
  • Allow for answers to be dictated to a scribe
  • Allow the use of a tape recorder to capture responses
  • Permit responses to be given via computer
  • Permit answers to be recorded directly into test booklet
  • Allow frequent breaks
  • Extend allotted time for a test
  • Provide preferential seating
  • Provide special lighting or acoustics
  • Provide a space with minimal distractions
  • Administer a test in small group setting
  • Administer a test in private room or alternative test site
  • Administer a test in several timed sessions or over several days
  • Allow subtests to be taken in a different order
  • Administer a test at a specific time of day
  • Provide special test preparation
  • Provide on-task/focusing prompts
  • Provide any reasonable accommodation that a student needs that does not fit under the existing categories

Should accommodations have an impact on how assignments are graded?

School assignments and tests completed with accommodations should be graded the same way as those completed without accommodations. After all, accommodations are meant to “level the playing field,” provide equal and ready access to the task at hand, and not meant to provide an undue advantage to the user.

What if accommodations don’t seem to be helping?

Selecting and monitoring the effectiveness of accommodations should be an ongoing process, and changes (with involvement of students, parents and educators) should be made as often as needed. The key is to be sure that chosen accommodations address students’ specific areas of need and facilitate the demonstration of skill and knowledge.

To find specific technology for particular accommodations, go to Tech Matrix (opens in a new window) . Choose a subject area and /or a learning support need. The matrix will generate a list of products to consider.

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Copyright 2006 by National Center for Learning Disabilities, Inc. All rights reserved. Used with permission.

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3 Types of learning difficulties

3 Types of learning difficulties and how to help

A learning difficulty is a condition that can cause an individual to experience problems in a traditional classroom learning context. There are different types of learning difficulties that may interfere with literacy skills development and math. They can also affect memory, ability to focus and organizational skills. A child or adult with a learning difficulty may require additional time to complete assignments at school and can often benefit from strategy instruction and classroom accommodations, such as material delivered in special fonts  or the ability to use a computer to take notes.

No two individuals with a learning difficulty are exactly alike and conditions, such as dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia, exist on a wide-spectrum. Note, it’s not uncommon for learning difficulties and motor-skills difficulties to co-present. Dyspraxia is a motor-skills difficulty that can affect a learner’s ability to write by hand, and may impact planning skills as well. The same is true when it comes to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

What's in a name?

Learning difficulties are sometimes referred to as learning disabilities . You may also encounter the terms learning differences or specific learning differences . The differences between these labels can seem subtle but may have implications for how an individual with a learning difficulty views him or herself. The word disability implies a person is less able than his or her peers. It can also suggest they are in a permanent state of disadvantage and cause them to lose agency.

On the other hand, a learning difference takes the opposite approach in underscoring that a person simply learns in a different way from others. They are not disabled, it’s just that their brains work differently. The term l earning difficulty falls somewhere in-between, describing the added challenges an individual might face in a typical school environment, but also suggesting that these challenges are difficulties that can be overcome.

1. Dyslexia

Dyslexia is one of the most common learning difficulties  - also known as learning disabilities, in the US. Dyslexia often affects the way people break words down into their component parts.

This has consequences for decoding in reading and can also cause spelling and writing difficulties. Because reading and writing are central to most school curriculums, children with undiagnosed dyslexia can quickly fall behind their peers as they experience problems with note-taking, reading, homework, writing assignments and assessments.

Dyslexia is not associated with lower intelligence, but language difficulties can cause children to believe they are less intelligent than their peers and result in low-confidence and a poor self-image.

Some common signs of dyslexia include problems reading out loud, inconsistent spelling – they may be able to spell a word one day and not the next - losing one’s place on a page, a poor grasp of phonics, letter reversals, halted writing due to trouble with spelling, and a vocabulary that’s more limited in scope. Learn about the signs of dyslexia , strategies for students with dyslexia , and how to help adults with dyslexia in these articles.

2. Dysgraphia

Children who struggle with dysgraphia have a hard time with writing and may produce text that is illegible. Writing can be labored, take a long time to complete and cause frustration and stress. The spatial orientation and planning aspects of writing can be particularly challenging for people with dysgraphia. This includes planning the white spaces between letters and words, writing in a straight line and/or producing lines of text that are vertically spaced.

Staying in the margins, using punctuation and choosing between capital and lowercase letters may also be hard. Letter formation itself might be problematic and typing on the computer is often a recommended accommodation at school.

Children with dysgraphia may be eager to avoid handwriting, particularly in front of their peers. They may feel embarrassed when writing on the board, produce less text than is necessary for written assignments, and can generally perform poorly on assessments that require written answers. Learn more about the signs of dysgraphia or read our article on the differences between dyslexia and dysgraphia .

3. Dyscalculia

As opposed to dyslexia and dysgraphia which are both language based learning difficulties, dyscalculia has to do with processing numbers. Children with dyscalculia can have trouble performing simple arithmetic. They may not know how to approach a math problem. Sometimes the spatial aspect of balancing equations is tricky, as well as grouping numbers and performing the right order of operations.

Even counting can be a struggle and it is often recommended that individuals with dyscalculia be allowed to use a calculator to support their learning.

When dyslexia and dyscalculia are present together, reading word problems is made more difficult, and number reversals may be frequent. This can introduce errors into the work and cause a student to get the wrong answer. Dysgraphia and dyscalculia together mean a child often finds showing math work in long form particularly difficult to complete.

Writing math symbols may be near impossible, as can be certain spatial or graph oriented aspects of math/maths. Lastly, in dyspraxia and dyscalculia, getting steps in the right order can be a problem. Learn more in our post on math difficulties in the classroom.

Dyslexia, dyscalculia, dysgraphia, dyspraxia are all learning disabilities

Attention difficulties can also affect learning

Attention deficit disorder (ADD) and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) used to be grouped under the umbrella term of ADD. However, in recent years it is ADHD that has become the general label for attention difficulties in the US, and ADD without hyperactivity is referred to as a primarily inattentive presentation of ADHD. Note ADD is still used in the UK. Attention difficulties are often characterized by difficulties maintaining focus over extended periods.

Children with ADHD can have poor impulse control, be fidgety, and produce messy written work. They are often easier to pick out in a classroom than a student who has ADD (also referred to as inattentive ADHD), as in the case of the latter a learner may not call any attention to themselves. In fact, a learner with ADD may appear to be paying attention and thus it can go unnoticed until it results in incomplete assignments and poor performance on tests. In certain cases a child may even be told they are not trying hard enough.

Reading comprehension, staying on task, following directions, completing extended projects, and organization can all be problematic. Learn more in these articles on ADD , teaching strategies for students with ADHD , ADHD reading problems and ADD vs. ADHD .

Is dyspraxia a learning difficulty?

While not grouped under the learning difficulties/ learning disabilities header, dyspraxia is a motor skills difficulty that can also affect academic success. That’s because it affects the planning and coordination of muscles, including those of the hand.

As gripping the pen or pencil in written language production is painful, writing may contain more spelling errors and less text as a result. In cases of verbal dyspraxia/ apraxia of speech, the muscles of the face, mouth and throat are affected, limiting spoken language production.

People with dyspraxia may also walk with a funny gait, have trouble using a paintbrush in art class, and experience difficulties playing a musical instrument, and/or performing coordinated movements in sports. They can be clumsy and might also struggle with organization and tasks that involve planning. Learn more in our articles helping students who have dyspraxia , and dyspraxia in adults .

Slow processing, apraxia and expressive and receptive language disorders

In addition, some students may present with processing issues. Slow processing can mean a child requires more time to complete school assignments and additional exposures are needed to bring information into working memory.

Expressive and receptive language disorder and apraxia of speech are other language based difficulties that cause issues with comprehension and spoken language production. Learn more in about processing speed , expressive receptive language disorders , and  dyspraxia vs. apraxia of speech

Screening and testing for difficulties/ disabilities

When a learning difficulty is suspected, it’s typically recommended that an individual be screened. This is done using a short and sometimes online assessment tool that can indicate whether or not more testing is recommended. If dyslexia, dysgraphia or dyscalculia are suspected, comprehensive testing can be performed by an educational psychologist, or in some cases a speech and language therapist.

Additional learning disabilities that can cause problems in reading and general language processing

Accommodations and technology

It’s often recommended that individuals who struggle with specific learning and motor skills difficulties be allowed to use a computer to complete school work. One reason for this is typing takes care of many of the presentation aspects of writing, from letter formation to spacing and neatness.

For individuals who struggle with language-based difficulties, learning to touch-type also helps to encode a word as a series of muscle movements in the fingers, which supports spelling skills. Additionally, writing on a device opens up access to auto-complete, predictive text, and spell-checkers. It is also easier and less painful for students with dysgraphia and dyspraxia to type vs. write by hand.

Touch-type Read and Spell (TTRS)

However, learning to type may not be as easy for students with learning difficulties as it is for their peers. Typing programs that emphasize speed over accuracy put pressure on students to perform in timed lessons. They also may not offer accessible displays, which can lead to more frustration and lower confidence.

Touch-type Read and Spell (TTRS) was developed to help individuals with learning difficulties master typing so they can access technology and avoid handwriting at work or at school. At the same time, it was designed to help strengthen literacy skills. The program takes a dyslexia-friendly Orton-Gillingham based approach which is multi-sensory.

Students hear the words, see them on screen and type them out, which helps to reinforce learning in memory. Lessons are broken down into bite-sized modules so they can be repeated as many times as is necessary and every student can learn at his or her own pace. Additionally, the words presented follow a program of English phonics so students enhance decoding, sight reading and spelling skills as they progress.

TTRS is accuracy based, which means students must correct mistakes in order to move on. It’s a learning program which builds confidence gradually as learners repeat modules and improve their skills.

Learning typing not only makes it easier for individuals with learning difficulties to access other tools and online programs, but it builds confidence and self-esteem too!

Having to write by hand made it hard for my son to get his thoughts down on paper, so we considered typing as an option. We started using Touch-type Read and Spell when my son was in Year 6 at Primary School. I used to have to help him a lot, but with the typing, he does his school work more independently, and I noticed that his spelling has improved.

Claire, Parent of a child with dyslexia and dyspraxia

learning difficulties assignment

For learners who struggle with dyslexia

TTRS is a program designed to get children and adults with dyslexia touch-typing, with additional support for reading and spelling.

Meredith Cicerchia

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Testimonials and reviews

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Maria, Adult learner

Maria used to type with two-fingers, slowly and often inaccurately. Now she types faster, with fewer errors, more competently and professionally. This has boosted her confidence in the workplace tremendously. She now recognises individual sounds in words much better, due to the auditory aspect of the multi-sensory approach in TTRS. Her vocabulary has noticeably improved and she has found she can explain things and express herself more clearly in English after completing the course.

Read more of Maria’s story

learning difficulties assignment

Bolton College, Adult Education Program

At Bolton College we offer the TTRS course to self-study adult learners who have returned to education to improve their spelling, increase their familiarity with technology, and use word processors. We find that for many adult learners in our program, the conventional ‘look-cover-spell-check’ approach they were taught at school had a detrimental effect on their learning. In contrast, Touch-type Read and Spell provides a rewarding and positive experience for them when it comes to spelling.

Read more of Bolton College’s story

TTRS has a solution for you

An award-winning, multi-sensory course that teaches typing, reading and spelling

learning difficulties assignment

How does TTRS work?

Developed in line with language and education research

Teaches typing using a multi-sensory approach

The course is modular in design and easy to navigate

Includes school and personal interest subjects

Positive feedback and positive reinforcement

Reporting features help you monitor usage and progress

More realated articles from Read and Spell:

Teaching math facts

Teaching math facts

Math facts are basic calculations that children can learn in order to help them do arithmetic more quickly. By committing math facts to memory, they can be recalled fluently so attention is freed for working on higher order math functions.

Drills are often the first thing that comes to mind, but the goal for parents and teachers is to help children automatize these facts in as painless of a way as possible - even better if it can be fun!

Auditory processing disorder in children

Recognizing an auditory processing disorder in children

An auditory processing disorder can cause difficulties with understanding in listening.

Signs your child is dyslexic

Signs your child is dyslexic

As a parent of a daughter with dyslexia looking back over six years since her diagnosis, I can remember my daughter’s difficulty with reading words and spelling and how that got in the way of her being able to enjoy learning at school. Let me tell you about the signs that indicated that our child was dyslexic, how I was able to get her through the school system, and how she learned to thrive.

Visual processing disorder and dyslexia

Visual processing disorder and dyslexia

Visual processing disorders can interrupt an individual’s ability to understand and navigate written symbols, which may cause problems with math/maths and learning to read at school. They’re not due to vision problems or any issues with the eyes, but rather with how the brain interprets visual information.

On the other hand, dyslexia is a separate condition that often makes it challenging to break spoken language down into its component parts. This, in turn, complicates reading and spelling. While the two conditions can look similar, they have different causes and thus children and adults who have one and not the other will require a different set of strategies and accommodations.

You may also encounter the term visual dyslexia , which can describe individuals who have dyslexia but are prone to reversing or transposing letters, struggle with locating words on the page, and have a tendency to skip over words.

Understanding reluctant readers and how to support them

Understanding reluctant readers and how to support them

Teachers and parents may be familiar with the term “reluctant reader.” It refers to a child or young-adult who isn’t engaged when it comes to reading. These are the kids who tend to put a book down as soon as it’s given to them or pass it back and forth between their hands without ever opening to a page.

When forced to read, reluctant readers often appear demotivated and disinterested. You may see them looking out the window or staring blankly down, as though they are unable to focus on the text in front of them.

For some children reluctance to read is due to competing interests such as sports, arts, or another extracurricular activity. For others, it’s because reading is difficult and they associate it with frustration and strain.

Test for dyslexia

How do they test for dyslexia?

Dyslexia is a language based specific learning difference that can affect reading, writing and spelling skills. There are different approaches to testing, including online screening forms – such as the Lexercise or Beating Dyslexia tests – but these measures are only meant to provide guidance as to whether or not a more in-depth assessment is needed. Sometimes a teaching assessment will suffice, but a comprehensive evaluation of dyslexia is typically undertaken by a speech and language/pathologist, educational psychologist or trained expert and is diagnostic in nature to provide a clearer picture of how the dyslexia affects an individual’s ability to learn.

Most evaluations test phonemic awareness, ability to rapidly name objects and letters, decoding skills, fluency in reading, comprehension skills, and writing and spelling ability . Testing can sometimes extend to oral language skills, intelligence and checks for visual and hearing impairment, both of which can have a severe impact on language development. In certain cases a child may be referred for more testing, particularly if additional learning difficulties such as dysgraphia or ADHD are suspected.

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  • Indian J Psychiatry
  • v.61(Suppl 2); 2019 Jan

Clinical Practice Guidelines on Assessment and Management of Specific Learning Disorders

Henal rakesh shah.

Department of Psychiatry, T.N.M.C and B.Y.L Nair Hospital, Mumbai, Maharastra, India

John Kommu Vijay Sagar

1 Department of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, NIMHANS, Bengaluru, Karanadaka, India

Mansi Pradeep Somaiya

Jitendra kumar nagpal.

2 Consultant Psychiatrist, Institute of Mental Health and Life Skills Promotion, Moolchand Medcity, New Delhi, India

INTRODUCTION

Specific learning disorder (SLD) is one of the most common neurodevelopmental disorders affecting 3%–10% of children. Although many definitions have been proposed, there is no common consensus on the diagnostic criteria and definition of SLD.

In the 1960s, LD emerged as a category as mentioned by Samuel Kirk. He defined dyslexia as a kind of “learning disability” and defined LD as “an unexpected difficulty in learning one or more of one instrumental school abilities.” As per Kirk, LD is a process issue which can affect language and academic performance of people of all ages which is caused by emotional disturbance, behavioral disturbance or cerebral dysfunction.[ 1 ] Bateman through his landmark observation, mentioned those with learning disorders have a significant discrepancy between their estimated intellectual potential and actual level of performance with or without neurological dysfunction which is not secondary to mental retardation, educational or cultural deprivation, severe emotional disturbance, or sensory loss.[ 2 ]

As curiosity and awareness progressed, various definitions have been proposed across the world. The two worldwide international diagnostic classifications-International Classification of Diseases (ICD 10) and Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) (5 th Edition).[ 3 , 4 ] The difference between the two is outlined in Table 1 .

The differences in criteria of diagnosis of specific learning disorder between Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorder 5 and International Classification of Diseases 10

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The ICD 10 refers to Specific developmental disorders of scholastic skills:

  • Conceptually they are disorders of disturbance in the normal pattern of skill acquisition
  • Not simply a consequence of lack of neither opportunity to learn nor any acquired brain trauma or disease
  • Abnormalities in cognitive processing that derive from biological dysfunction
  • Clinically significant degree of impairment in specified scholastic skill. Severity can be judged by scholastic terms or developmental precursors (scholastic difficulties were preceded by developmental delays or deviance, most often in speech or language in preschool years) or qualitative abnormalities
  • Response– scholastic difficulties do not rapidly and readily remit with increased help at home/school
  • Impairment must be specific– not solely explained by mental retardation/lesser impairments general intelligence
  • Impairment must be developmental– early years of schooling and not acquired later in the educational process.

The impairments are characterized by

  • Child's reading performance should be significantly below the level expected based on age, general intelligence and school placement. Performance is best assessed by means of an individually administered standardized test of reading accuracy and reading comprehension
  • Early stages:Difficulty in reciting the alphabets, in giving the correct names of letters, in giving the simple rhymes for words and in analyzing or categorizing (despite normal auditory acuity)
  • Later stages: Errors in oral reading skills
  • Omissions, substitutions, distortions, or additions or words or parts of words
  • Slow reading rate
  • False starts, long hesitations or “loss of place” in text and inaccurate phrasing
  • Reversals of words in sentences or of letters within words.
  • Inability to recall facts read
  • Inability to draw conclusions or inferences from material read
  • Use of general knowledge as background information rather than of information from a story to answer questions about a story read.
  • Child's spelling performance should be significantly below the level expected based on age, general intelligence and school placement
  • Performance is best assessed by means of an individually administered standardized test of spelling.
  • Child's arithmetical performance should be significantly below the level expected on the basis of age, general intelligence and school placement. Performance is best assessed by means of an individually administered standardized test of arithmetic
  • Failure to understand the concepts underlying arithmetical operations
  • Lack of understanding of mathematical terms or signs
  • Failure to recognize numerical symbols
  • Difficulty in understanding which numbers are relevant to the arithmetical manipulations
  • Difficulty in properly aligning numbers or in understanding which numbers are relevant arithmetic/inserting decimal points/symbols during calculations; poor spatial organization of arithmetical calculations; and inability to learn multiplication tables satisfactorily.
  • Mixed disorder of scholastic skills: Characterized ill-defined/inadequately conceptualised but necessary residual category of disorders in which both arithmetical and reading or spelling skills are significantly impaired but in which the disorder is not solely explicable in terms of general mental retardation or inadequate schooling
  • Other developmental disorders of scholastic skills: Developmental expressive writing disorder
  • Developmental disorder of scholastic skills: Unspecified disorders in which significant disability of learning that cannot be solely accounted for by mental retardation, visual acuity, or inadequate schooling
  • Includes: Knowledge acquisition disability NOS; LD NOS; learning disorder NOS.

DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS 5 TH EDITION

Term used “SLD”

  • Slow/inaccurate/effortful reading
  • Difficulty understanding what has been read
  • Difficulty in spelling
  • Difficulty in written expression
  • Difficulty in mastering number sense, number facts, calculations
  • Difficulty with Math reasoning.

The affected academic skills are substantially and quantifiably below those expected for the individual's chronological age (at least 1.5 standard deviation below the population mean for age). Significant interference with academic or occupational performance or with activities of daily living is overserved. LD is confirmed by means of standardized achievement measures and comprehensive clinical assessment. Learning difficulties start at school years. However, they may not manifest till demands in academics exceed individual capacities.

Note: Diagnostic criteria to be met using

  • School reports
  • Psycho educational reports.

Mention the academic domains and sub skills impairment:

With impairment in reading:

  • Word reading accuracy
  • Reading rate accuracy/fluency
  • Reading accuracy.

With impairment in written expression:

  • Spelling accuracy
  • Grammar and punctuation accuracy
  • Clarity or organization of written expression.

With impairment in mathematics:

  • Number sense
  • Memorization of arithmetic facts
  • Accurate or fluent calculation
  • Accurate Math reasoning.

Specify current severity:

  • Mild: some difficulties in one or two academic domains; mild enough and can be compensated or functions well with accommodations/support service especially during school years
  • Moderate: Marked difficulties one or more academic skills; unlikely to become proficient without intensive teaching during school years, accommodations/supportive services at school/home to complete activities accurately
  • Severe: Severe difficulties, several academic skills; unlikely to become proficient without ongoing intensive teaching for most of the school years, despite accommodations/supportive services at school/home may not complete activities accurately.

THE DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS 5 TH EDITION CHANGES

DSM 5 criteria for learning disorderare an overarching category and follow a spectral approach. Twin and family studies revealed significant genetic and environmental overlap amongst – reading, math and written expression disorders. Hence, the “Lumping approach” is followed than the “Splitting approach”. It reduces the challenges associated with defining the subtype of LD. For e.g., Test scores differ across academic domains/tests; with some falling just below clinical threshold.

  • Intelligence quotient (IQ) achievement gap is no longer mentioned
  • Intellectual assessment will be required only in cases where intellectual disability is suspected
  • The focus is on early access to intervention and less on assessment for diagnosis and for this psychoeducation of parents and consultation with parents and teachers required
  • Inclusion of effect of Intervention and symptom persistence is yet another change with have practical challenges.

INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES 11

  • The potential changes in ICD 11 include a change in the terminology to “Developmental learning disorder”. This includes– with impairment in reading, written expression, mathematics and with other impairment of learning. Conceptually, the criterion continues to follow the discrepancy in achievement according to the chronological age and level of intellectual functioning.

Prevalence and comorbidity

As per the Sahoo et al. , 2015, prevalence of learning disorder ranges from 2% to 10%.[ 5 ] The prevalence of learning disorders in India is 5%–17% of the children.[ 6 ] Male to female ratio for learning disorder is 2.3:1. There is high comorbidity as depicted in Table 2 and has impact on the presentation and intervention of the disorder [ Table 3 ].

Comorbidity with specific learning disorder

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Comorbidity with specific learning disorder and the impact

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Assessment of children includes a detailed clinical evaluation followed by standard psychometric assessments of child's cognitive abilities and academic skills.

Clinical evaluation

Children with SLD are either brought by their parents as self-referred or by referral from the school. Children with learning difficulties are often labelled as “lazy” or “stupid” or as being “trouble makers “if they have comorbid behavioral symptoms. They are often compared with others who perform well in academics and face punitive experiences in the home as well as school contexts. The clinical presentation is quite variable with some children presenting primarily with complaints of poor academic performance whereas others can present with symptoms secondary to the poor academic performance which may include school refusal, oppositional behavior, aggression, poor motivation for studies, low self-esteem, sadness of mood, crying spells, changes in sleep and appetite, excessive engagement in extracurricular activities, somatic complaints (pain symptoms, fatigue), dissociative symptoms (pseudo seizures, dissociative sensory loss, dissociative amnesia etc.).

Academic difficulties include writing slowly, not completing classwork and homework, poor handwriting, omission of long answer questions, inability to completewriting in time, spelling mistakes, reading slowly, reading word by word, replacing difficult words with words of similar pronunciation, reading without punctuation, mistakes while doing arithmetic etc.

Prior to psychological testing, the psychiatrist should obtain a detailed history from parents and child followed by examination of the child. The clinical evaluation should be structured to include the components listed in Table 4 .

Outline for clinical evaluation

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Psychometric testing

Psychometric testing helps in confirmation of diagnosis and in planning the intervention. The psychometric testing usually includes testing for cognitive abilities and testing for academic abilities. Assessment of the child's level of Intelligence by measuring IQ can be done using Standardized IQ tests. The tests that can be used include Binet–Kamat Test, Malin's Intelligence Scale for Indian Children (MISIC), Wechsler's Intelligence Scale for Children-4 th Edition etc. These have differing advantages (refer to table in article on Intellectual Disabilities) MISIC will provide Performance IQ, Verbal subscale IQ and Full-scale IQ. In children with SLD, there is a discrepancy between verbal and performance IQs with the performance IQ usually being higher. Another pattern named “ACID-profile” has been described where children may score low on subtests of Arithmetic, Coding, Information and Digit-span. WISC IV often reveals weaknesses in verbal comprehension, working memory, and processing speed.[ 14 ]

After assessment of IQ, tests to evaluate academic abilities need to be administered. There are several tests as depicted in Table 5 , whichare useful in the evaluation of academic abilities. These include NIMHANS Index for SLD, Wide Range Achievement Test, Test of written language-4, Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Woodcock-Johnson III/IV Tests of achievements (WJ-III), Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Peabody Individual Achievement Test-Revised, Aston Index Battery.

Various tests of achievement

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INDIAN TESTS

  • NIMHANS Index for SLD is the most commonly used battery in the Indian context. Reliability and validity of this tool has been established.[ 15 ] It includes the tests in two levels. Level I is for 5–7 years age group and Level II for 8–12 years. The tests in

Tests in Level I are:

  • Visuo-motor skills (copying of three geometrical figures)
  • Writing of capital letters
  • Writing of small letters
  • Writing of an alphabet preceding a specified alphabet
  • Writing of an alphabet succeeding the specified alphabet
  • Writing of numbers serially
  • Writing of numbers preceding a specified number
  • Writing of numbers succeeding a specified number
  • Color cancellation test
  • Visual discrimination
  • Visual memory
  • Auditory discrimination
  • Auditory memory
  • Speech/language (both receptive and expressive).

The tests in Level II are:

  • Number cancellation
  • Reading of English passages
  • Spelling of English words (including Schonell's 15 words list)
  • Reading comprehension of English passages
  • Arithmetic subtest
  • Bender Gestalt test for visuo-spatial abilities.

Most of the definitions of SLD whether exclusionary or inclusionary refer to terms such as adequate intelligence, appropriate instruction and socio-cultural factors which are difficult to standardize in a pluralistic society as that of India. Formulating indigenous assessment tools for processing deficits, intelligence testing and proficiency in reading, writing and mathematics; in the several hundred languages spoken in India will be a gigantic task. And perhaps we will never be able to achieve the same. These complex issues are further compounded by a near total lack of awareness of teachers, differences in age of school enrolment, pre-literacy, quality of teaching in schools, and learning environment and support at home.[ 16 , 17 ]

  • iBall is a test under construction at National Brain Research Centre (NBRC) with support from Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. It is to be available early 2019 and is in multiple languages of India
  • Curriculum–based assessments can also be used to assess the academic skills in children. These tests as the name suggests are based on the child's curriculum and therefore not as wide and comprehensive as other tests of achievement. Grade Level Assessment Device (GLAD) for children with learning problems in schools has been developed by the National Institute for Empowerment of persons with Intellectual Disability.[ 18 ] GLAD can be used from the age of 6 years for grades I to IV. It is available in English, Hindi and includes mathematics. Another “Curriculum Based Test for Educational Evaluation of Learning Disability” is authored by Ms. Rukhshana Sholapurwala.[ 19 ]

A child with LD is one who does poorly in academics because of impaired ability in learning the academic skills of reading, writing, arithmetic, and spelling. To diagnose SLD, such impairment should not be because of Intellectual Disability, subnormal intelligence, neurological disorders, visual/hearing acuity problems or inadequate schooling, but represent a specific and circumscribed type of dysfunction in cognitive processing.

In contrast to general learning difficulties that cut across different domains (academic and nonacademic), children with specific learning difficulties possess average to above-average levels of intelligence across many domains of functioning, but have specific deficits within a narrow range of academic skills. In other words, this label is considered only for children whose performance is significantly below that expected (usually 2 classes below) based on their general capacity to learn. Thus, the concept of unexpected academic difficulty is central to the definition of SLD. The extent and severity of difficulties may vary from child to child. In fact, most children with SLD have only milder forms of disability.

Using the Rutter's multi-axial diagnosis will provide a better understanding about the child's problems and in setting up an effective treatment plan.

For example:

  • Axis 1: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
  • Axis 2: Specific Developmental Disorder of Scholastic Skills
  • Axis 3: Average intellectual functioning
  • Axis 4: Nil
  • Axis 5: Punitive parenting.

DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

Prior to diagnosis of SLD, the evaluation should rule out the following conditions as primary causes of poor academic performance:

  • Borderline intelligence
  • Intellectual disability
  • Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
  • Autism spectrum disorder
  • School absenteeism due to general medical conditions
  • Psychiatric disorders including mood disorders, anxietydisorders, and psychosis
  • Discrepancy between mother tongue and medium of schooling
  • Inadequate facilities for schooling
  • First-generation learners with poor social support
  • Hearing impairment
  • Visual impairment
  • Neurological disorders, for example, myopathy and writer's cramp.

Early identification of children at-risk

It is important to identify children at-risk for SLD. The National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, USA suggests that risk indicators must be checked in any screening evaluation. Table 6 lists the Risk indicators that must be included in screening for at-risk children.

Risk indicators for specific learning disorder

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There are screening tools available to assist in early identification. One of the recent tools that has been used in India is Specific Learning Disability–Screening Questionnaire. This can be used in the school setting by teachers.[ 20 ] Recently a Dyslexia Assessment for Languages of India (DALI)[ 21 ] a comprehensive screening and assessment battery for children with or at risk for dyslexia, between the classes of 1–5 has been developed by Dr. Nandini Singh and team at NBRC with support from Department of Science and Technology, Government of India. DALI has two screening tools: Junior Screening Tool for classes (1–2) (5–7 years). And middle screening tool for classes (3–5) (8–10 years). In addition, there are 8 Assessment Batteries and includes testing in English and the mother tongue. This helps in separating between dyslexia and language difficulties. A sample of report is below [ Figure 1 ]. DALI has been standardized and validated across four languages (Hindi, Marathi, Kannada and English) across schools at five centres (4840 children from classes 1–5). Work is ongoing to extend till grade X and include mathematics. The number of languages will now cover Bengalee, Urdu and Tamil.

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An example of a report of DALI

The psychiatrist is oftenthe primary contact person who suspects, assesses, screens for SLD and evaluates for co-morbidities and treats them. The psychiatrist can also suggest simple handy remediation techniques outlined below. Additionally, in ideal circumstances a multi-disciplinary team (psychologist, special educator occupational therapist, language speech therapist and pediatrician) would be useful in the holistic evaluation and management of these disorders. Management implies helping with the core deficits of the disorder, its negative impact on child and family and treating the associated comorbidities. An overview of management of Learning disorders has been discussed in Table 7 .

Overview of management

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Management of core deficits of disorder:

Interventions can be classified as

  • Accommodations which facilitate the student to access the educational material. This decreases the burden and stress on the child. They include larger size pen/pencils, use of grippers, special papers which provide tactile feedback, use of spell checkers, audio books, and technological devices. The later may include voice recognition devices, touchpad devices, and calculators. Individualizing assessments in terms of time, length and allowance for breaks can be planned. The child may be provided with special services in resource room while being mainstreamed
  • Modification is where the task and academic expectations from child are changed. Change in the delivery, content, or instructional level of subject matter or tests are implemented. This could include oral assignments, writing in short, may focus either on content or spelling, not having to read aloud and extra time, learning lower level of mathematics or dropping a language
  • Remedial Education is being a process to help the child acquire age appropriate skillsin all his foundation areas which are required forattaining knowledge at his pace and potential. Interventions need to be systematic, well-structured and multi-sensory. They should include direct teaching, learning and time for consolidation. Repeated revision is to be factored in as attention is variable. It should be child centric, strategy taught for learning the content, focus on strengthening the basics Research hasshown to be effective, the intervention should be intensive 2–3 times a week and either at individual level or in a small group (1–2), using an explicit and systematic instruction in phonological awareness and decoding skills. Following improvement, 50% children maintain gains for 1–2 years. This is more so when intervention is early (6–8 years). Usually fluency improves rather than comprehension. Children who improve continue to show further improvement over next few years. Changes in brain occur with remediation[ 22 ] and which reflect plasticity of the brain.

Depending on the type and severity of the problem, an individual educational plan is made for the child. Flowchart for the process of individual educational plan is shown in Figure 2 .

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Flowchart for the process of individual educational plan

The intervention planned is determined by the age/grade of child and the severity and type of deficits sand strengths. Usually it is 2–3 times a week for 3–4 years. In early years, developing language skills and basic skills of reading, writing and mathematics are the area of focus. In middle school besides basic skills, children need to learn concepts, critical thinking and problem solving. In secondary school accommodations and modifications to help the child to cope become more prominent. Whilst educational interventions are on the plan must also include components for the socio emotional development of child. Choice of techniques depends on the areas affected [ Figure 3 ].

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Flowchart for interventions for specific learning disorders

SPECIFIC EDUCATIONAL STRATEGIES

In problems of decoding (usually referred to as dyslexia), phonological awareness needs to be increased. That is the ability and understanding to manipulate the sound structure of words. Emphasis is paid on phonemes, which is the smallest unit of speech, e.g., k in kit, b in bat. Phonemic awareness includes ability to hear and manipulate individual phonemes.

Phonemic awareness includes activities such as

  • Isolation, the training is in recognizing the individual sounds in words.(tell me the first sound in the letter hat)
  • Phoneme identity: The ability to distinguish the common sound in differing words (tell me the soundthat is same in pod and pan)
  • Phonemic substitution: Replacing one phoneme for another to create a new word (cat-mat, bad-bat)
  • Oral segmenting is being able to break the word into different sounds (ban b/a/n)
  • Oral blending is joining the sounds to form words (c/a/n is can).

Besides phonemic awareness, letter sound knowledge is remediated. Phonics instruction works on letter sound correspondence and spelling patterns which helps in reading. To be effective it should be in conjunction with word recognition and reading books. Repeated oral reading practice may help in improving fluency. Reading comprehension skills are linked to larger language comprehension skills and needs to be developed.[ 23 ]

Writing is more complex skill than reading and it may co-occur with reading disorder or independently. Eye hand coordination and ability to segment phonemes is essential.[ 24 ] The basic motor functioning is enhanced using hand exercises such as working with clay, beading and finger tapping. To improve spelling, phonics instruction and teaching of letter writing is used (following numbered arrow cues, hiding letter and visualizing writing letter, utilizing the numbered cues to write letter and finally checking the letter as compared to sample). To master automaticity the ability to retrieve letters, educational games and activities are useful. To target higher order skills of writing an essay, which involve planning, organizing, reviewing and editing skills, practice using concept maps and different aids and strategies are employed. Writing clubs and self-regulated strategy development have shown to be useful.[ 25 ]

Mathematics

Number sense is deficient in children with dyscalculia. Educational strategies include practicing number syntax (linking numbers to related digits; e.g., 1234, one corresponds to thousand, two to hundreds, three to tens and 4 to units). Repeated additions help in internalizing the number line. Drill and practice also help to remember number facts. Verbalization of arithmetic concepts, procedures and operation is helpful as is explicit instruction.[ 26 ]

Many remedial programs are developed, they usually work with children with reading and writing difficulties (Sonday system) or with children with mathematic difficulties (Number race, Graphogame).[ 27 ]

SPECIAL AREAS

Children with poor language skills.

Many children who are first generation learners or have poor exposure to English language would have added difficulties in all aspects of academic achievement. These children are often overidentified as suffering from SLDs. Sometimes both may occur. However, for these children, besides the specific intervention, English enrichment program would be very useful.

Use of technology

Assistive devices help children overcome obstacles and save time. Technological tools can vary from voice recognition programs (users dictate ideas and watch them appear on their computer screens) recording devices, word processors, concept mapping tools, smart pens and educational apps. There issoftware specially designed for children with SLD.(Grahphogame). Use of universal design allows easy access for children with SLD, whilst a child who has severe difficulties may use a computer to write, it would be helpful to encourage the child to try and write as brain activity is better with this. Similarly, learning basic concepts of maths are useful for daily life.

Choice of curriculum

In India, there are various boards running different curriculum, such as State Boards, Indian Councilof secondary education, Central Board of secondary education, National Open school and international ones such as International baccalaureate. Each of these boards have varying educational standards, teaching learning methods, choice of subjects and help children with disability. Based on these factors, parents and teachers may consider shifting of curriculum.

In first generation learners, low socio-economic status may add to the disorder especially when the child is not being educated in the mother tongue. SLD has shown to have similar universal neuropsychological features across alphabetic (English, Hindi) and logographic (Chinese) orthographies. Depending on the regularity of the language the difficulty would vary. Hindi is more consistent than English, that is alphabets and sound match more consistently in Hindi than English. However, changing the medium of instruction should only be attempted in the early years. Academic provisions are given to children ith Learning disorder as described in Table 8 .[ 6 ]

Various provisions for specific learning disorder an example from Maharashtra

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Mitigating the impact of specific learning disorder

Psychoeducation of the family and explaining the disorder to the child would be necessary. Family counselling may also be required to combat the negative attitudes and behavior.[ 28 ] Low self-esteemwhich is a common finding will require specific intervention.[ 29 ] Protective factors that foster resilience are useful and include self-advocacy tools, identifying strengths, and improving social connections.[ 10 ]

Managing comorbidity

Comorbidity is a rule rather than an exception. Some may be the presenting illness (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD]/autism spectrum disorder), some may be a consequence (depression) and some may be blended with the disorder (anxiety and behavioral symptoms) However, research on treating comorbidities is limited as most studies use this as exclusion criteria.

ADHD is a frequently occurring disorder and requires treatment even before assessing as it interferes with the results. Treatment of both disorders is required simultaneously though it may not lead to additive effect. Pharmacotherapy for ADHD has had a varying effect on the reading disability.[ 10 ] Cognitive behavior therapy and mindfulness meditation is shown to improve the emotional health with the latter also improving attention.[ 10 ] Anxiety, depression, disruptivebehaviordisorder, impulsivebehavior, autism, conductdisorders and other SLD also require the appropriate intervention. Flowchart of an overview of assessment and management is shown in the Figure 4 .

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Flowchart for overall process in assessment and management

PREVENTION AND PREDICTION

Cognitive skills that predict literacy are letter sound knowledge and phoneme awareness. Whilst as a group these may be differentiating factors, translating this at the individual level to predict is not easy.[ 30 ] A well-trained teacher would be able to identify children who are struggling. This could be supported with checklists. In the USA, response to intervention is used both for prevention, treatment and detection. This model which is depicted in Figure 5 , would start treatment before identification or failure sets in. This could be encouraged in schools and may integrate help from Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan. The early intervention for at risk children for dyslexia could be phonological skill training.

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The response to intervention model

Besides phonological processes, communication impairment and deficits in naming speed (measured by RAN) are predictive of future SLD. Language impairments are a risk for reading comprehension difficulties in the future. Poor readers often come from large families and poor reading skills in parents. Better outcomes for decoding are seen when parents teach print concepts and for comprehension when parents share reading with offspring. With intervention, over half to three quarters children improve. This early intervention also prevents complication of developing poor reading fluency and comprehension.[ 22 ]

LAW AND SPECIFIC LEARNING DISORDER

SLD is one of the bench mark disabilities encompassed in the Rights of Persons With Disability Act, 2016 and which ensures the following:[ 31 ]

  • Government and local authorities are required to ensure that children with benchmark disabilities will have access to free education in an appropriate environment (till 18 years of age). In SLD, it has been difficult to quantify the disability
  • Government institutions of higher education and other higher education institutions receiving aid from the Government shall reserve not <5% seats for persons with benchmark disabilities (which includes specific LD) and upper age relaxation of 5 years for admission in institutions of higher education
  • In Government establishment, not <4% of the total number of vacancies in the cadre strength in each group of posts is meant to be filled with persons with benchmark disabilities of which, 1 percent each shall be reserved for persons with particular benchmark disabilities and one of which is specific LD.

ROLE OF PSYCHIATRIST IN SCHOOLS REGARDING SPECIFIC LEARNING DISORDER

The role of the psychiatrist includes the following:

  • Enlist the engagement of school by making them empathetic to needs of child, advocate for child in school
  • Psychoeducation the teachers
  • Facilitate screening in school
  • Create agreement with goals acceptable to all stakeholders
  • Mobilizing the school system to help the child and empowering them to do so
  • Raising awareness about social, emotional, behavioral symptoms associated with SLD. Training teachers to identify, refer and use classroom management strategies
  • Refer, introduce for further resources
  • Certification of the disability. A format is supplied by RWPD rules[ 32 ] and depicted below (the RPWD identifies the paediatrician as a certifying physician. The Indian Psychiatry has made a representation to the concerned ministry for the inclusion of a psychiatrist).

Disability Certificate

Certificate No.     Date:-

This is to certify that I have carefully examined

Shri/Smt./Kum.

Date of Birth ( )  Age Years.  Male/female:-

Registration No. Permanent resident of

House No. __________Ward/Village/_________/street__________ Post Office__________ District __________ State____________________. Whose photograph is affixed above and am satisfies that he/she is a case of Specific Learning Disability . His/her extent of percentage physical impairment/disability in has been evaluated as per guidelines and is shown against the relevant disability in the table below:-

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(Please strike out the disabilities which are not applicable)

2. The above condition is progressive/non- progressive/likely to improve/not likely to improve.

3. Reassessment of disability is:

@- e.g. Left/Right/both arms/legs

#- e.g. Single eye/both eyes

€- e.g. Left/Right/both ears

4. The applicant has submitted the following documents as proof of residence:-

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(Authorised Signatory of notified Medical Authority)

(Name and Seal)

Countersigned

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(Countersignature and seal of the CMO/Medical Superintendent/Head of Government Hospital, in case the certificate is issued by a medical authority who is not a government servant (with Seal)

Note: In case this certificate is issued by a medical authority who is not a government servant, it shall be valid only if countersigned by the chief Medical Officer of the District.”

Note: The principal rules were published in the Gazette of the India vide notification number S.O. 908 (E), dated the 31 st December, 1996.

Financial support and sponsorship

Conflicts of interest.

There are no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgement

Dr. Manisha Gaur for her input on remedial techniques. Masarrat Khan, Simran Sachdev Arora, Ruchi Brahmachari for their input for Table 5 .

My ASD Child

Education & Support for Parents of Children & Teens on the Autism Spectrum

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Learning difficulties associated with asperger’s and high-functioning autism: crucial strategies for parents and teachers.

learning difficulties assignment

  • Ask a lot of questions
  • Are repetitive and inappropriately interrupt the flow of a lesson in the classroom
  • Have trouble coping with transitions and changes in routine
  • Have trouble following multi-step instructions
  • Are often lost or tardy
  • Have trouble generalizing previously learned information
  • Have difficulty recognizing facial expression or body language
  • Impart the “illusion of competence” because of their strong verbal skills
  • Make very literal translations
  • Need to verbally label everything that happens to comprehend circumstances, directional concepts, coordination, and spatial orientation
  • Show poor psycho-motor coordination
  • Seem to be constantly “getting in the way” (e.g., bumping into people and objects)
  • Have difficulty with fine motor skills (e.g., tying shoes, writing, using scissors, etc.)
  • Allow them to abstain from participating in activities at signs of overload.
  • Avoid assuming they will automatically generalize concepts or instructions.
  • Explain metaphors, nuances, and multiple meanings in the reading material.
  • Implement creative programming or a modified schedule.
  • Minimize transitions, and give several verbal cues before transition.
  • Never assume they understand something simply because they can “parrot back” what you’ve just said.
  • Number - and present - instructions in sequence.
  • Offer added verbal explanations when they seem lost or confused.
  • Rehearse getting from place to place.
  • Simplify and break down abstract concepts.
  • Thoroughly prepare them in advance for field trips or any other changes, regardless of how minimal.
  • Verbally point out similarities, differences, and connections.
  • When they ask questions excessively, answer a couple of their questions, but let them know a specific number (e.g., “two”), and that you will answer two more question at recess or after school.
  • Analyze the child’s errors for clues about processing difficulties (e.g., if he reads the sentence “I pet the cat” as “I pet the car,” he may be having trouble using context clues to decipher meaning.
  • Help the child to organize and use his time effectively.  Kids on the autism spectrum often have difficulty completing daily classroom tasks. Therefore, (a) break large tasks into smaller ones, and set a short time limit for each subtask; (b) provide a folder in which the child transports homework assignments to and from school; and (c) show the child how to create “to-do lists” and establish a daily routine that he posts on his desk.
  • Minimize distracting stimuli as much as possible. Because many children with AS and HFA are easily distracted, minimize the presence of other stimuli that may compete for their attention (e.g., ask the child to keep her desk clear of objects and materials she doesn’t need for the task at hand, pull down window shades if other classes are playing outside, etc.).
  • Modify the child’s schedules and work environments. The problematic symptoms of AS and HFA tend to get progressively worse as the day wears on. Thus, when possible, have most challenging subject matter in the morning instead of the afternoon. Also, moving the child’s desk close to you, the teacher (where behavior can be monitored) can enhance his attention-span.
  • Offer outlets for excessive energy.  To help the AS or HFA child to control excess energy, try to intersperse quiet academic work with frequent opportunities for physical exercise. Also, give her some “settling-in time” after lunch and recess (e.g., time to read her favorite book) before asking her to engage in an activity that involves quiet concentration.
  • Have plenty of study aids on hand.  A child on the autism spectrum usually studies more effectively when he has scaffolding to guide his efforts (e.g., let the child copy - or receive a duplicate of - the class notes of high-achieving peers; provide graphics, study guides, and outlines that help the child to identify and interconnect important concepts and ideas).
  • Teach learning strategies and study skills.  Kids with AS and HFA benefit from being taught specific techniques for performing tasks and remembering subject matter. For instance, give the child questions to try to answer as she reads a story or textbook passage, teach certain mnemonics (i.e., memory aids) to help her remember particular facts, teach concrete strategies for taking notes and organizing homework assignments, and so on.
  • Lastly, employ a variety of ways to present information.  Because these children have trouble learning through a particular modality (e.g., via hearing or vision), try to be flexible in the ways you use to communicate information (e.g., incorporate videos, graphics, and other visual materials; when teaching the child how to read and spell a particular word, write the word, say its letters aloud, and have the him trace or write the word while repeating its letters).

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How to prevent meltdowns in children on the spectrum, parenting defiant teens on the spectrum, older teens and young adult children with asd still living at home, parenting children and teens with high-functioning autism, highly effective research-based parenting strategies for children with asperger's and hfa.

Office of Teaching, Learning, and Technology

Inclusive by design 9 tools to make your icon courses more accessible.

Building ICON courses with accessibility in mind from the ground up means accessibility options can be available to everyone, and students will have an easier time accessing content and completing assignments. The University of Iowa already provides many tools that can help with this.

  • ICON Modules : organizing course content chronologically using the Modules feature in ICON helps students easily find what work they need for their courses any given week. Overwhelmingly, students prefer ICON sites to be organized chronologically or by unit using Modules.
  • ICON Assignments :  create ICON Assignments for everything your students do in your course. Even if you have assignments that students do not turn in online, having all assignments listed in ICON allows students to easily view their grades and better understand what work they have to do.
  • ICON Due Dates: even if you accept late work without penalty, using Due Dates in ICON helps students understand where they need to be to stay on track and what assignments to prioritize. It also displays what assignments students have coming up.
  • UDOIT :  this program, built into every ICON page, lets you scan your courses for potential accessibility issues and helps you quickly fix them while learning tips for web accessibility.
  • Accessible Readings: make sure PDFs you use have been scanned for optical character recognition. Avoid using PDFs that are only images (you can’t copy and paste text from them). Using programs such as ICON Direct to deliver etext can increase accessibility in your course. 
  • Captions on Videos: while autocaptions do not replace professional captioning for students who need that accommodation, in many cases the autocaptions in Zoom and UICapture are good enough to provide support to many other students and make the content easier to engage with.
  • Read&Write : this program, available for free to all University of Iowa students provides supports such as reading texts aloud and converting text to speech.
  • Resources for instructors:  students aren’t the only people who can use accessibility help. Instructors can learn more about accessibility resources available to them at the Accessibility@IOWA website and the Faculty and Staff Disability Services website.

Have questions about these tools? Contact the Office of Teaching, Learning, and Technology at [email protected]

ScienceDaily

Teacher effectiveness for students with and without disabilities

Research has often focused on how teachers and educators can best instruct and accommodate students with disabilities. However, are the methods used to teach students with disabilities effective and inclusive for all students? Michigan State University researchers are some of the first to answer that question.

Faculty and doctoral students from across MSU, including from the College of Social Science and the College of Education, offer some of the first findings on differentiating the effectiveness of instruction for students with and without disabilities.

Their study suggests that to help schools make decisions that are best for student outcomes, policymakers may want to consider teacher quality measures that look separately at these student groups.

Published in the journal Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, this research presents a major breakthrough in understanding how to best measure achievement for both students with and without disabilities.

"Most students with disabilities spend most of their school day in general education classrooms, but many teachers indicate they receive insufficient training and preparedness to educate these students," said Scott Imberman, study author and professor in the Department of Economics in the College of Social Science and the College of Education. "We thought that through the use of statistical measures of teacher quality, we could identify which teachers are more effective teachers with these students and how much general education teachers' ability to instruct these students varies."

It's important that students with disabilities have access to high-quality teachers, and not all teachers receive the necessary training and skills to support those students. They also can struggle more with certain subjects, such as math. Student success outcomes are also often determined by how the entire class performs rather than how individual students perform.

When it comes to evaluating the success of all students, numerical measures known as value-added measures, or VAM, are typically used. However, these measures often do not distinguish between evaluating students with and without disabilities.

The MSU research team created a study using data from the Los Angeles Unified School District due to the large number of enrollees and students with disabilities. They created two specific value-added measures -- one for evaluating the effectiveness for teachers instructing students with disabilities and the other for students without disabilities.

They found that some of the best-performing teachers for students without disabilities have lower value-added scores for students with disabilities. Similarly, they noted that top-performing teachers for students with disabilities have lower value-added scores for students without disabilities. This means that some students who may appear to be matched with a high-quality teacher could actually be better off with other teachers.

The bigger inequity, according to Imberman, is that although "some general education teachers do have specialized skills that make them more effective for students with disabilities, our case study in Los Angeles suggested disabled students are typically not matched to these teachers."

While the results do not identify how to better match teachers with students with disabilities, they do raise the point to schools and policymakers to explore how both groups of students and, especially those with disabilities, can have better academic gains. It is also necessary that educators, especially those who have been teaching longer, receive the appropriate training to support students with disabilities.

"We hope that our methods can be used in the future to help school officials better match students with disabilities to the teachers who are best equipped to instruct them and better assess which teachers might need additional training in educating disabled students," Imberman said.

In addition to Imberman, the research team included Katharine Strunk, dean of the University of Pennsylvania's Graduate School of Education; Nathan Jones, associate professor in the Special Education program at Boston University Wheelock College of Education and Human Development; W. Jesse Wood, senior analyst at Abt Associates; Neil Filosa, doctoral student in the MSU Department of Economics; and Ijun Lai, researcher with Mathematica.

  • Educational Psychology
  • K-12 Education
  • Learning Disorders
  • Educational Policy
  • Education and Employment
  • STEM Education
  • Poverty and Learning
  • Special education
  • Intellectual giftedness
  • Developmental disability
  • Learning disability
  • Collaboration
  • Early childhood education
  • Hyperactivity
  • Asperger syndrome

Story Source:

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Journal Reference :

  • W. Jesse Wood, Ijun Lai, Neil R. Filosa, Scott A. Imberman, Nathan D. Jones, Katharine O. Strunk. Are Effective Teachers for Students With Disabilities Effective Teachers for All? Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis , 2023; DOI: 10.3102/01623737231214555

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Millions spent on keeping adults with learning disabilities locked up, ITV News reveals

  • Learning disabilities
  • Mental Health
  • Thursday 21 March 2024 at 10:47pm

Peter Smith

ITV News Correspondent

learning difficulties assignment

An ITV News investigation with the charity Mencap has uncovered it is costing over half a billion pounds a year to lock people up in mental health hospitals, ITV News Correspondent Peter Smith reports

Words by Reshma Rumsey, ITV News Specialist Producer

Sarah’s daughter loves being outdoors, she loves gardening, swimming and learning new songs.

But for the last decade she has been locked up in a mental health hospital because she has a learning disability.

She was sectioned under the Mental Health Act and although she has been well enough to live in the community for the past two years, she can’t because there is nowhere for her to go.

Due to the lack of funds, there is no adequate community provision for her to live the independent life she longs for, so she has no choice but to stay locked away.

ITV News' Peter Smith talks about what needs to happen for change to arise

Her mother says she has become institutionalised.

"She is a 35 year old who should be able to go shopping, enjoy her hobbies and live independently," Sarah told ITV News.

"Instead she is stuck inside a mental health hospital totally inappropriate for her needs."

Sarah’s daughter is one of 2,045 adults with learning disabilities and autism who are currently locked up in inpatient units.

An ITV News investigation with learning disability charity Mencap has uncovered it’s costing more than half a billion pounds a year to lock people like Sarah’s daughter up in mental health hospitals.

Freedom of information responses analysed by ITV News and Mencap for the financial year covering 22/23 show it’s costing £534 million a year, but it is likely to be much higher as that figure is for the basic costs and not additional needs.

Our analysis has revealed it costs the NHS around £237,000 to detain one person in a mental health unit and with the average stay at almost five years, that rises to £1.1 million per person.

The Safe and Wellbeing Review published by NHS England in February last year revealed that 41% of people locked away don’t even need to be there.

Based on our freedom of information requests that would mean around £18 million a month is being spent from the NHS budget , locking people up whose needs could be met in the community.

Every month, 10% of patients have their discharge delayed and for more than half of them, it’s because there is a lack of housing provision .

Wendy Ewins is responsible for commissioning the right health support for people with learning disabilities and autism in the Black Country.

Her Integrated Care Board wasn’t meeting any of its targets to reduce the number of patients with learning disabilities and autism in mental health hospitals.

It was at the bottom of the table but she and the team have been able to turn things around.

When we visited Wendy, she explained how they are now able to provide a service that is having a huge impact on the lives of people with learning disabilities and autism.

"Our focus should always be on providing the right support at the right time to prevent people from experiencing crisis," she told ITV News.

Want a quick and expert briefing on the biggest news stories? Listen to our latest podcasts to find out What You Need To Know…

"Our dynamic approach is preventing people being admitted to hospital for crises that historically would have led to admission, and it makes financial sense too.

Wendy highlighted that this isn't just a financial issue.

"This is about recognising that our citizens have the best chance of leading happier, healthier lives, with secure connections and a firm sense of belonging, if they are able to remain at home, or very close by when they are distressed or unwell."

Wendy and her colleagues have set up an emergency response team . Last year they were able to prevent 53 people from being admitted into hospital.

The cost of running the six-person unit for that year was the same as the cost of keeping one person in a mental hospital for 12 months.

Wendy and her team are not only working to prevent inappropriate hospital admissions but they also help and support people to live independent and fulfilled lives in the community.

Daisy is one of them. She is 19 and autistic.

When we met her she told us her experience as an inpatient had been very traumatic, but she was keen to show us how her life has been transformed now that she is living independently .

"A lot of the time no, you can't shower by yourself, someone has to be supervising you ... It makes you feel very undignified," she said.

"I felt very distressed a lot of the time and isolated and lost because there just wasn't the staff there to support me and make me feel better.

"I was having a meltdown and they didn't understand, so instead they just sedated me."

Now, she says she is able to be herself.

"I'm just me, I'm just being myself. I don't feel like just a number here, I feel like me, I feel like who I am."

For more than a decade successive governments have pledged to reduced the numbers of people with learning disabilities and autism in mental health hospitals by half.

Not a single target has been met , including the most recent, which was missed this month.

Our analysis has revealed that the government is still six years away from meeting it.

Marie Caulfield, parliamentary under-secretary at the Department of Health, told ITV News that people in the system have often been in hospital "for many, many years".

"Just simply discharging them into the community is not a simple process," she said.

"For each and every one of those patients we have plans in place on how to get them discharged."

NHS England told us that staff are working hard to ensure patients are discharged safely into community settings.

"National investment of £121 million this year included additional community staff, extra key workers to support children and young people in crisis and the delivery of care and treatment reviews for people at risk of being admitted at mental health inpatient settings.”

But the disability charity Mencap say this is just not good enough.

Jackie O'Sullivan, acting CEO at Mencap, said the findings show "an appalling waste of public money on the wrong type of care" and that the failure to invest in the right kind of support is "morally reprehensible".

"The scandal of locking people up and destroying lives must end," she said.

"It’s crucial the government says what they will do after March to free people and end this human rights scandal once and for all."

Sarah is angry that her daughter is being denied the chance to improve her quality of life.

"It’s been so upsetting seeing her want to live her life but instead she is trapped behind locked doors," she told ITV News.

But until there is radical change and more dedicated funds and resources, for Sarah, her daughter and many others like them, the wait goes on.

Have you heard our new podcast Talking Politics? Every week Tom, Robert and Anushka dig into the biggest issues dominating the political agenda…

learning difficulties assignment

In Colorado schools, concerns grow about learning disabilities going undetected

learning difficulties assignment

The need to screen students for learning disabilities is on the rise in Northern Colorado and mental health providers are having trouble meeting the demand. Marybeth Rigali-Oiler , a child and adolescent psychologist with the Health District of Northern Larimer County, says finding answers isn’t always straightforward, either.

“You also have to kind of throw a broad net to see, well, is it actually ADHD? Is it actually anxiety? Is it because this child fell behind during Covid and just hasn't had the intervention to catch up? Or is there an underlying learning disability?” Rigali-Oiler said. “And it could be a combination of all of those things. And so testing really should have a broad net that's looking at social-emotional factors, cognitive ability and achievement in order to really see where the puzzle pieces land.”

When kids don’t get the screenings they need, questions about why they are struggling to achieve persist. Parents are also left to wonder when, say, kids are anxious about going to class, known as “school refusal,” Rigali-Oiler said. Is it a learning disability, mental health, or something else? In The NoCo’s Erin O’Toole sat down with Rigali-Oiler to learn about the factors fueling this problem.

learning difficulties assignment

learning difficulties assignment

IMAGES

  1. The Tree of Specific Learning Difficulties #teachingkidstennis #

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  2. How To Diagnose Learning Difficulties

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  3. Introduction To Learning Difficulties

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  4. What Are Moderate Learning Difficulties? A4 Display Poster

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  5. The Parents' Guide to Specific Learning Difficulties

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  6. Understanding Specific Learning Difficulties Level 2

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VIDEO

  1. Assignment Problem ( Brute force method) Design and Analysis of Algorithm

  2. Schoolreformer.com

  3. Strategies for Overcoming Learning Difficulties: Pathways to Success

COMMENTS

  1. Learning Disabilities: Types, Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment

    Dyslexia: Dyslexia is the most common learning disability, accounting for 80% of all learning disability cases. It is a language processing disorder characterized by difficulty with speaking, reading, writing, or understanding words. This can cause the person's vocabulary to develop at a slower pace and lead to issues with grammar, reading comprehension, and other language skills.

  2. Recognizing Learning Disorders and Disabilities in the Classroom

    Avoidance. Students with learning disorders often go to great lengths to avoid school situations that trigger anxiety or stress. Some signs of avoidance to watch for include: Excessive absences. Staying home "sick" on days when there are tests or other important assignments. Refusal to participate in challenging activities.

  3. Five Homework Strategies for Teaching Students With Learning Disabilities

    This article describes five strategies that researchers have identified that help students with disabilities get the most from their homework. They include: Give clear and appropriate assignments. Make homework accommodations. Teach study skills. Use a homework calendar. Ensure clear home/school communication.

  4. Five Homework Strategies for Teaching Students With Learning Disabilities

    Strategy 1. Give clear and appropriate assignments. Teachers need to take special care when assigning homework. If the homework assignment is too hard, is perceived as busy work, or takes too long to complete, students might tune out and resist doing it. Never send home any assignment that students cannot do.

  5. Learning disorders: Know the signs, how to help

    The symptoms of a learning disorder in a child can include: Not being able to master skills in reading, spelling, writing or math at or near the expected age and grade levels. Trouble understanding and following instructions. Problems remembering what someone just said.

  6. Academic Accommodations for Students with Learning Disabilities

    Members of the largest group of students with disabilities have learning disabilities. In most situations, a learning disability is not readily observable. Because there ... Clearly and early in a course define course requirements, announce the dates of exams, and tell students when assignments are due. Avoid last-minute readings or additional ...

  7. Understanding Difficulties and Resulting Confusion in Learning: An

    Difficulties are often an unavoidable but important part of the learning process. This seems particularly so for complex conceptual learning. Challenges in the learning process are however, particularly difficult to detect and respond to in educational environments where growing class sizes and the increased use of digital technologies mean that teachers are unable to provide nuanced and ...

  8. PDF The Dyslexia Toolkit

    Learning disabili-ties such as dyslexia, however, are consistent and persist over time. The following lists are a general guide, for identifying dyslexia. Our Interactive Learning Disabilities Checklist is an additional resource to consider. Finally, be aware that some of the "symptoms" listed also apply to other learning disabilities

  9. Learning Disabilities

    A learning disability (LD) is a neurological disorder that causes difficulty in organizing information received, remembering it, and expressing it, and therefore affects a person's basic functions such as reading, writing, comprehension, and reasoning. In simple terms, a learning disability results from a difference in the way a person's brain is "wired."

  10. Preventing Special Education Assignment for Students with Learning or

    For students with learning difficulties, we found that tutoring seems to be a key factor in preventing special education assignment. Also for students with behavioral difficulties, the included studies suggest that intensified intervention in general education can prevent the need for special education services.

  11. Learning Disorders in Children

    Difficulty understanding the concept of time. Examples of learning disorders include. Dyslexia - difficulty with reading. Dyscalculia - difficulty with math. Dysgraphia - difficulty with writing. Children with learning disorders may feel frustrated that they cannot master a subject despite trying hard, and may act out, act helpless, or ...

  12. Accommodations for Students with LD

    The National Center for Learning Disabilities presents examples of accommodations that allow students with learning disabilities to show what they know without giving them an unfair advantage. Accommodations are divided into the following categories: how information is presented to the student, how the student can respond, timing of tests and lessons, the learning environment, and test scheduling.

  13. Specific Learning Disorder: Types, Symptoms, Causes, Treatment

    Specific learning disability characteristics. struggling to clearly write out thoughts without grammatical errors. particular trouble with mathematical concepts like addition, subtraction ...

  14. Learning Difficulties

    Nonverbal learning difficulties: ... experience anger and stress when it is difficult to understand an assignment, or become anxious at the beginning of each new school year. These emotional ...

  15. Helping Your Child Manage Difficult or Long-Term Assignments

    Children struggling to manage difficult or long-term assignments will need to develop self-management skills. Some children are overwhelmed by multi-step projects or confusing assignments. Their first reaction is to ask for help or put the assignment off for another time. A number of strategies can help your child handle these types of assignments:

  16. Learning disability

    Learning disability, learning disorder, or learning difficulty (British English) is a condition in the brain that causes difficulties comprehending or processing information and can be caused by several different factors. Given the "difficulty learning in a typical manner", this does not exclude the ability to learn in a different manner. Therefore, some people can be more accurately described ...

  17. Accommodations for Students with LD

    The National Center for Learning Disabilities presents examples of accommodations that allow students with learning disabilities to show what they know without giving them an unfair advantage. Accommodations are divided into the following categories: how information is presented to the student, how the student can respond, timing of tests and lessons, the learning environment, and test scheduling.

  18. Accommodations: What they are and how they work

    Accommodations also don't change the expectations for performance. They simply offer support to account for challenges. For example, students might get extra time to read through a word problem. But they don't get fewer problems or easier ones. And they still must take the same exams and finish the same assignments as other students.

  19. 3 Types of learning difficulties and how to help

    Learn about the signs of dyslexia, strategies for students with dyslexia , and how to help adults with dyslexia in these articles. 2. Dysgraphia. Children who struggle with dysgraphia have a hard time with writing and may produce text that is illegible. Writing can be labored, take a long time to complete and cause frustration and stress.

  20. Learning Disability

    A learning disability is a neurological condition which affects the brain's ability to send, receive, and process information. A child with a learning disability may have difficulties in reading, writing, speaking, listening, understanding mathematical concepts, and with general comprehension. Learning disabilities include a group of disorders ...

  21. Clinical Practice Guidelines on Assessment and Management of Specific

    He defined dyslexia as a kind of "learning disability" and defined LD as "an unexpected difficulty in learning one or more of one instrumental school abilities." ... or instructional level of subject matter or tests are implemented. This could include oral assignments, writing in short, may focus either on content or spelling, not ...

  22. Learning Difficulties Associated with Asperger's and High-Functioning

    Here are some of the learning difficulties associated with AS and HFA: 1. The child on the autism spectrum often has difficulty organizing his thinking, planning and carrying out actions, and problem-solving. ... and set a short time limit for each subtask; (b) provide a folder in which the child transports homework assignments to and from ...

  23. Inclusive by Design 9 Tools to Make Your ICON Courses More Accessible

    It also displays what assignments students have coming up. UDOIT: this program, built into every ICON page, lets you scan your courses for potential accessibility issues and helps you quickly fix them while learning tips for web accessibility. Accessible Readings: make sure PDFs you use have been scanned for optical character recognition. Avoid ...

  24. Teacher effectiveness for students with and without disabilities

    Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 2023; DOI: 10.3102/01623737231214555. Michigan State University. "Teacher effectiveness for students with and without disabilities." ScienceDaily ...

  25. Millions spent on keeping adults with learning disabilities ...

    Credit: ITV News. Our analysis has revealed it costs the NHS around £237,000 to detain one person in a mental health unit and with the average stay at almost five years, that rises to £1.1 ...

  26. In Colorado schools, concerns grow about learning disabilities going

    Amazon Alexa. RSS. The need to screen students for learning disabilities is on the rise in Northern Colorado and mental health providers are having trouble meeting the demand. Marybeth Rigali-Oiler, a child and adolescent psychologist with the Health District of Northern Larimer County, says finding answers isn't always straightforward, either.

  27. What's New in Microsoft EDU

    Teams Assignments with Learning Accelerators integrated with your LMS Connect Class Teams and add Teams Assignments right into your LMS assignments list where students can launch and complete them, and sync grades automatically back to the LMS. Teams assignments LTI brings Reading Progress, Microsoft Forms, Whiteboard, OneNote Pages, and all of ...

  28. Speaking without vocal cords, thanks to a new AI-assisted wearable

    The device is trained through machine learning to recognize which muscle movements correspond to which words. The self-powered technology could serve as a non-invasive tool for people who have lost the ability to speak due to vocal cord problems. ... The breakthrough is the latest in Chen's efforts to help those with disabilities.